MTH 1204, CALCULUS III NOTES

Calculus III (part 1): Vectors in space, dot and scalar products

Jan, 2024
1 Vectors in Space

A vector in space has three components.

The plane is two-dimensional, and is often denoted by R2 . A space is three-dimensional and is

often denoted by R3 , that is, it requires three numbers to specify the position of the point in space.
For example, the location of a bird is specified not only by the two coordinates of the point on the
ground directly below it, but also by its height. Accordingly, we will associate an ordered triple
(x, y, z) with each point P in space as compared to a pair of real numbers (x, y) for each point
in the plane. The xy-plane consists points of the form (x, y, 0), the xz-plane consists of points of
the form (x, 0, z), and the yz-plane consists of points of the form (0, y, z). We will refer to these
planes as the coordinate planes. The first octant consists of points (x, y, z) such that x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
and z ≥ 0.

Example 1.1 Plot the point (1,2,-3).

Solution: We begin by plotting (1, 2, 0) in the xy- plane. Then we draw the line through this
point parallel to the z axis and measure 3 units downward.

1.1 The Algebra of Ordered Triples

Addition and scalar multiplication are defined for ordered triples just as for pairs.

1. If (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are ordered triples of real numbers, the ordered triple (x1 +
x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) is called their sum and is denoted by (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ).

2. If (x, y, z) is an ordered triple and r is a real number, the triple (rx, ry, rz) is called the
product of r and (x, y, z) and is denoted by r(x, y, z).

1
Example 1.2 Find (3, 2, −2) + (−1, −2, −1) and (−6)(2, −1, 1).

Solution: (3, 2, −2) + (−1, −2, −1) = (3 − 1, 2 − 2, −2 − 1) = (2, 0, −3) and (−6)(2, −1, 1) =
(−12, 6, −6).

Next, we look at vectors in space and the geometric objects which correspond to ordered triples.

1.2 Vectors in Space

A vector in space is a directed line segment in space and is drawn as an arrow. Two directed
line segments will be regarded as equal when they have the same length and direction. Vectors
are denoted by boldface symbols.e.g v. The vector represented by the arrow from a point P to a
−→
point Q is denoted P Q. If the arrows from P1 to Q1 and P2 to Q2 represent the same vectors, we
−−−→ −−−→
write P1 Q1 = P2 Q2 .

1.3 Vectors and Ordered Triples

(i) The algebra of vectors corresponds to the algebra of ordered triples.

(ii) If P has coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q has coordinates (x2 , y2 , z2 ), then the vector from P

−→
to Q denoted by P Q has components (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).

Example 1.3 (a) Sketch −2v, where v has components (−1, 1, 2).
(b) If v and w are any two vectors, show that v − 15 w and 5v − w are parallel.

Solution:

(a) The vector −2v is twice as long as v but points in the opposite direction. See Figure 1.

(b) Two vectors v and w are said to be parallel if and only if v = αw where α ∈ R. That is to
say, these are vectors which are multiples of one another. Now as v − 51 w = 15 (5v − w), the
two vectors are parallel.

Example 1.4

2
 Figure 1:

Let v be the vector with components (3, 2, −2) and let w be the vector from the point (2, 1, 3) to
the point (−1, 0, −1). Find v+w. Illustrate with a sketch.

Solution: Since w has components (−1, 0, −1) − (2, 1, 3) = (−3, −1, −4), we find that v+w has
components (3, 2, −2) + (−3, −1, −4) = (0, 1, −6), as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2:

To describe vectors in space, it is convenient to introduce three special vectors along the x, y, and
z axes.
i: the vector with components (1, 0, 0);
j: the vector with components (0, 1, 0);
k: the vector with components (0, 0, 1).
These standard basis vectors are illustrated in Figure 3. In the plane one has, analogously, i and
j with components (1, 0) and (0, 1). Let v be any vector, and let (a, b, c) be its components. Then

3
 Figure 3:

we can write v as v = ai+ bj + ck, since the right-hand side is given in components by

a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = (a, 0, 0) + (0, b, 0) + (0, 0, c) = (a, b, c).

