2.

3 Topic C: Biological psychology

3.1 Content

Structure and function of brain regions focusing on

aggression

3.1.1 The role of the central nervous system (CNS) and neurotransmitters in
human behaviour, including the structure and role of the neuron, the
function of neurotransmitters and synaptic transmission.

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The central nervous system (CNS)

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● The brain works as part of the Central Nervous System (CNS) which
includes the nerves running down the spine.
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● The brain and spinal cord together make up the CNS
● The brain processes all incoming information from the senses and is then
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responsible for controlling behaviour that may result from this information.
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● The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of your body and allows
messages to be passed from the body to the brain and vice versa.
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● The cells in the CNS are known as ‘neurons’ and these cells
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communicate with 1000 other cells at a time.

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The role and importance of neurotransmitters

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● The brain is made up of grey matter which consists of nerve cells called
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neurons.
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● There are 86 billion neurons in your brain. They receive and transmit
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information in the form of tiny electrical charges:

- Motor neurons: receive messages from the CNS and generate
movements
- Sensory neurons: transmit information about the 5 senses from
your sense organs to the rest of the brain
- Inter-neurons take messages between other neurons
The structure and role of the neuron

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● There are 4 main parts to the neuron as shown above:

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1. The cell body of the neuron contains the nucleus, which houses the
genetic material for the particular neuron.
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2. Attached to the cell body are dendrites that receive messages from other
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neurons in order to trigger an (electical signal) action within the cell.

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3. Attached to the cell body is the axon, an extension of the cell body (like a
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long tail) that passes the electrical signal towards the axon terminals (that
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look like fingers). Around the axon are fatty deposits called myelin sheath
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that provides an insulating layer to the axon and helps speed up the rate of
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message transmission.
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4. At the very end of the axon are the axon terminals and on the ends of
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these are terminal buttons. Action terminals pass the information onto the
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dendrites of the next cell or a muscle. These bulb-shaped structures

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contain tiny sacs called vesicles that store neurotransmitters ready for the
next stage of neural transmission.

The action potential

Synaptic transmission
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhowH0kb7n0

● The cell’s electrical action potential starts as small electrical impulses are
generated at the axon hillock. Still, once the message reaches the terminal
button it turns into a chemical message.
● Once the impulse reaches the axon terminal, the neuron can pass its
chemical message to further neurons across the synaptic gap (which is the
space between 2 neurons).
● The neuron sending the message is known as a presynaptic neuron
● The neuron receiving the message is known as a postsynaptic neuron

● Electricity cannot just jump across the synaptic gap, so neurons have a
different way of communicating.

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● The axon terminals use electrical energy to produce chemicals called
neurotransmitters.

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● These chemicals float across the
synaptic gap until the special
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receptors on the dendrite of the
next neuron pick it up.
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● The neurotransmitter is converted

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back into an electrical charge which

zooms down the next neuron and
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the process is repeated.

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● Neurotransmitters that don't attach themselves to a receptor at the other

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end are recycled and to be used again.

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● The reabsorbed molecules will be destroyed by enzymes within the neuron

in order to ‘turn-off’ the neuron in preparation for future potential action.
● This is called re-uptake
● Re-uptake: the process by which unused neurotransmitter molecules are
absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron and then destroyed by
enzymes.
● If reuptake is prevented then the neurotransmitter will stay longer in the
synapse trying to pass on this message.
Types and function of common neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine Stimulates muscle contractions and has a key function in

motor control and movement.

Necessary for memory and other cognitive functions such as

attention and alertness.
Also involved in expressions of some emotions such as anger
and sexuality.

Noradrenaline Produces attention and triggers the ‘fight or flight response

as it is associated with emotions and mood control.

Involved in functions such as sleeping and dreaming as well

as learning,

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People with ADHD seem to benefit from this.

Dopamine is Linked with feelings of pleasure and plays a part in

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(pleasure) addiction.

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Related to emotion and cognitive functions such as posture
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and control of movement.
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Also used in hormonal regulation such as controlling the

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menstrual cycle in women.

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Drugs that block dopamine receptors seem to help reduce

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symptoms in schizophrenia
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Serotonin Neurotransmitter for happiness to drugs which boost

(happy) serotonin
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It helps in functions such as sleep, and regulating body

temperature and pain.
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It can help reduce depression

 ● By releasing the right ‘cocktail’ of neurotransmitters, your brain cells
produce moods and motivations.
● The right balance of noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine produces a
good mood and clear thinking.
● Decrease dopamine ⇒ get anxious
● Decrease noradrenaline ⇒ tired
● However, neurotransmitters all play a part as well as interact in complicated
ways

Effect of recreational drugs on the CNS (not in the syllabus, just for
knowledge :p)

● Recreational drugs: drugs taken for pleasure rather than medical reasons
● They have an effect on the CNS even though most of them are illegal.
● The brain contains a ‘reward pathway’ which when activated causes us to

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experience a pleasant and rewarded feeling. Which is why drug users get
addicted to the feeling.

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● Drugs act by changing the way neurotransmitters operate in the brain.
Most of them work on the dopamine system.
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● The dopamine system: pathway in the brain which operates on the
neurotransmitter dopamine, the release of which leads to feelings of
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reward
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● Ex: heroin increases the amount of dopamine in the reward pathways of

the brain, by boosting the activation of dopaminergic synapses which
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causes an intensely pleasurable experience or feeling or euphoria.

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● However, the problem with this is that the brain naturally reacts to the
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sudden increase in dopamine and reduces its own natural production of

dopamine than it would have for a normal brain. This causes an unpleasant
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experience (dysphoria) and leads to the person taking more heroin to stop
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them feeling bad.

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● As they keep using heroin this way, their original dopamine levels keep
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reducing, causing a dependency on the drug to source happiness ⇒

addiction.

Other drugs:

● Alcohol: a legal drug that has many effects but mainly blocks serotonin
receptors since that calm the brain and inhibits mood. So blocking it lifts
our mood and makes us uninhibited. Alcohol is also linked to aggression
(Stephanie Gorka et al 2013) where decision-making is slowed down.
● Amphetamines like cocaine: increases activity in the dopamine pathway
by blocking the reputake of dopamine so that it stays in the synapse and
over-stimuates the dopamine receptors producing feelings of euphoria.
 (eventually, the number of dopamine receptors goes down, creating
addiction)
● Nicotine: targets the aspects of dopamine pathway increasing the amount
and transmission of dopamine by blocking the enzyme that breaks it down.

3.1.2 The structure of the brain, different brain areas including the
pre-frontal cortex and limbic system and brain functioning as an
explanation of aggression as human behaviour.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHrmiy4W9C0

The two hemispheres

● The brain is made up of 2 similar-looking halves

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called the hemispheres
● Hemispheres are linked by a bridge of nerve

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fibres called the corpus callosum
● This allows the left and right brain to
communicate with each other.
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● The brain is not symmetrical because the left and right hemispheres
specialise in different things.
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● The way different sides of the brain have different functions is called brain
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lateralisation
● The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right
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hemisphere controls the left side.

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● Left hemisphere: language centre (damage to this takes power to speak or

write), reasoning and numbers
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● Right hemisphere: abstract thought, spatial awareness, musical ability and

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artistic creativity
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The cerebral cortex

● Humans have a complex outer layer called the cortex, which handles a lot
of higher brain functions such as
conscious thought and interacting
with the world around us.
● It is divided into a number of areas
with different functions, the most
important being the 4 lobes.
● Frontal lobe, temporal lobe,
occipital lobe, parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
● The frontal lobe handles our conscious planning
● an essential part of it is called the pre-frontal cortex.
● Because it is important for self-control and decision-making, it has a big
role to play in handling aggression which is why it was studied by Raine et
al (1997)
● Raine observed murderers showed less activity in the frontal lobe
compared to a non-criminal control group

Temporal lobe
● (near the side of eyebrows)
● The temporal lobe handles most of our memory functions (studied by
Schmolck et al)
● Schmolck looked at patients who had enormous memory problems
because of the damage to the temporal lobe

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● Henrey molaison lost his memory when they removed the temporal lobe

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Occipital lobe
● The back of the brain
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● It processes sight and our sense of the environment
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Parietal lobe
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● Controls language
● Also specialises in touch and directing bodily movements
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The Limbic system

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● Beneath the cortex is a set of brain structures

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called the sub-cortical (beneath the cortex)

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structures.
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● One of the most important of these is the

thalamus which sits at the centre of a group
of structures called the limbic system
● The limbic system handles memory but also
raw appetites and desires - sleep, hunger,
aggression and sex.
● It is also thought to be the source of all of our
basic emotions

Thalamus
● Called the brain’s switchboard since it handless messages coming in from
the brain and routes them to where they need to go
Amygdala
● The amygdala is the shape of an almond
● It is the brain’s emotion centre (especially for fear and anger)
● If it is working properly, we should only fear things that are dangerous
● Raine et al noticed that the amygdala in murderers functioned erratically
and might not have felt fear or aggression at appropriate times
● Other studies on animals show that when the amygdala is damaged the
animal stops showing fear

Hypothalamus
● The hypothalamus is the shape and size of a pea
● Regulates hunger, thirst, sexual arousal and sleep
● Animals with damage to the hypothalamus have been known to lose all
interest in food

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● It is also a part of the endocrine system and regulates hormone
production in the body.

