Unit:3

Magnetic Circuit & Transformer

Electromagnetism Electromagnetic phenomena were
first observed and quantified in the early nineteenth
century—most notably, by three European scientists:
Hans Christian Oersted, Andre Marie Ampere, and
Michael Faraday. Oersted observed that a wire
carrying current could cause a magnet suspended
nearby to move.
Ampere, in 1825, demonstrated that a wire carrying
current could exert a force on another wire carrying
current in the opposite direction. And Faraday, in 1831,
discovered that current could be made to flow in a coil of
wire by passing a magnet close to the circuit.
Electrical current flowing along a wire creates a magnetic field around the
wire, as shown in Fig. a. That magnetic field can be visualized by showing
lines of magnetic flux, which are represented with the symbol φ. The
direction of that field that can be determined using the “right hand rule” in
which you imagine wrapping your right hand around a wire, with your
thumb pointing in the direction of current flow. Your fingers then show the
direction of the magnetic field. The field created by a coil of wire is
suggested in Fig. b
Consider an iron core wrapped with N turns of wire carrying current i as shown in
Fig. The magnetic field formed by the coil will take the path of least resistance—
which is through the iron—in much the same way that electric current stays within
a copper conductor. In essence, the iron is to a magnetic field what a wire is to
current. What Faraday discovered is that current flowing through the coil not only
creates a magnetic field in the iron, it also creates a voltage across the coil that is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux φ in the iron. That voltage is
called an electromotive force, or emf, and is designated by the symbol e.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

Assuming that all of the magnetic flux φ links all of the turns
of the coil, we can write the following important relationship,
which is known as Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
e = N dφ /dt
The sign of the induced emf is always in a direction that
opposes the current that created it, a phenomenon referred
to as Lenz’s law
The electrical circuit consists of a voltage source, v, sending current i through an
electrical load with resistance R. The electrical load consists of a long wire of length l,
cross-sectional area A, and conductance ρ. The resistance of the electrical load is given
by : R = ρ (l /A) The current flowing in the electrical circuit is given by Ohm’s law: i = v
/R
In the magnetic circuit of Fig. b, the driving force, analogous to voltage, is called the
magnetomotive force (mmf), designated by F. The magnetomotive force is created by
wrapping N turns of wire, carrying current i, around a toroidal core. By definition, the
magnetomotive force is the product of current × turns, and has units of ampere-turns.
 Magnetomotive force (mmf )F = Ni (ampere − turns)
The response to that mmf (analogous to current in the electrical circuit) is
creation of magnetic flux φ, which has SI units of webers (Wb).
The magnetic flux is proportional to the mmf driving force and inversely
proportional to a quantity called reluctance R, which is analogous to
electrical resistance, resulting in the “Ohm’s law” of magnetic circuits given
by F = R φ

we can ascribe units for reluctance R as amp-turns per weber (A-t/Wb).

Reluctance depends on the dimensions of the core as well as its materials:
Permeability µ:
Notice the similarity between and the equation for resistance.
The parameter in that indicates how readily the core material accepts
magnetic flux is the material’s permeability µ.
There are three categories of magnetic materials: diamagnetic, in which
the material tends to exclude magnetic fields; paramagnetic, in which the
material is slightly magnetized by a magnetic field; and ferromagnetic,
which are materials that very easily become magnetized. The vast
majority of materials do not respond to magnetic fields, and their
permeability is very close to that of free space. The materials that readily
accept magnetic flux—that is, ferromagnetic materials—are principally
iron, cobalt, and nickel and various alloys that include these elements.
The units of permeability are webers per amp-turn-meter (Wb/A-t-m).
The permeability of free space is given by Permeability of free space µ0 =
4π × 10−7 Wb/A-t-m
Oftentimes, materials are characterized by their relative permeability,
µr, which for ferromagnetic materials may be in the range of hundreds
to hundreds of thousands. As will be noted later, however, the relative
permeability is not a constant for a given material: It varies with the
magnetic field intensity.
In this regard, the magnetic analogy deviates from its electrical
counterpart and so must be used with some caution.

