LESSON 2 -​ Bar Graph: illustrates

Data Presentation and Interpretation comparisons of amounts and

quantities.
Techniques in Data Processing -​ Pie Graph (Circle Graph)
1.​ Editing :displays the relationship of
-​ Is a process wherein the parts to a whole.
collected data are checked.
-​ The main purpose of editing is for LESSON 3
checking the consistency, Using Statistical Techniques to Analyze
accuracy, organization, and Data
clarity.
2.​ Coding Statistical Techniques
-​ A process wherein the collected 1.​ Percentage
data are categorized and -​ is any proportion from the
organized. whole.
-​ Usually done in qualitative Formula:
research.
-​ Coding is done to assign 2.​ Mean or average
numerical value to specific -​ the middlemost value of your
indicators especially if it is list of values and this can be
qualitative in nature. obtained by adding all the values
3.​ Tabulation and dividing the obtained sum to
-​ Is a process of arranging data. the number of values.
-​ Can be done manually or Formula:
electronically using MS Excel.
3.​ Standard Deviation
The next step after editing, coding, and -​ shows the spread of data
tabulating the data is to present them into a around the mean.
graphical or visual presentation called Formula:
non-prose materials: graphs, bars, tables,
charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, 4.​ Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r)
and maps. -​ is a statistical method used to
estimate the strength of
●​ Tables relationship between two
-​ helps summarize and quantitative variables.
categorize data using columns Formula:
and rows. It contains headings
that indicate the most important
information about your study.
●​ Graphs
-​ Graphs focus on how a change
in one variable relates to
another. Graphs use bars, lines,
circles, and pictures in
representing the data.
-​ Line Graph: illustrates trends
and changes in data over time.
 5.​ Regression Analysis null hypothesis. If the difference is significant,
-​ It can be used to explain the the null hypothesis is rejected. If the difference
relationship between is not significant, then the null hypothesis is not
dependent and independent rejected. In the hypothesis testing, there are
variables. four possible results:
Three major uses: 1. It would be an incorrect decision and would
a.​ Causal analysis - shows you the result in a Type I error when you reject the null
possible causation of changes in Y hypothesis when it is true.
by changes X. 2. It would be a correct decision when you
b.​ Forecasting an Effect - allows you to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
estimate and predict the value of Y 3. It would be a correct decision when you do
given the value of X. not reject the null hypothesis when it is true.
c.​ Linear Trend Forecasting - helps you 4. It would be an incorrect decision and would
trace the line best fit to time series. result in a Type II error when you do not reject
Formula: the null hypothesis when it is false.

The basic format for hypothesis testing:

1. State the hypotheses and identify them.
6. Hypothesis testing 2. Find the critical value(s).
-​ A hypothesis test helps you determine 3. Compute the test value.
some quantity under a given 4. Make the decision.
assumption. The outcome of the test 5. Summarize the result.
tells you whether the assumption
holds or whether the assumption has Critical Value Approach
been violated. -​ used to determine whether the
-​ Null hypothesis (𝑯𝟎) which states that observed test statistic is more
there is no difference between the two extreme than a defined critical value.
values or variables. One-Sample t-test Formula:
-​ Alternative hypothesis (𝑯𝟏) which
states that there is a difference
between two values or variables.
P-value Approach
a statistical test - uses the data obtained from -​ involves determining the probability
a sample to decide about whether the null (assuming the null hypothesis were
hypothesis should be rejected. true) of observing a more extreme
test statistic in the direction of the
one-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed test), alternative hypothesis than the one
when the test value falls in the critical observed. If the P-value is less than
region on one side of the mean, the null (or equal to) 𝛼 then the null’
hypothesis should be rejected. -​ hypothesis is rejected in favor of the
alternative hypothesis. And, if the
two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be P-value is greater than 𝛼, then the null
rejected when the test value falls in either hypothesis is not rejected.
of the two critical regions.
 Drawing Conclusions Formulating Recommendations
Recommendations
Guidelines in Writing Your Research -​ can be described as a suggestion
Conclusion regarding the best course of action to
-​ In writing your conclusion, make sure to take as a result of your summary of
have a brief introductory statement findings and conclusion.
before itemizing the answers to your -​ The purpose of a recommendation is to
research questions. Remember that provide a useful guide that will not
your conclusion should address or only address certain problems but
answer every research inquiry you result in a successful outcome.
have in your research study.
Here are some points you have to keep
in mind:
1.​ Avoid merely summarizing
2.​ State your conclusion in a
clear and simple language
3.​ Do not just reiterate the
discussion of your results
4.​ Avoid using numerals, figures,
or simply repeating the results
5.​ Indicate opportunities for
future research

Research Implications
-​ refers to the logical relations and their
result in a given situation.
●​ Practical Implication
-​ also called as convenient
implication. It is a realistic
explanation of what your
research findings might mean
and the fact that would arise if
those circumstances were met.
●​ Theoretical Implication
-​ a statement that supports or
contradicts a theory, previous
study findings, or creates
something entirely new. It also
represents the literature in your
theoretical section.