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Hippocampus
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● The hippocampus is shaped like a seahorse (its name means seahorse)
● It is important for forming new memories
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● Damage to the hippocampus destroys the ability to form new long-term

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memories (ex: H.M’s hippocampus was removed during brain surgery)

● The olfactory bulb is located nearby. This brain structure processes smell
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so it links to the limbic system as it explains how smells can trigger hunger
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or fear.
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● Any information from the nose will be taken to the olfactory blub
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Aggression
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● Aggression is a form of self-assertion (putting yourself forward or standing

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up for yourself)
● It is done through causing harm to yourself, to other people or to your
environment
● This can be physical or mental harm
● Physical aggression is violence
● Social aggression includes rumour spreading, insults and breaking off
friendships
● Ex: threatening someone
● Definition: Aggression can take many forms but it is defined as any action
that is aimed at causing either physical and/or psychological pain to oneself
to others or to objects in the environment. The expression of aggression
can occur in a number of ways, including verbally, mentally and physically -
Charlotte Thomas (2012)
 ● There are 2 camps when it comes to aggression: the nurture camp and the
nature camp
● Navists (nature) argue that aggression comes from within us
● Nururists (nurture) argue that aggression comes from our environment
and no one is born aggressive.
- Put anyone in the right situation and they will behave aggressively
- But anyone’s aggression can be reduced or removed if they are put
in better surroundings

Aggression in the brain

● The nativist view is that aggression is a response that is produced in the
brain.
● There is evidence to support this from animal studies, brain scans and case
studies:

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Phineas Gage

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● An American railway worker suffered a terrible
accident in 1848.
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● An unexpected explosion nearly killed Gage and
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blasted a tamping iron through Gage's skull.

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● The iron entered through Gage’s cheek, passed

through his brain and shot out of the top of his head.
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● Gage survived the accident but his personality

changed.
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● Gage became fitful, irreverent, and indulging, which was not his previous
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personality.
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● The Phineas Gage study showed that damage to the frontal lobes seemed
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to cause an increase in aggression.

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● This could not be experimented on humans due to ethical reasons but

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studies on animals show 3 different types of aggressive behaviour:

- Offensive behaviour: typically attacking another animal
- Defensive behaviour: shown in response to the threat of attack
- Predatory aggression: attacking another species to gain food

● Stimulation to different areas of the brain has been shown to activate

behaviour associated specifically with one type of aggression. Ex:
- The medial (middle) hypothalamus in a cat’s brain produces
offensive behaviour
- The dorsal (back) hypothalamus produces defensive behaviour
- The lateral (side) hypothalamus produces predatory behaviour
Brain areas associated with aggression

The prefrontal cortex

● It is the area that sits right behind the forehead.
● As Phineas Gage's case suggests, the brain's frontal lobe plays an important
part in decision-making and self-restraint.
● The pre-frontal cortex seems to be particularly important as it is connected
to the amygdala and the hypothalamus. So if it is damaged, aggression is a
possible side effect

Corpus callosum
● This links the left and right hemispheres

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● The 2 hemispheres need to communicate over long-term planning and
thinking through consequences, so damage to this can cause more

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reckless behaviour

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● The study by Raine et al (brain scans of murderers) showed that less activity
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was there in the frontal lobe and corpus callosum.
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It's important to note that damage to the frontal lobe or corpus callosum doesn't
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create aggression itself. It just makes you less self-controlled and more inclined to act
on the spur of the moment, especially in unfamiliar or confusing situations. This MAY
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turn out to mean aggressive behaviour, but it doesn't have to.

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The midbrain
● The midbrain contains an area called the periaqueductal grey matter
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(PAG)
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● This links the amygdala and hypothalamus with the prefrontal cortex.
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● Lesions to the PAG in rats that have recently given birth show an increase
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in aggression when rats are confronted with potential threats

Amygdala
● The amygdala takes information from the thalamus and interprets it as a
threat or not.
● The fight or flight response will appear when things which are threatening
are sensed. ⇒ aggression
● If the amygdala malfunctions, things which are threatening will not
produce a fear response.
● Animal studies also support the link between the limbic system and
aggression:
- Egger and Flynn (1963)
- John Flynn carried out studies in cats where they introduced a rat to
the cat’s cage and found that the 2 animals would ignore each other.
 - However, when the amygdala was electrically stimulated, the cat
immediately attacked and killed the rat.
- This was predatory aggression
- Stimulation of a different part of the amygdala caused the cat to
ignore the rat and attack the experimenter.
- This is effective aggression

Hypothalamus
● The role of the hypothalamus is to maintain homeostasis through the
regulation of hormones
● Homeostasis: a process that maintains the stability of human body in
response to changes in external conditions
● This is linked to aggressive behaviour in males via the production of
testosterone
● Stimulating the hypothalamus lead to the release of a stress hormone
called ‘corticosterone’ which is part of the aggressive response

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● (explained later)

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3.1.3 The role of, and research into hormones and genes in aggression
 ● Hormones are chemical messengers that transmit information around the
body.
● They are produced and excreted by glands and the system of glands is
called the endocrine system
● Glands: organs of the body that produce substances that the body needs
such as hormones, sweat or saliva
● Endocrine system: the system of glands that secrete hormone messages
around the body using the circulatory system.

Aggression and Hormones

Testosterone

● Testosterone is the hormone linked to aggression.

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● Testosterone is produced in spurts so it can rise suddenly and have an
effect in minutes.

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● It's also seasonal in some animals (ex: red deers become more aggressive

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in the mating period in the spring)
● Males produce more testosterone than females (although female ovaries
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do produce testosterone)
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● This is an explanation of why males are more aggressive than females

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Wagner et al (1979)
● Castractraction (removal of testicles in male creatures) reduces
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testosterone levels in males.

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● Wagner et al castrated mice and observed

that aggression levels dropped.
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● When the mice were injected with

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testosterone, their aggression levels rose back

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to pre-castration levels.
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● This was measured by biting attacks on other

mice
● This proves that testosterone is a cause of
aggression in mice and humans

Edwards 1968
● Injected neonatal (newborn) female rodents with testosterone
● This made them act much more aggressively when given testosterone as
adults compared to control females

James Dabbs et al (1987, 1995)

● They found that testosterone levels were higher in those who had been
convicted of a violent crime
 ● Those with high testosterone were rated higher by other prisoners for
being ‘tough’

Mazur & Booth (1998) - reciprocal method

● This is where they claim that testosterone is an effect of dominance
and not the cause of it
● They reported a study of 2100 male Air Force veterans who received four
medical examinations over 10 years.
● Testosterone levels fell and remained low with marriage and rose with
divorce
● Testosterone varies with a person’s dominance. Unattached males need to
be socially dominant in order to attract mates so their levels of testosterone
were higher when single.
● This explains why single or divorced males are more likely to be convicted
of crimes.

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● However, the same study conducted a basal model which suggests that
testosterone causes a change in person's aggressive dominance.

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● It was found that men with higher levels of testosterone were more likely to
get arrested and to use weapons in fights
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Cortisol
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● This is another hormone linked to aggression

● This is a hormone produced in the adrenal glands
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● It is responsible to wake us up in the morning but its main job is managing

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stress levels
Van Goozen et al 2007 states that cortisol seems to inhibit aggression the
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●
same way as testosterone
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● Virkkunen (1985) report low levels of cortisol in violent offenders

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● Tennes & Kreye (1985) report low levels of cortisol in aggressive school
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children.
● People with lower levels of cortisol are more aggressive because it
means their autonomic nervous system (ANS) is under-aroused
● Therefore, people become aggressive when they lack cortisol as it is an
attempt to create stressful situations which provoke cortisol release to
stimulate the ANS
● However, there is also evidence linking aggression to high levels of cortisol
(Gerra et al 1997)
Evaluation:

Strengths of hormones playing a role Weaknesses of hormones playing a

in aggression role in aggression

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Wagner et al (1979) Mazur & Booth (1998) - reciprocal
method

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Edwards 1968 Research supporting testosterone is

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done on small mammals so cannot be
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generalisable as different species act
differently on testosterone. Ex:
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cingulate gyrus in monkeys is

associated with fear-induced
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aggression but in dogsand cats,

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stimulation of this area leads to

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irritability.
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James Dabbs et al (1987, 1995) Experiments of this sort can’t be

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ethically conducted on humans.