Relative permeability = µr = µ /µ0

Magnetic flux density, B
Another important quantity of interest in magnetic circuits is the magnetic
flux density, B. As the name suggests, it is simply the “density” of flux given
by the following:
Magnetic flux density B = φ/ A webers/m2 or teslas (T).
When flux is given in webers (Wb) and area A is given in m2, units for B are
teslas (T).
The analogous quantity in an electrical circuit would be the current density,
given by Electric current density J = i /A
Magnetic field intensity H
The final magnetic quantity that we need to introduce is the magnetic field intensity, H.
Referring back to the simple magnetic circuit shown in Fig. b, the magnetic field intensity
is defined as the magnetomotive force (mmf) per unit of length around the magnetic
loop. With N turns of wire carrying current i, the mmf created in the circuit is N i
ampere-turns. With l representing the mean path length for the magnetic flux, the
magnetic field intensity is therefore
Magnetic field intensity H = N i /l ampere-turns/meter
An analogous concept in electric circuits is the electric field strength, which is voltage
drop per unit of length. In a capacitor, for example, the intensity of the electric field
formed between the plates is equal to the voltage across the plates divided by the spacing
between the plates.
we arrive at the following relationship between magnetic flux density B
and magnetic field intensity H: B = µH
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Magnetomotive Force

• The “driving force” that causes a magnetic field

• Symbol, F
• Definition, F = NI
• Units, Ampere-turns, (A-t)

15
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Magnetic Field Intensity

• mmf gradient, or mmf per unit length

• Symbol, H
• Definition, H = F/l = NI/l
• Units, (A-t/m)

16
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Flux Density

• The concentration of the lines of force in a magnetic

circuit

• Symbol, B
• Definition, B = Φ/A
• Units, (Wb/m2), or T (Tesla)

ECE 441 17
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Reluctance
• The measure of “opposition” the magnetic circuit offers to
the flux
• The analog of Resistance in an electrical circuit

• Symbol, R
• Definition, R = F/Φ
• Units, (A-t/Wb)

18
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Permeability

• Relates flux density and field intensity

• Symbol, μ
• Definition, μ = B/H
• Units, (Wb/A-t-m)

ECE 441 19
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Permeability of free space (air)

• Symbol, μ0

• μ0 = 4πx10-7 Wb/A-t-m

20
Magnetic Circuit Definitions

• Relative Permeability
• Compares permeability of material with the permeability
of free space (air)

• Symbol, μr

• μr = μ/μ0 Dimensionless

21
Physics of Inductors:
Consider a coil of wire carrying some current creating a magnetic field within the coil. if
the coil has an air core, the flux can pretty much go where it wants to, which leads to the
possibility that much of the flux will not link all of the turns of the coil. To help guide the
flux through the coil, so that flux leakage is minimized, the coil might be wrapped around
a ferromagnetic bar or ferromagnetic core as shown in Fig. The lower reluctance path
provided by the ferromagnetic material also greatly increases the flux φ. We can easily
analyze the magnetic circuit in which the coil is wrapped around the ferromagnetic core
in Fig. a. Assume that all of the flux stays within the low-reluctance pathway provided by
the core:
From Faraday’s law, changes in magnetic flux create a voltage e, called the
electromotive force (emf), across the coil equal to
e = N (dφ/ dt)
Substituting flux into above expression gives

Notice in Fig. a that a distinction has been made between e, the emf voltage induced across
the coil, and v, a voltage that may have been applied to the circuit to cause the flux in the
first place. If there are no losses in the connecting wires between the source voltage and the
coil, then e = v and we have the final defining relationship for an inductor: v = L di/ dt
As given in, inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance R.
Recall that the reluctance of a flux path through air is much greater than the
reluctance if it passes through a ferromagnetic material. That tells us if we
want a large inductance, the flux needs to pass through materials with high
permeability (not air).
Example: Inductance of a Core-and-Coil.
Find the inductance of a core with effective length l = 0.1 m, cross-sectional
area A = 0.001 m2, and relative permeability µr somewhere between 15,000
and 25,000. It is wrapped with N = 10 turns of wire. What is the range of
inductance for the core?
When the core’s permeability is 15,000 times that of free space,
it is µcore = µrµ0 = 15,000 × 4π × 10−7 = 0.01885 Wb/A-t-m
so its reluctance is
Rcore = l /(µcoreA) = 0.1 m /(0.01885 (Wb/A-t-m) × 0.001 m2)
= 5305 A-t/Wb
and its inductance is L = N^2/ R = 10^2 /5305 = 0.0188 henries = 18.8 mH
Similarly, when the relative permeability is 25,000 the inductance is
L = N^2/ R = N^2*µr*µ0/A=
= 0.0314 H = 31.4 mH
A core-and-coil inductor has a mean cross-sectional area of 0.004 m2 and a mean
circumference of 0.24 m. The iron core has a relative permeability of 20,000. It is
wrapped with 100 turns carrying 1 amp of current.
a. What is the reluctance of the core R (A-t/Wb)?
b. What is the inductance of the core and coil L (henries)?
c. What is the magnetic field intensity H (A-t/m)?
d. What is the magnetic flux density B (Wb/m2)
Right Hand Rule

• The direction of magnetic flux is found by using right hand rule.