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Mazur & Booth (1998) - basel model Limited case studies of convicted sex
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offenders being castrated which

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support findings of animal research

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Aggression and genes

● The basic difference between men and women lies in their genotype.
● One pair of chromosomes decide whether we are mae (XY) or female (XX)
● Early psychologists believe that genetic causes of aggression could lie in
the Y chromosome
● They were particularly interested in examining individuals with a genotype
of XYY. as they possessed 2 male Y chromosomes.
● court-Brown (1965) discovered 314 patients that had the XYY chromosome
and asked them to be hospitalised given their increased likelihood of
aggressive behaviour
 ● More recently, psychological research has focused on examining individuals
with normal XY genotype.
● Psychologists used selective breeding in animals and have found that
aggression is a trait that can be transferred from parent to offspring
supporting the genetic explanation

Twin studies
● Twin studies have looked at aggression displayed by identical or
non-identical twins. Differences in aggression between these sets of twins
have indicated that aggression has a genetic element.
- Coccaro et al (1997) ⇒ physical acts of aggression were similar for
50% of identical twins and 19% of non-identical twins.
- This strongly suggests a genetic basis for aggression

MAOA gene

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● Specific genes have been identified to carry the aggression trait down to

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individuals

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● The MAOA gene is responsible for the production of the protein
‘monoamine oxidase’ which allows the metabolising of noradrenaline,
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serotonin and dopamine.
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● It basically regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain and low

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levels of serotonin are associated with aggressive behaviour

● A dysfunction in this gene can result in these neurotransmitters not being
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broken down in the body:

- If adrenaline is not metabolised, we end up with too much
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adrenaline and become hypersensitive in the fight or flight response

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and overreact to perceive a threat that does not exist

- If dopamine is not broken down, increased or excessive levels of
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dopamine is linked to aggression.

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- Serotonin has a calming influence so low levels lead to impulsive

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behaviour
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● Brunner et al - provided evidence for the link between decreased MAOA

levels and aggression by studying a large Dutch family who were all
actively engaged in aggressive behaviour (e.g. rape) and who all had
unusually low MAOA levels.
● This would mean that as less serotonin is broken down within the synaptic
cleft, leading to aggressipon.

● However, Frazzetto et al (2007) suggests that it may be more beneficial to

take an interactionist approach.
- The researchers found that low MAOA levels only resulted in
increased aggression when accompanied by traumatic childhood
events which had occurred within the first 15 years of life.
 - This supports the interactionist, diathesis-stress model where the
diathesis (biological vulnerability) is the genetic mutation of the
MAOA gene and the stressor (environmental stressor) is childhood
abuse, showing how genes and the environment interact with each
other.

Genetics in aggression - strengths Genetics in aggression - weaknesses

Twin studies: Frazzetto et al (2007) suggests that it

may be more beneficial to take an
Coccaro et al (1997) ⇒ physical acts of interactionist approach.
aggression were similar for 50% of
identical twins and 19% of The researchers found that low MAOA
non-identical twins. levels only resulted in increased

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aggression when accompanied by
This strongly suggests a genetic basis traumatic childhood events which had

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for aggression occurred within the first 15 years of life

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so genes doesnt have a complete role
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in highetening aggression.
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Brunner et al - provided evidence for Brunner et al:

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the link between decreased MAOA However, only 1 family is studied so

levels and aggression through cant be generalised
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studying a large Dutch family who

Also, it may be due to social learning
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were all actively engaged in aggressive

behaviour (e.g. rape) and who all had theory where the aggression was
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unusually low MAOA levels. learnt from father

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● as less serotonin is broken down

within the synaptic cleft,
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leading to aggressipon.
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Beaver et al 2014: found that people

who donot have the MAOA gene were
more likely to have stabbed or shot
someone so it can be said that the
MAOA gene is responsible for
extremely aggressive behaviour

Jacobs: prevalence of XYY gene was Jacobs:

more in the prison population than However, he did not take into account
the normal population. This supports the fact that not all prisoners are
violent or got sent to prison
the idea as criminals are aggresive by
definition.

Brendgen et al (2005) from section 3.3.2 and McDermott (2008) should also be
able to explain this

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 Body rhythms
https://app.studysmarter.de/studyset/3781796/summary/25192334
https://www.thomasclarksonacademy.org/attachments/download.asp?file=517&ty
pe=pdf

3.1.4 The role of internal pacemakers (body clock) and external zeitgebers
in the regulation of the circadian sleep-wake cycle.

● Biological rhythms: Biological rhythms are cyclical patterns within

biological systems that have evolved in response to environmental
influences, e.g. day and night.
● There are two key factors that govern biological rhythms: endogenous
pacemakers (internal), the body’s biological clocks, and exogenous
zeitgebers (external), which are changes in the environment.

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Internal pacemakers

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● There are internal biological mechanisms responsible for our sleep cycles:
circadian rhythms and homeostasis
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● When people are awake for a long time, the homeostasis sleep pressure
sends negative feedback to the body by signalling the need for sleep to
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reset energy levels

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● Homeostasis maintains the internal bodily environment to be at peace

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● This works with the circadian rhythms to determine the sleep-wake cycle.
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Circadian Sleep-wake cycle

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● Circadian rhythms control many of our daily functions (ex: shifting

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physiological temperature and controlling our cognition, core body

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temperature, metabolism and even hormone production and appetite.)

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● They are a type of biological rhythm where their role is to regulate the
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sleep-wake cycle to keep a balanced level of energy.

● Internal pacemakers: these are internal factors that influence biological

rhythms.
● External zeitgebers: changes in the environment that influence body
rhythms.
● Genes produce proteins that continuously increase throughout the night
while we sleep but reduce during the day.
● These fluctuations activate the sleep-wake cycle
● The sleep-wake cycle has a recurring pattern where it changes between
wakefulness and sleeps in a 24-hour clock.
● In a healthy sleep-wake rhythm, humans spend approximately 8 hours
sleeping and 16 hours awake.
 ● The role of the sleep-wake cycle is to regulate our sleep at night and keep
us awake during the day.

● Light provides the primary input to the sleep-wake cycle. It acts as the
external cue for sleeping or waking.
● Light is first detected by the eye, which then sends messages concerning
the level of brightness to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
● The SCN then uses this information to coordinate the activity of the entire
circadian system.
● Furthermore, internal rhythms also produce melatonin according to
exposure to sunlight.
● These hormones are responsible for keeping the circadian rhythm flowing
in harmony.
● The more sunlight, the less melatonin production. As darkness increases,
melatonin increases and starts preparing the body for sleep.

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● Changes such as a decrease in body temperature and blood pressure
are generated when melatonin inhibits the SCN

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●
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Homeostasis as mentioned above also is an internal pacemaker that affects
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sleep by signalling when the body needs sleep to recharge.
● Body temperature is also an internal pacemaker where when it drops at
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night it signals the sleep-wake cycle that the body needs sleep and
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increases in the morning to promote feelings of alertness.

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Evaluation of circadian rhythms

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Strengths Weaknesses
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Research support: Siffre’s case study has been the

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subject of criticism. As the researcher

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Siffre (1975) - found that the absence and sole participant in his case study,
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of external cues significantly altered there are severe issues with

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his circadian rhythm. Stayed in an generalisability

underground area with no light or
clock and thought the date was a
month earlier than it actually was.
Shows that the 24-hour sleep cycle
was increased by the lack of external
cues, making him believe one day was
longer than it was.

Aschoff & Weber (1962) Individual differences:

Studied participants living in a bunker. Duffy et al (2001)
It had no window and only artificial
light. They found that participants Found that morning people prefer to
settled into a longer sleep/wake cycle rise and go to bed early whereas
of between 25 - 27 hours. evening people prefer to wake and go
 to bed later
Shows the importance of light for
circadian rhythm. So external zeitgebers don't always
affect sleep, instead, individual
differences affect such rhythms.

Buhr et al (2010)
Found that fluctuations in
temperature set the timing of cells in
the body that cause tissues and
organs to become active or inactive.
So suggests that body temperature
has a huge impact on sleep so it’s not
only light that affects sleep and sleep
research should be conducted with
various other factors

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*Evaluation of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers are noted in

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the link above.

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3.1.5 Infradian rhythms including the menstrual cycle and seasonal
affective disorder and therapies, including light therapy.

Infradian rhythms
● Infradian rhythms: This is another important biological rhythm where it
lasts longer than 24 hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually.

Menstrual cycle

● A monthly infradian rhythm is the female menstrual cycle which is

regulated by hormones that either promote ovulation or stimulate the
uterus.
● The infradian rhythms ensure that the menstrual cycle is repeated monthly
for 28 days. However, there is considerable variation with some women

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experiencing a short cycle of 23 days and others experiencing longer cycles
of up to 36 days.

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(SAD) Seasonal Affective Disorder ro
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● Another example of an infradian rhythm is related to the seasons.

ds

● Research has found that variation in seasons can cause different moods in
people.
r
lo

● SAD is a mood disorder which results in feelings of depression, normally

brought upon by changes in the seasons, especially during winter.
er

● SAD is an infradian rhythm that is governed by a yearly cycle

ap

● Psychologists claim that melatonin (secreted by the pineal gland during

the night) is partly responsible.
.p

● The lack of light during the winter months results in longer melatonin
w

secretion leading to higher rates of depression.

w

● Lack of light can also reduce the production of serotonin (neurotransmitter

w

for calm moods). Hence, if there is less serotonin, there can be a decrease in
moods
● Symptoms of SAD during winter:
- Low in energy or fatigued
- Sleeping too much
- Eating too much
- Weight gain
- Feeling sad or hopeless
- Irritability
- Lack of interest in social activities
- Thoughts of suicide
 ● As a result of SAD, further complications of other mental health issues may
arise such as GAD or bipolar disorder.
● Social anxiety may increase during these seasons as well.
● Oginska and Oginska-Bruchal 2014 study investigated characteristics
that may be associated with individuals who have SAD: females are more
likely to be diagnosed.
● They also found that those who score higher on the neuroticism scale for
personality were more likely to report symptoms of SAD

Treatments of SAD

Light therapy

● This involves sitting in front of a light therapy box which emits a bright
light, filtering out harmful UV rays

om
● The aim of this treatment is to try to mimic the sunlight that is not as
prevalent in the winter months.

.c
● This treatment helps balance melatonin levels.

ro
● This is because sunlight can affect the biological clock (as mentioned in the
previous SPEC point), the use of light therapy should help reduce
zy
melatonin and increase mood.
.e

● The amount of time spent in front of the lightbox can vary but 20 minutes
ds

in the morning every day is recommended.

● Most people show improvements in mood after a couple of weeks of light
r
lo

therapy, so it is encouraged to start using it a few weeks before SAD is

estimated to appear.
er
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Strengths of light therapy Weaknesses of light therapy

.p

Light therapy is a Research into light therapy is limited

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non-pharmacological treatment as is with small sample sizes and may not

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generally safe to use be a suitable treatment for those

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experiencing severe symptoms of SAD

Improvements are shown in a couple Won't stop SAD from appearing next
of weeks winter

It is best for producing short term Side effect may occur such as
results to relieve your symptoms headaches, eye strain, sleeping
problems

Antidepressants

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiXcAbrO8kU
 ● The use of antidepressants, specifically selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs) are used to treat depression. This can be used for treating
SAD.
● SSRIs affect the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain by blocking the
reuptake of serotonin back into the neuron which releases it.
● With more serotonin circulating between the neurons, it makes it more
likely that the serotonin will reach the next neuron and have more of an
effect on the brain and mood.
● SSRIs are widely used and accepted as an effective treatment for
symptoms of depression. However, people may be addicted to these so it
requires a gradual withdrawal, decreasing the dose over time.

Psychotherapies (CBT)

om
● Psychotherapies: the process of treating psychological disorders and
mental distress through verbal and psychological techniques

.c
● Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a popular type of psychotherapy

ro
which involves working with a therapist to talk through unhealthy
behaviours and thoughts which come as a result of depression.
zy
● With the therapist, problems can be solved in order to alter the thinking
.e

and behaviours of the individual into more healthy and realistic ones.
r ds

Prevention or limitation of SAD

lo
er

● Some ways can reduce or prevent SAD

ap

● Taking time outside to get little sunlight

● Taking care of good health such as eating, exercising and sleeping well
.p

● Having a good social network

w

● Vitamin D supplements
w
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3.1.6 Research into the circadian sleep-wake cycle and infradian rhythms.

Circadian Sleep-wake cycle research

Siffre (1975)

● found that the absence of external cues significantly altered his circadian
rhythm
● When he returned from an underground stay with no clocks or light, he
believed the date to be a month earlier than it was.
● This suggests that his 24-hour sleep-wake cycle was increased by the lack
of external cues, making him believe one day was longer than it was
● Is not generalisable as it is research on a single person

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Aschoff & Weber (1962)

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● Studied participants living in a bunker.
● It had no window and only artificial light.
●
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They found that participants settled into a longer sleep/wake cycle of
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between 25 - 27 hours.
● Shows the importance of light for circadian rhythm.
.e
ds

Infradian rhythms research

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lo

Reinberg (1967)
er
ap

● Shows that external factors (exogenous zeitgebers) affect the menstrual

cycle
.p

● examined a woman who spent three months in a cave with only a small
w

lamp to provide light.

w

● Reinberg noted that her menstrual cycle shortened from the usual 28 days
w

to 25.7 days.
● Therefore indicates that lack of light affects infradian rhythms

Russell et al (1980)

● found that female menstrual cycles became synchronised with other

females through odour exposure.
● In one study, sweat samples from one group of women were rubbed onto
the upper lip of another group
● Despite the fact that the 2 groups were separate, their menstrual cycles
synchronised.
● Suggests that external factors affect infradian cycles
 ● Evolutionary psychologists claim that the synchronised menstrual cycle
provides an evolutionary advantage for groups of women, as the
synchronisation of pregnancies means that childcare can be shared
among multiple mothers who have children at the same time.

Penton-Volk et al

● Found that women expressed a preference for feminised faces at the least
fertile stage of their menstrual cycle and for a more masculine face at their
most fertile point.
● This indicates that women’s sexual behaviour is motivated by their
infradian rhythms in relation to human behaviour

Terman (1988)

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● Evidence supports the role of melatonin in SAD
● He found that the rate of SAD is more common in Northern countries

.c
where winter nights are longer.
●
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Ex: SAD affects roughly 10% of people living in New Hampshire (a northern
zy
part of the US) and only 2% of residents in southern Florida.
● These results suggest that SAD is in part affected by light (exogenous
.e

zeitgeber) that results in increased levels of melatonin.

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3.2 Methods

Correlational research

3.2.1 The use of the correlational research method in psychology, including

co-variables.

● Correlational research involves measuring 2 different variables in order to

see if they are related in any way
● They tell you if there is a relationship between 2 co-variables but doesn’t
tell you if one variable caused the other to change.
● In biological psychology, co-variables might include measuring the number
of genes a peron shares and a behaviour such as the amount of aggression

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they show.
● By plotting scores on a scatter diagram, it is possible to see if any

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relationship exists between them.

Advantages of correlational research

ro
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● Neither variable goes through a manipulative process where 2 naturally
.e

occuring variables can be investigated, which may be unethical or

impractical to test experimentally in a laboratory
ds

● Results found from correlational research are more applicable since the
r

study aims to identify relationships between naturally occurring variables in

lo

real life situation ⇒ high ecological validity

er

● It can help determine the direction and strength of each relationship which
ap

can be used as data for future studies conducte din that area
●
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3.2.2 Types of correlation: positive, negative and including the use of

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scatter diagrams.
w

● There are 2 types of relationships that may be seen in correlational data:

positive or negative
● Positive correlation: 1 variable increases, the other increases
● Negative correlation: 1 variable increases, the other decreases
● Plotting co-variables on a scatter diagram helps to identify the relationship
 om
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3.2.3 Issues surrounding the use of correlations in psychology; issues with
cause and effect, other variables.
ro
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● Can only see if they have a relationship: impossible to tell which one
affected the other (cause and effect)
.e

● It can be a time consuming process

ds

● Cannot tell if a 3rd variable could have caused the relationship. (ex:
weather might have been warm which increased both stress and
r
lo

aggression) - this can be used as evaluation in many biological topics

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where similarities in genes may not have caused a relationship. Rather, it

might have been an environmental factor that affected both variables.
ap
.p

3.2.4 List B from Topic B, focusing on the Spearman rank test.

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Spearman’s Rho / Rank

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● This is an inferential test created by Charles Spearman.