• Rule says that if one holds the conductor in such a way that the
thumb points in the direction of current, then the closed fingers give
the direction of flux produced.
Faradays Law

• Whenever there is a variation of magnetic flux linking with a coil, an

EMF is induced in that coil.
• The magnitude of this EMF is proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹, 𝑒 = − 𝑁 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Lenz’s Law

• Lenz’s law states that the induced EMF in a coil will induce a current
whose direction is such that it opposes the cause producing the EMF.
Mutual Inductance
• Consider 2 coils with self inductances L1
& L2 are kept close together.
• Coil 1 has N1 turns and coil 2 has N2
turns.

• Current i1 creates a flux ɸ1 in coil 1.

• This flux has got 2 components.
• ɸ1 1 links with coil 1 only.
• ɸ1 2 links with both the coils.
• Although both coils are physically separated, they are magnetically
coupled.
Mutual Inductance
• Voltage induced in coil 1 is,

• L1 is the self inductance of the coil.

• Voltage induced in coil 2 is,

• M is the mutual inductance between the 2 coils.

Mutual Inductance
• Now consider a current i2 flows through
coil 2 and produces a flux ɸ2.

• This flux has got 2 components.

• ɸ22 links with coil 1 only.
• ɸ 21 links with both the coils.
Mutual Inductance
• Voltage induced in coil 2 is,

• L2 is the self inductance of the coil.

• Voltage induced in coil 1 is,

• M is the mutual inductance between the 2 coils.

Mutual Inductance
• Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage
across a neighboring inductor.

• It is measured in henrys (H).

• The polarity of mutual voltage is determined by using dot covention.

• A dot is placed at one end of each coupled coils to indicate the direction of the
magnetic flux if current enters that dotted terminal of the coil.
 Magnetisation Curve
• The curve that shows the variation in magnetic flux density B with respect to
the variation in magnetic field intensity H in a ferromagnetic material.
 Hysteresis Loop
• A hysteresis loop shows the variation of the magnetic flux density (B) with respect to
the variation in magnetizing force (H).
• It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
Hysteresis Loop
• Retentivity – It is the ability of a material to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation.

• Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux – The magnetic flux density that

remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero.

• Coercive Force – The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be

applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero.
Leakage Flux
• The stray flux, which does not take part in the
energy conversion process, is called leakage
flux.

• This leakage flux can never be eliminated.

• The effect of leakage flux is incorporated in

machine models through the concept of the
leakage inductance.
 Fringing
• The flux in a magnetic circuit bulges (or fringes)
outwards while passing through an air-gap.

• This results in non-uniform flux density in the air-

gap, enlargement of air-gap area and reduction in
flux density in air-gap.

• This phenomenon is called fringing. The effect of

fringing increases with the increase in air-gap
length.
Properties of Magnetic Materials
• All materials are classified according to their relative permeability.

Paramagnetic • µr slightly greater than 1

Diamagnetic • µr slightly lesser than 1

Ferro & • µr much higher than that of

Ferrimagnetic free space
Properties of Magnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials are further subdivided into hard and soft.

Hard
Soft
(Per. Magnet)

• Alnico • Iron and its alloys

• Chromium steel with nickel, cobalt,
• Copper nickel tungsten and
alloys aluminium
• Metal alloys
• A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a
circular shape as shown in figure below. It is then wound with 600
turns of wire. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0.5
mWb in the magnetic circuit in the following cases:

(i) no air – gap

(ii) with an air-gap of 1 mm

(µr of iron = 4000)

(i) No Air-Gap

𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝑯𝒄 𝒍𝒄 0.5 × 10−3 × 30 × 10−2

𝑖=
600. 𝜋. 1 × 10−2 2 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 4000
𝑩
𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝒍𝒄
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓
𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑨
𝝓. 𝒍𝒄
𝑵. 𝒊 =
𝑨. 𝝁𝟎 . 𝝁𝒓