● It is also known as Spearman’s Rank and is sometimes represented by the
greek letter Rho (r )
● It is used when:
- You have a test of relationships (correlation) of 2 independent
variables
- The data is at least ordinal level

● You could be asked to calculate the test. The equation is:

● You are being asked to work out the observed value of Rho:
1. You have to rank your data as it has to be ordinal level data. Identical
scores get the mean rank they share. (so if there are 3 scores sharing
1st place, instead of getting ranks 1, 2 and 3, they all get rank 2).
2. You will end up with 2 ranks for each person. You can put these into
tables (like the example of self rated and peer rated aggression)

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ro
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3. Next, find the difference
.e

between the ranks by deducting rank 1 from rank 2. This goes in a

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column labelled ‘d’ for difference.

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lo
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4. Next, square all the differences:

 5. Work out the sum of the total squared differences.
6. Then, use the formula at the front of the exam booklet and calculate
the Rho.

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● The
ro number your
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left with is
Spearman’s correlational coefficient:
.e

- If it's positive, then the data has a positive correlation; if it's negative, the
ds

data has a negative correlation

- The closer it is to 0 (zero), the weaker the correlation
r
lo

- The closer it is to 1, the stronger the correlation

er
ap

● In the example, 0.786 is a pretty strong positive correlation. But you need to
find out if it's strong enough to be statistically significant.
.p

● You will compare the correlation coefficient (Rho, your observed value) to
w

the critical value and you are looking for Rho to be higher than the critical
w

value.
w

● First check if your critical value is one tailed or 2 tailed. And the p-value your
considering. Then choose the column for the type of hypothesis and p
value you choose. And read down the column until you reach your score for
‘n’. This is your critical value.

● If your value of Rho is equal to or higher than the critical value, you can refute
your null hypothesis (and cautiously accept your hypothesis).

● If the value of Rho is less than the critical value, you must accept your null
hypothesis and refute your correlational hypothesis.

● Finally, just like wilcoxon’s test, have a statement of statistical significance:

- The results were subjected to a Spearman's Rho test
 - The observed value (Rho) was 0.786, which is higher than the critical
value of 0.378 for a 2-tailed test where p≤0.05
- Therefore, the null hypothesis can be refuted

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Scanning techniques

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3.2.5 Brain-scanning techniques (CAT, PET, and fMRI). The use of
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brain-scanning techniques to investigate human behaviour, including
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aggression.
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CAT (Computerised Axial Tomography) scans

● These scans are sometimes referred to as CT scans and can
r
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be used to take images of any part of the body including the

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brain.
● CT scans use a series of X-ray beams passing through the
ap

head.
.p

● The images are then developed on sensitive film.

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● This method creates cross-sectional images of the brain by

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showing its structure but not its function.

● This is useful for detecting areas of brain damage following
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an accident or positioning of tumours in the brain but it does not give any
information about how the brain is functioning.

Strengths Weaknesses

This is useful for detecting areas of Does not give any information about
brain damage following an accident or how the brain is functioning. So
positioning of tumours in the brain functional differences may be difficult
to establish the causes of changes in
behaviour
Can be used to compare scans Risk to patients as they involve
between different brains, to identify exposure to radiation
causes of differences in behaviour

Produce quantitative data so results Only produce black and white x-ray
are reliable images so can be difficult to spot any
subtle changes in affected brain areas
so low validity.

May make it easier for surgeons to X-Ray images require interpretations

have a clear layout of the brain before which may differ between specialists
surgery to reduce the risks associated and may not be reliable
with longer duration under surgery.

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ro
zy
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans
● This involves injecting the patient with a small
.e

amount of radioactive material in order to conduct

ds

the scan.
● Patients having PET scans will be injected with a
r
lo

substance known as ‘fluorodeoxyglucose’ (FDG).

er

This is a tracer substance where the radioactive

atom is attached to glucose as the brain will use
ap

up the glucose as a form of energy.

.p

● Once the tracer has been absorbed into the

bloodstream, a task may be given to stimulate the
w

brain and encourage activity.

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● As the brain starts working, glucose will be used up and radioactive atoms
w

start to break down, emitting positrons.

● Such positrons hits an electron and both are destroyed to produce gamma
rays. These rays get picked up by the scanner.
● High concentrations of gamma rays will be found in areas of high brain
activity and vice versa.
● Images produced from this is shown in colour:
- Areas of high activity: warmer tones like red
- Areas of low activity: cooler colours like blue

Strengths Weaknesses
Useful for investigating areas of the Carried out in a controlled setting so
brain that are not functioning cannot show how the brain responds
normally which could indicate in real-life situations, therefore low in
damage or tumours. predictive validity.

⇒ shows not only where problems

exist, but also predicts what kinds of
issues patients might face depending
on the brain activity shown

Compare functions between normal Involve the use of unrealistic tasks to

and abnormal brains so can identify stimulate the brain so results are low
causes of differences in behaviours. in ecological validity.

Produce quantitative data which is Expensive

reliable

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Use of injections of radioactive

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material which can be a risk to
patients if the scan is conducted often
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fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
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● This is a method of brain scanning where images of

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brain activity can be gathered without the use of

radiation.
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● This scan assumes that brain activity is associated with

er

blood flow in the brain and this activity is used to gather

the information by the scanner to produce a picture.
ap

● By detecting blood flow to particular areas of the brain,

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it provides both an anatomical and a functional view of

the brain.
w

● This method has comparative safety in relation to other

w

scans which use radiation, therefore used by many

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psychologists for research.

● How it works:
1. Head is placed inside a very large and powerful electromagnet
2. Nuclei within hydrogen molecules in water align themselves with
the direction of the magnetic field and neural brain activity increases
3. This increases blood flow in active areas to keep up with the demand
for oxygen
4. When haemoglobin carries oxygen to the brain areas, it repels a
magnetic field
5. When it has been deoxygenated, it will follow the direction of the
magnetic field
 6. These changes in repelling or following the magnetic field direction
will be recorded by the scanner to show the changing levels of
neural activity in different brain areas.

Strengths Weaknesses

Shows functional changes in different Carried out in a controlled setting so

areas of the brain so can show the does not show the functioning of the
early onset of malfunction eg. brain in real-life situations, therefore
Alzheimer's disease. low in ecological validity.

Can be used to compare with other Scans require interpretation which

brains to explain causes of differences may differ between specialists so may
in behaviour. not be reliable

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Safe, painless and Non-invasive scans Some people are unable to have these
as they do not involve any injections of scans due to the use of high-powered
radioactive substances so less risk magnetic fields (ex: someone with a

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cardiac pacemaker or any metallic
devices)
ro
zy
No special preparation is required Expensive to conduct
.e

except the removal of all metal objects

so speeds up procedure
ds

People who get claustrophobic by

r
lo

confined spaces or loud noises may

become quite stressed
er
ap
.p

Using brain scanning to study human behaviour

w

● Psychologists use brain scanning methods to make links between brain

structures and activity
w
w

● Researchers have used different scanning techniques to explain aggressive

behaviour
- Ex: Raine et al (1997) - used PET scans to look at the brain activity of
prisoners convicted of murder and then compared this to a matched
control group of non-murderers.
- Using this, they were able to identify abnormal brain activity in the
murderers’ group in areas of the brain associated with impulsivity
and risk-taking behaviour which lead to aggression.

- Ex: Montag et al (2011) - used fMRI scans and found that gamers
showed lower levels of activity in reaction to pictures of negative
emotion than the control group did.
 - The reduction in the brain’s response to negative emotional stimuli
may explain why there is a suggested link between playing violent
games and becoming more aggressive as gamers may not find
aggressive actions as ‘serious’ when continually conducting such
actions in violent games.

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Twin studies
ro
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^3.2.6 The use of twin studies to investigate genetic relatedness and
.e

aggression.
ds

Twin studies and adoption studies are ways to investigate the effects of
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●
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nature and nurture on behaviour

er

- Nature refers to biological causes for behaviour: this means the

influence of genes that have been inherited from biological parents.
ap

- Nurture refers to the environmental causes of behaviour: this means the

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importance of upbringing, regardless of who the parents are.

w
w

● In general, twin studies investigate the role of nature (genes) and adoption
w

studies investigate the role of nurture (upbringing)

● There are 2 types of twins that we need to understand in order to

comprehend twin studies:
- Monozygotic (MZ) twins: conceived in a
single egg, which later split. These twins
share the same genes so they must be
the same sex. They are called identical
twins.
- Dizygotic (DZ) twins: conceived when
two or more eggs were fertilised at the
same time. These twins share the same
amount of genes as any brother or sister.
 They are called fraternal twins and don’t have to look identical.

● Ultrasound scanning may reveal twins sharing a placenta or the same

membrane, which massively increases the likelihood they are MZ.
● Genetic testing can be carried out to reveal with much greater certainty
whether twins are MZ

How twin studies work

● Twin studies involve comparing MZ twins with DZ twins.
● Twin studies aren’t about comparing twins with normal brothers and
sisters. They’re about comparing the two different types of twins.
● Because MZ twins share 100% of their genes and DZ twins only share 50%

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(at most) of their genes, studying the behaviour of twins reveals a lot about
the influence of nature (genetics).

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● If the MZ twins and the DZ twins behave the same way, it suggests nature

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does not play a large role in this behaviour, because the twins share the same
environment (nurture) which encourages them to be the same
zy
● If the MZ and DZ twins behave differently, it suggests nature is at work
.e

because the shared environment is not producing the same behaviour, so

genetic differences could explain this
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Concordance rates
● Twin studies are measured using a statistic called a concordance rate.
er

Concordance means “agreement”.

ap

- If one twin shows the behaviour and the other twin does too, this is
concordance
.p

- If one twin shows the behaviour but the other doesn't, this is
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discordance
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● In a twin study, the concordance rate of the MZ twins is compared to that

of the DZ twins:
Examples of twin studies

Gottesman and Shields (1966)

● They studied twins over a 16 year period where one had been diagnosed
with schizophrenia and found that in monozygotic twins, 42% of their
co-twins were also diagnosed with schizophrenia.
● Whereas for dizygotic twins, only 9% of their co-twins were diagnosed with
the same illness.
● Because the concordance rate is higher in monozygotic twins in this study,
they concluded that there may be a genetic element that could explain the
development of schizophrenia.

Coccaro et al (1997)

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● They had 182 male MZ pairs and 118 male DZ pairs
● They found that there was a high chance that aggressive traits would be

.c
found in both twins suggesting that impulsive aggression could be at least
partly due to genetic factors.
ro
zy
● They had their participants complete the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory
questionnaire which was used to assess various emotional traits associated
.e

with aggression.
ds

● When they compared the scores of each of the twin pairs, they found a
r

significant concordance rate between twins. Hence, suggesting that there

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is an element of heritability in some features of aggression.

er

Brendgen et al (2006)
ap
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● Shown later in this unit

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Evaluation of twin studies

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Strengths Weaknesses

Reliability: Generalisability:

Twin studies are often conducted in Using twins for their studies may not
controlled settings and the number of be very representative of other
fertility treatments and women having children. (ex: twins are only 1.5% of UK
babies later in life has increased. This births)
increases the number of twins
available for study, making research Twins may live differently than other
more reliable with powerful statistics siblings as they often get treated
similarly and get attached to each
other
Application: Reliability:
Twin studies can tell us whether
important behaviours are heritable. The identification of zygosity (MZ and
This is important for treating disorders DZ) is not perfect. For many studies
such as schizophrenia as well as from before the 1980s, it is very
alerting parents to the risks of children unreliable.
growing up with such problems.
Gottesman & Shields (1966) had to use
blood tests and fingerprint
comparisons so DZ twins could be
wrongly assigned to the MZ condition.

Brendgen et al 2005 used only DNA

testing on half the twins studied and
the rest were allocated to MZ or DZ
based on physical resemblance

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Validity: Validity:

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Has good internal validity as whether a Twins may have different
pair of twins are MZ or DZ is a natural characteristics as even if they share the
zy
occurring variable. MZ twins share same home, their upbringing may not
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100% of genes while DZ wins share be the same. They may have different
50%, this cannot be manipulated by friends, interests and relationships
ds

the researchers, hence, reducing which may mean that they may be
researcher bias. biologically similar but they do not
r
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share the same phenotype (Social

similarity)
er
ap

Ethics: Validity:
Many states keep records of twin The idea that genetics entirely shapes
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births and invite families to join twin the person you grow up to be is
study programmes. This provides good biological determinism. However,
w

consent such as Brendgen et al who psychologists today are not

w

recruited twins from such a panel. determinists as they know that people
w

are influenced by a mixture of

Some researchers advertise for adult environment and genetics. This limits
twins to volunteer such as Gottesman the usefulness of twin studies as they
& Shields which also ensures that rarely show a concordance rate of
informed consent is achieved. 100%. We can only use twin studies to
show whether concordance is slightly
higher in the MZ twins which
suggests that genetics doesn’t
entirely cause it.

Ethics:
There is always a risk that twin studies
may draw attention to twins and make
them feel unusual, weird or different.
This goes against the BPS code of
 conduct for ‘damages self-confidence’

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3.2.7 List A from Topic A.

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3.3 Studies
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Classic study
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3.3.1 Raine et al. (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by

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positron emission tomography.

er
ap

● This study was conducted by Adrian Raine on a group of american

prisoners who were all charged with murder but were pleading Not Guilty
.p

by Reason of Insanity (NGRI). The precise reasons varied from schizophrenia

w

to head injuries.
w

● As part of their defence, the prisoners received brain imaging scans and
w

Raine took the opportunity to compare their scans with controls.

● Raine et al (1997) - year

Positron Emission tomography (PET)

● PET is a brain imaging technique
● It involves injecting the participant with a glucose solution that dissolves in
the blood
● This solution has been tagged with a radioactive tracer which wil make its
way to the brain at about half an hour
● Inside the brain, blood takes oxygen to regins that are active
● PET scans will show these regions as having a higher relative amount of
the radioactive tracer
● A computer can produce a scan of the braian from the radioactive signal,
colouring in active regions as ‘hot’ and less active regions as ‘cold’
 ● All participants were given a Continous Performance Task (CPT) (wearing
earphones and pressing a button every time they hear a beeping) this
involves concentration and should active the prefrontal cortex.
● The prefrontal cortex is supposed to restrain aggression so Raine was
interested to see if NGRIs had less activity here.
● The thalamus was linked to aggression in cats so Raine also observed this
area.

Aim
● The aim was to find out if there is a difference in the structure of the brain
between murderers and non-murder control group.
● The expectation was that the murderers would show evidence of brain
differences in their prefrontal cortex, the corpus callosum, the amygdala,
the medial temporal lobe (MTL)/hippocampus and the thalamus that are
linked to aggression.

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● Raine wanted to see if the findings of the studies linking brain structure to
aggression in animals could be generalised to humans

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IV
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● Whether the participant is an offender pleading (NGRI) to murder, or a
non-murderer in the Control group.
.e

● Since the IV is naturally-varying and the controls were matched on age and
ds

sex, this is a natural experiment

Natural (or quasi-) experiments don't manipulate the IV; they observe
r

●
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changes in a naturally-occurring IV
er
ap

DV
● Relative glucose levels in the prefrontal cortex, the other lobes of the brain,
.p

the corpus callosum, the amygdala, the MTL/hippocampus and thalamus,

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as revealed by Positron Emission Tomography (PET).

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Sample
● 41 offenders pleading NGRI to the crime of murder and 41 Controls.
● The NGRIs were 39 men and 2 women (mean age 34.3) and they all had a
history of brain damage or brain disorders
● Both the control and the participants were tested for drugs and they were
not receiving medication at the time of the brain scan (urine scans
supported this).
● The control participants were the same sex as the murderers and had no
histpry of psychiatric illness other than 6 participants with schizophrenia
who were compared with murderers diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Procedure
● Participants were tested at the university of California.
● Each was injected with the glucose tracer and then performed the
continous Performance Task (CPT) for 32 minutes.
● Then the PET scan was carried out.

● Other experimental controls were:

- Participants were allowed to practice the CPT 10 minutes before the
glucose tracer was injected to ensure that all were equally familiar
with it
- No participants were on medication before PET scans

● The participants were compared on the level of activity in the right and left
hemispheres of the brain using 2 techniques called ‘cortical peel’ and ‘box’
● A cortical peel compares the glucose values for each region of the brain
that is being scanned and is expressed as a measure that is relative to other
areas within that slice of the brain

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● The box technique involes location the area of interest and a region of
interest box is placed on the cortical and subcortical structures at each

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level of the areas of the brain being studied.
●
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The PET scan was broken down into digital “slices” and “boxes”, enabling Raine
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to measure the relative amount of tracer present in the brain’s 4 cortical
regions (the “lobes” on the outside of the brain) and the 4 sub-cortical regions
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(structures tucked away deeper inside the brain).