𝝓. 𝒍𝒄
𝒊=
𝑵. 𝑨. 𝝁𝟎 . 𝝁𝒓
 (ii) With Air-Gap
𝑁. 𝑖 = 𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐 + 𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝜙 𝑙𝑐
𝑖= + 𝑙𝑔
𝐵 𝐵 𝑁. 𝐴. 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝑁. 𝑖 = 𝑙𝑐 + 𝑙𝑔
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
0.5 × 10−3 30 × 10−2
𝑖= + 1 × 10−3
𝐵 𝑙𝑐 600. 𝜋. 1 × 10−2 2 4𝜋 × 10−7 4000
𝑁. 𝑖 = + 𝑙𝑔
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟

𝜙 𝑙𝑐 𝒊 = 𝟐. 𝟐 𝑨
𝑁. 𝑖 = + 𝑙𝑔
𝐴. 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
The magnetic circuit has dimensions: AC = 4 X 4 cm2, lg = 0.06
cm, lc = 40 cm and N = 600 turns. Assume the value of µr =
6000 for iron. Find the exciting current for BC = 1.2 T and the
corresponding flux and flux linkages.
Solution
Types of Induced EMF
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF is
induced by changing the flux linkages in a coil. It can happen in two ways.

• EMF is induced either “moving the coil and keeping the magnetic field
stationary” or “moving the magnetic field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF is induced by changing the flux linking with a coil without moving
either coil or magnetic field system.
Dynamically Induced EMF

• “Moving the coil and keeping the magnetic field stationary” or

“moving the magnetic field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF induced by this way is called dynamically induced emf.

 Dynamically Induced EMF
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑑𝑥

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥

• According to Faraday’s law,

𝑑𝜙 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = = = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Since dx/dt=velocity
 Dynamically Induced EMF
• Now the conductor moves at an angle ϴ with the direction of magnetic field.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• According to Faraday’s law,

𝑑𝜙 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = = = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑣. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Statically Induced EMF
• EMF induced in a coil when both the coil and magnetic field system
are stationary but the magnetic flux linking with the coil changes is
called statically induced emf.
Types of Statically Induced EMF
• Self – Induced e.m.f.

• Mutually Induced e.m.f.

Self Induced EMF

• Self-induced e.m.f. is the e.m.f.

induced in a coil due to its
own changing flux linked with it.
Self Induced EMF
• Direction of induced voltage is such that it opposes the cause
producing it.

• Rate of change of flux depends on rate of change of current.

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑒∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• L is the self inductance of the coil.

 Mutually Induced EMF

• Mutually induced e.m.f. is the e.m.f.

induced in a coil due to the change
of flux produced by another coil
(kept close) linking with it.
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
In order to develop the mathematical model of a transformer, it is convenient to
visualise a circuit element termed the “ideal” transformer by making certain
assumptions in the realistic transformer. These assumptions only introduce
insignificant model errors and are as follows:
➢ The transformer windings are resistance-less. This in effect means that ohmic
power losses and resistance voltage drops in the actual transformer are neglected.
➢ The transformer core material has infinite permeability so that it requires zero
mmf to create flux in the core.
➢ The leakage flux is negligible, i.e. no reactive voltage drops in windings.
➢ The transformer core losses are negligible.
Transformer
Transformer Core:
Transformer Core:
Transformer EMF equation:
Example1. A 1-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The
net cross sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary is connected to a 50 Hz
supply at 500 V, determine (a) the peak value of the flux density in the core and (b)
the voltage induced in the secondary winding :

Bm = 0.938 Wb/m2 and 1250 volt

Example 2. A single phase 50 Hz core type transformer has core of cross section area
400 sq. cms. The permissible maximum flux density is 1 Wb!m2. Calculate the
number of turns per limb on the high and low voltage sides for a 3000 / 220v ratio.