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Results

Key findings Role of this region Image

The NGRIs showed less Associated with rational

activity in the frontal thinking, self-restraint
lobe. Especially the and memory. So less
prefrontal cortex activity in this area may
have caused aggressive
behaviour such as
immaturity, loss of
self-control.

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Less activity in the Associated with abstract
parietal lobe in NGRIs thinking such as morality
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or justice. As well as
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learning abilities and

verbal activity. So less
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activity in this area may

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have meant that they

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had learning deficits

which would contribute
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to social and cognitive

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problems which may

have lead to difficulties in
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employment leading to
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increased incentive for

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crime.

More activity in the Helps with vision.

occipital lobe

NGRIs had less activity in The bridge of the nerve

the corpus callosum fibres connecting the 2
hemispheres associated
with long term planning.
So murderers may not
have seen the long-term
implications of a
situation
Imbalance of activity The difference in activity
between the left and in the amygdala can be
right hemispheres in the seen to support theories
limbic system. of violence that suggest
that it is due to unusal
More activity on the right emotional responses
and less activity on the such as lack of fear.
left in the amygdala and
hippocampus These are brain areas
associated with
More activity in the right aggression in animals so
side of the thalamus imbalances may have
although no difference caused aggressive
on the left side’s activity behaviour.

● The results in this table shows the findings of the mean relative glucose

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metabolism observed by the PET in different regions (red areas important):

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● In addition to the
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above, there was no

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differences found in their temporal areas and continuous performance task

(CPT).
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● The differences in brain activity did not appear to be due to any differences
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in age, gender, schizophrenia, ethnicity or history with brain injury.

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Conclusions
● From all of these findings, Raine et al (1997) argue that their research
supports previous findings about the role of certain brain structures in
violent behaviour.

Raine suggests how the brain abnormalities in the NGRIs might translate into
violence or anti-social behaviour:

● Prefrontal deficits: might make someone more impulsive and emotional

● Deficits in the limbic system: might make someone aggressive, as was
observed in cats;
- the amygdala controls urges and desires
- the thalamus processes information
 - the hippocampus processes memory (see the study by Schmolck et al.).
Deficits might make it hard for someone to learn from mistakes or
understand their emotions.
● Deficits in the corpus callosum: make it harder for the brain’s hemispheres to
communicate, making it difficult to think through long term consequences
and make decisions
● Areas like the parietal lobe, amygdala and hippocampus have a part to play in
recognition; deficits here might make it harder for someone to judge social
situations, leading them to overreact.

● Raine concludes that findings from animal studies into aggression can be
generalised to humans and there is a link between brain structure and
aggression

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Evaluation
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Strengths Weaknesses
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Generalisability
Generalisability:
The largest sample yet subjected to brain The findings only apply to this group of
imaging (82) for this purpose, it includes murderers pleading NGRI, not to all
a Control group with good matching and violence .– Raine
it looks at different areas of the brain
associated with aggression. – Raine NGRI’s are an unusual offender as they
are people who have killed someone but
This reduces anomalies and makes the either don’t remember doing it or are
results representative of a wider too confused to stand trial. Thus, not
population. representative of typical murderers.

Reliability Reliability
PET is a reliable brain imaging Raine admits that the PET images were
technique. It produces objective and not particularly clear and there was a
limit to how accurately they could be
replicable results and test-retest ability measured. They had to interpret results
is possible. which introduces subjectivity and low
reliability
CPT also ensures that all participants
were concentrating on the same thing
- standardised procedure

Application
Application
Raine is NOT claiming that PET
Raine does suggest that id the scanning could identify murderers in
damage can be prevented, people advance or that it could help decide if
might be prevented from becoming someone is guilty for murder.
murderers. This involves early
intervention with at-risk children in
school, programmes to steer young
people away from drugs and

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monitoring people who have received
brain injury.

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Validity Validity
Bufkin & Luttrell (2005) carried out a Ecological validity: CPT used by raine
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meta-analysis, where they analysed the could be criticised for being artificial as
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results of 17 studies that use brain the participants were all doing an
imaging to study aggression in humans unusual task in an unusual state of
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(Raine et al’s study included). They found

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mind.
that all the studies point to similar
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conclusions: impulsivity is linked to Internal validity: The study doesn’t

deficits in the prefrontal cortex or the
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show the causes of these brain deficits –

amygdala and such people have whether the participants were born this
difficulty coping with negative emotions.
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way or acquired them later due to the

stress of the event - Raine
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Adds to the construct validity of Raine’s

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study, since it shows the results tie in Bobo Doll studies by Bandura
with the findings of lots of other studies.
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(learning theories chapter) suggests

that people can learn aggressive
behaviours and their brains might
change because of it. This means that
brain deficits aren’t the cause of
aggressive behaviour; they’re the result.

Brendgen et al: looks at other factors

behind aggression that is not biological.
Raine insists that he is NOT claiming
that violence is purely biological. He
thinks social and situational factors, like
culture and upbringing, play a part too.

Not all murders are violent acts and not

 all the NGRIs were accused of violent
murders (for example, poisoning is a
non-violent murder). It is not possible to
link brain deficits with violence.

Ethics
Ethics
Prior consent was given as NGRI’s
agreed to have the PET tests because it PET imaging is an invasive procedure
would help their court case either by because the participants have to be
showing they wre not fit to stand trial injected with radioactive tracers. This
or that they weren’t in control of increases the risk of research despite the
themselves when they committed the fact that the court ordered it.
crime.

The University of California approved the Raine and his colleagues make it clear
study. If the NGRIs or the schizophrenic they are NOT drawing these conclusions

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Controls were not competent to consent, themselves, but once a study like this is
then presumptive consent was given by known to the public its conclusions may

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their lawyer or carer. be misinterpreted. This would go against

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the social responsibility of ethical
research. This is because it makes
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people believe that certain people are
driven to kill by their brain structure
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which invites us to screen prospective

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job candidates to check if they dont

have a ‘murder’s brain’
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Contemporary study
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3.3.2 Brendgen et al. (2005) Examining genetic and environmental effects

on social aggression: A study of 6-year-old twins.

● The study was carried out by Mara Brendgen and colleagues at the
University of Montreal in Canada.
● They tested a large sample of Canadian twins using questionnaires given to
their classmates and teachers.
● Brendgen was interested in the connection between social aggression and
physical aggression studied by other psychologists.
● Brendgen and her colleagues try to separate out each child’s phenotype into
three components: (1) genes (the genotype), (2) shared environment (home life,
parenting), and (3) non-shared environment (friendships, hobbies, school
differences).
Aim
● To find out if there is a difference between physical and social aggression in
6-year-old school children
● To observe if physically aggressive children are also socially aggressive
● To investigate if there is a link to genetics or social situation by comparing
MZ and DZ to explain their aggression.

IV
● The correlation between the aggression scores for identical twins and the
aggression scores for non-identical twins
● The correlation between teacher ratings and peer ratings from classmates
for the children’s aggression.
● Looks at the differences between MZ and DZ twins and girls and boys

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DV
● Teacher ratings for social and physical aggression were calculated out of 6

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each.
●
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Peer ratings were taken from classmates who were asked to identify
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classmates from photographs who fitted various descriptions.
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Sample
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● 234 pairs of twins taken from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study.
● Sample:
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- 44 sets of identical male twin sets

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- 50 sets of identical female twin sets

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- 41 non-identical male twin sets

- 32 non-identical female twin sets
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- 67 non-identical mixed-gender twin sets

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● Because the sample was taken from another study, this should be
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considered a cluster sample.

● Same-sex twins were assessed for physical resemblance at 18 months old.
● A proportion of same-sex twins also being checked using their DNA. This
backed up the assignment to MZ or DZ 94% of the time, which was considered
reliable enough.
● Majority of families were of European descent

Procedure
● The teachers’ questionnaires asked them to rate each child on a 3-point scale
(0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = often) on these 6 statements:
- tries to make others dislike a child
- says bad things or spreads nasty rumours about another child
- becomes friends with another child for revenge
- gets into fights
 - physically attacks others
- hits, bites or kicks others

● The scores for social aggression and physical aggression were added
together to produce 2 overall scores.

● For the peer ratings, the children were given a simpler task. They were shown
photos of their classmates and asked to circle the photos of 3 children who
best fit these 4 descriptions:
- tells others not to play with a child
- tells mean secrets about another child
- gets into fights
- hits, bites or kicks others

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Results
● Brendgen carried out a Chi-Squared inferential test comparing the teacher

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and peer ratings of the identical and non-identical twins for physical and

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social aggression. The differences were not significant so the 2 sets of
ratings could be combined together.
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● Brendgen also looked at the correlation between how the teacher rated each
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child's aggression and how the child's friends rated it. A strong correlation
implies the two views were in agreement, making them more valid.
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● the teachers did rate boys as more physically aggressive and the girls as more
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socially aggressive; peer ratings from classmates showed the boys to be both
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more physically and more socially aggressive.

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● Brendgen et al found that when it came to physical; aggression, the

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correlation for identical twins was almost 2x as high as it was for

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non-identical twins. This was true for both teacher and peer ratings. This
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suggests that physical aggression is mainly influenced by genetic factors.

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● The MZ twins' correlations for social aggression were similar to the DZ twins'
correlations. This suggests social aggression is less linked to genetics, because
both types of twins seemed to be equally affected by their surroundings, unlike
physical aggression.

Conclusions
● Nature/nurture: Brendgen concludes that about 50-60% of physical
aggression can be linked to genes. For social aggression, genes only seem to
account for about 20%
● Non-shared environment/Shared environment:
- Non-shared environment was an influence for 40% of physical
aggression and 60% of social aggression.
- Brendgen links about 20% of social aggression to a shared environment
which is probably parenting strategies. She points out that if parents
 control children by withholding love and affection, the children learn to
control peers by withholding friendship.

● So physical aggression is mostly nature (genes), but social aggression is mostly

nurture (environment).

● Whether physical and social aggression is linked: The overlap between

social and physical aggression was only moderate. Brendgen proposes that
genes might give children a general predisposition towards aggression, but
this only becomes social aggression if they have an environment that
encourages it

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Evaluation
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Strengths Weaknesses
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Generalisability: Generalisability:
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Large sample of 234 twin pairs so 88 twin pairs disappeared from the
anomalies with very low or high Quebec Newborn twin Study before
aggression will be cancelled out by the the age-6 testing point. If these
size of the data ⇒ sample children had more chaotic
representative backgrounds, studies may not be
representative.

The researchers themselves complain

that their sample was too small. They
looked at 409 classrooms, but argue
future studies that replicate their
procedure should use larger samples

The study only looked at 6-year-olds.

Reliability: Reliability:
Brendgen uses established Language was translated from french to
questionnaires to measure aggression English for certain participants, this may
⇒ replication is easy, improving reduce the reliability of the questions
test-retest accuracy producing the same meaning.

Two researchers visited each The allocation of zygosity (MZ and DZ

classroom, suggesting the study has categories) was based largely on their
inter-rater reliability appearance and wasn’t 100% reliable. In
particular, it is possible there were DZ
twins in the MZ condition.
There was a strong correlation between
teacher- and peer- ratings, suggesting
the scores are reliable.

Application: Validity:
Since they found that social Conclusions are never certain as

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aggression is linked to the something else could be affecting the
environment, it is possible to take MZ twins. Ex: MZ twins can be

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measures such as workshops to physically identical and get mistaken
reduce verbal bullying, gossiping and for one another. This may lead to twins
trolling on social media.
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being stereotyped for their other twin’s
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personality. This may have influenced
Since they found that 60% of social the results of the questionnaire filled
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aggression is to do with the shared by teachers and peers

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environment, educating parents on

better ways of handling children may
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prevent aggressive behaviour

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Validity: Ethics
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Twin studies are a valid way of Study gets children to look at pictures
studying nature/nurture debates since of their classmates and judge them.
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MZ twins share 100% of their genotype This may have a bad impact on
but DZ twins no more than 50%. friendships, especially if the children
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discussed their answers. This could

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The study avoids taking a reductionist lead to hurt feelings or revenge. This
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view of human behaviour: it looks at goes against the BPS code of conduct
genetics but also at environmental on ‘social responsibility’ by creating
factors. It links in with the findings about risks.
aggression by Bandura (who claims it is
learned) and Raine et al. (who suggest it
is due to brain structure).

It was a field study conducted in the

school so gains ecological validity

Ethics:
Parents of the twins agreed for their
children to be in the study so
presumptive consent was given
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One contemporary study from the following two

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choices:
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3.3.3 McDermott (2008) Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts

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behavioural aggression following provocation.

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3.3.4 Hoefelmann et al. (2006) Behaviors associated to sleep among high

school students: a cross-sectional and prospective analysis.

Aim(s)

● To investigate factors affecting sleep in high school students.

● It aimed to investigate the effects of lifestyle factors on the quality of sleep
in high school students, in order to verify that the two are associated.

Sample
● Randomised control - students ages 14-24 from brazil
● A longitudinal approach was taken with 949 students giving data about
sleep quality
 ● Approximately 2,000 students were evaluated in March 2006. The students
were randomly selected from 20 schools (10 in each municipality, 5
intervention schools, and 5 control schools). Post-intervention data were
collected 9 months later (December 2006), with a response rate of 45.9%
(989 adolescents assessed at follow-up)

Procedure
● The students answered a questionnaire on 2 separate occasions about
physical activity, eating habits, sleep duration and quality and other lifestyle
factors (ex: alcohol consumption)
● 9-month gap between the 2 questionnaires
● Questions included close-answer items that were based on the PACE+
project questionnaire
● Sleep quality measured by: “How many hours, on average do you sleep per
day?” (8 or more was counted as enough sleep duration)

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● Lifestyle factors were measured through:
- No of times students exercised for at least an hour a day in a week

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- No of times students exercised for muscular strengths and
endurance per week
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- Amount of time per day spent watching television and playing video
games
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- How many snacks and soft drinks were consumed in a week

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- How many days alcohol was drunk in the last month

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Results
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● Students who did not do muscular strength/endurance exercise, who often

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ate snacks and who watched excessive amounts of television were less
likely to say they did not get enough sleep.
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● Students who played excessive amounts of computer games were more

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likely to say they did not get enough sleep.

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● 5/10 (5 in every 10) students said that they had poor sleep quality (remained
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same over 9 month period)

● 8/10 students said they did not get enough sleep (remained same over 9
month period)
● In the prospective analysis, none of the behaviours could predict either
sleep quality or duration.

Conclusion
● It was concluded that if it was perceived that the quality of sleep was poor
and sleep duration was not enough that this perception remained stable
over time.
● The cross-sectional analysis shows that some behaviours are associated
with sleep quality and duration, this was not confirmed by the prospective
analysis.
Strengths Weaknesses

Generalisability: Generalisability:

Large sample of students in Brazil with Participants were only from Brazil so it
2000 students the first time and 989 cannot be generalised to all teenagers
students in the 2nd questionnaire so across the world with different factors
cancels out any anomalies

Reliability: Reliability:

The same questionnaire was used the

first and 2nd times. Shows
standardised procedures and rates of
poor sleep quality and hours remained

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the same over the 9-month period so
it is reliable.

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Application: Application:
Noland and colleagues reported that
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physical exercise before bedtime was Certain aspects of the study such as
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cited as one of the strategies most whether watching TV actually

frequently used by teenagers to fall positively affects sleep is not clear to
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asleep. In the United States, this be implemented

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practice is usually performed by 32% of

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adolescents. This activity can have a

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stimulating effect, which may impair

sleep quality.
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Validity: Validity:
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Randomised sample gains population Adolescence is an important period

validity and same questionnaire was that includes cognitive, behavioural,
given so reduces bias social, and emotional changes. Thus,
variations in feelings and behaviours
may affect the way that teenagers
perceive their life and even the way
that they perceive their sleep patterns.

insufficient sleep duration and poor

sleep quality can result from various
sleep disorders, which were not
investigated or controlled for in this
study

Social desirability may have taken

 place when filling questionnaires such
as alcohol consumption rate

Ethics: Ethics:

We can presume that there mostly

was informed consent from all
participants who were over the age of
16 and their data was already being
collected by an official government
report named “Good Health”. Any
individuals who were under 18 had an
older adult confirm consent. Also,
handing out a questionnaire that is
voluntary is an ethical way to obtain
data easily whilst students were at
school or college

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Supporting studies: Supporting studies:

Peracchia et al (2018) found that

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A longitudinal study of adolescents
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prolonger exposed to video games from Minnesota (United States)
resulted in insufficient and poorer showed a reduction in the average
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sleep quality sleep duration of approximately 30

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minutes after 24 months of follow-up2

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