N1 = 338 turns and N2 = 26

Transformation Ratio:
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER : Transformer being a static device, the
friction and windage losses are absent. There are mainly two types of losses in a
transformer as mentioned earlier
(i) Copper loss and
(ii) Core loss or iron loss. Iron loss is further divided into two (a) hysteresis loss
and (b) eddy current loss.
(i) Copper loss. This is due to the flow of current through the conductors of the
winding i.e. it is an ohmic loss I2 R where R is the resistance of the conductor.
(ii) (a) Hysteresis loss. This is caused by similar to molecular friction as the
ultimate particles of the core tend to align themselves first in one direction, then
in the other, as the magnetic flux alternates periodically
 Hysteresis Loss
• Some amount of power has to be spent to reverse the molecular magnets
in the armature core continuously.
• It is considered as loss.
• The loss of power in the core due to hysteresis effect is called hysteresis
loss.
 Hysteresis Loss
• It is given by Steinmetz formula.
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.6 𝑓 𝑣 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒/𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝐾ℎ = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑧 ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

• To reduce this loss, the magnetic core is made of such materials which
have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.
 Eddy Current Loss
• In addition to the voltages induced in the conductors, there are also
voltages induced in the magnetic core.
• These voltages produce circulating currents in the core.
 Eddy Current Loss
• It is given by
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 𝑣 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
𝐾𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Example 2 A single phase transformer has 1 80 and 90 turns respectively in its secondary and primary windings. The
respective resistances are 0.233 Q and 0.067 ohm. Calculate the equivalent resistance of (a) the primary in terms of
the secondary winding (b) the secondary in terms of the primary winding and (c) the total resistance of the
transformer in terms of the primary.
Open-Circuit (OC) Test or No-Load Test :
The transformer is excited at rated voltage (and frequency) from one side
while the other side is kept open-circuited as shown in Fig. (a). It is usually
convenient to conduct such a test from the LV side. The circuit model under
open-circuit is drawn in Fig. (b);
• It is seen that the OC test yields (i) core loss, and (ii) parameters of the shunt branch of the transformer model.
• The OC test is usually conducted from the LV side as low voltage small current supply is needed for the test
Short-Circuit (SC) Test : This test determines the series parameters of the
transformer-circuit model. The transformer is shorted on one side and is excited from a
reduced voltage (rated frequency) source from the other side as shown in Fig. The
transformer circuit model under short-circuit conditions is drawn in Fig. (a). As the
primary current is limited only by the resistance and leakage reactance of the
transformer, Vsc needed to circulate full-load current is only of the order of 5–8% of
the rated voltage. At this reduced voltage, the exciting I0 which is 2 to 5% of the rated
current gets reduced to 5% of 2%, which is 0.1% to 8% of 5% = 0.4% of the rated
current.
For convenience of the supply voltage and current needed, the SC test is usually conducted from the HV side and the LV
side is short circuited. In conducting the SC test, as in Fig., the source voltage is gradually raised till the transformer
draws full-load current. The meter readings under these conditions are voltage (V) = VSC current (A) = ISC power input
(W) = PSC = I ^2 R loss or copper loss Pc (total in the two windings)
It is to be noted with caution that since the measurements have been
made on the HT side of the transformer, (R1 + R2) and (X1 + X2)
represent the total resistance and reactance respectively of the
transformer when referred to HT side. Similarly R0 and X0 as
measured using O.C. test are the quantities referred to LT side of the
transformer.
Calculate the values of R0, X0, R1 and X1 in the diagram for the equivalent circuit
of a single phase 4KV A, 200/1400 V , 50 Hz transformer of which the following are
the test results
0. C. test 200 V, 0. 7 A, 70 W on low voltage primary side
S. C. test 15 V, 10 A, 80 W on HT side.
A 50 kVA, 2200/220 V transformer when tested gave the following results:
OC test, measurements on LV side: 405 W, 5 A, 220 V
SC test, measurements on HV side: 805 W, 20.2 A, 95 V
(a) Draw the circuit model of the transformer referred to the HV and LV sides.
Label all the parameters.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER:
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power
and is denoted by ƞ i.e.

Since transformer is a static device it does not have rotational and windage loss and
hence the efficiency of a transformer, in general, is very high, being higher in units of
larger units than in smaller units.
VOLTAGE REGULATION :
Domestic, commercial and industrial loads demand a nearly constant voltage supply. It
is therefore essential that the output voltage of a transformer stays within narrow
limits as load and its power factor vary. The leakage reactance is the chief cause of
voltage drop in a transformer and must be kept as low as possible by design and
manufacturing techniques. The voltage regulation of a transformer at a given power
factor is defined as

where V2,fl is the full-load secondary voltage (it is assumed to be adjusted to the rated
secondary voltage) and V2o is the secondary voltage when the load is thrown off.