This shows that we can express every vector as a sum of scalar multiples of i, j, and k.

Remark 1.1 The vectors i, j, and k in Figure 3 are unit vectors along the three coordinate
axes. If v has components (a, b, c), then v = ai + bj + ck.

Example 1.5

√
(a) Express the vector whose components are (e, 2π, − 7) in the standard basis,

(b) Express the vector v joining (2, 0, −1) to ( 35 , −π, 1) by using the standard basis.

Solution:

√
(a) v = ei + 2πj − 7k.

(b) The vector v has components ( 35 , −π, 1)−(2, 0, −1) = (− 57 , −π, 2), therefore v = − 75 i−πj+2k.

2 Lines and Distance

Algebraic operations on vectors can be used to solve geometric problems.

4
In this section we apply the algebra of vectors to the description of lines and planes in space
and to the solution of other geometric problems. The invention of analytic geometry made it
possible to solve geometric problems in the plane or space by reducing them to algebraic problems
involving number pairs or triples. Vector methods also convert geometric problems to algebraic
ones; moreover, the vector calculations are often simpler than those from analytic geometry, since
we do not need to write down all the components.

2.0.1 Parametric Equation of a Line: Point-Point Form

Suppose that we wish to find the equation of the line ℓ passing through the two points P and Q
−→ −→
as shown in Figure 4. Let O be the origin and let u and v be the vectors of OP and OQ as in
−→
Figure 1. Let R be an arbitrary point on ℓ and let w be the vector OR. Since R is on the line
−→ −→
ℓ, the vector w − u = P R is a multiple of the vector v − u = P Q, that is, w − u = t(v − u) for
some number t. This gives
w = u + t(v − u) = (1 − t)u + tv.
The coordinates of the points P, Q, and R are the same as the components of the vectors u, v and
w respectively and, so we obtain the parametric equation for the line ℓ as
R = (1 − t)P + tQ.

Figure 4:

Definition 2.1 The equation of the line ℓ through the points P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
is
R = (1 − t)P + Q.

In coordinate form, we obtain the three equations

x = (1 − t)x1 + tx2

5
 y = (1 − t)y1 + ty2
z = (1 − t)z1 + tz2
where R = (x, y, z) is the typical point of ℓ, and the parameter t takes on all real values.

Example 2.1

Find the equation of the line through the points (2, 1, −3) and (6, −1, −5).

Solution: We have P = (2, 1, −3) and Q = (6, −1, −5), so

(x, y, z) = R = (1 − t)P + tQ = (1 − t)(2, 1, −3) + t(6, −1, −5)

= (2 − 2t, 1 − t, −3 + 3t) + (6t, −t, −5t)
(x, y, z) = (2 + 4t, 1 − 2t, −3 − 2t).

or
x = 2 + 4t, y = 1 − 2t, z = −3 − 2t.

2.0.2 Parametric Equation of a Line: Point-Direction Form

We can also ask for the equation of the line which passes through a given point P in the direction
−→
of a given vector d. A point R lies on the line if and only if the vector P R is a multiple of d. Thus
−→
we can describe all points R on the line by P R = td for some number t. As t varies, R moves on
−→ −→ −→
the line; when t = 0, R coincides with the point P . Since P R = OR − OP , we can rewrite the
−→ −→
equation as OR = OP + td. This reasoning leads to the following conclusion.

Definition 2.2 The equation of the line ℓ through the points P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and pointing in the

−→ −→ −→
direction of the vector d = ai + bj + ck is P R = td or equivalently OR = OP + td.

In coordinate form, one has the three equations

x = x0 + at

y = y0 + bt
z = z0 + ct
where R = (x, y, z) is a point on the line ℓ, and the parameter t takes on all real values.

6
Example 2.2

(a) Find the equations of the line in space through the point (3, −1, 2) in the direction 2i−3j+4k.

(b) Find the equation of the line in the plane through the point (1, −6) in the direction of 5i − πj.

(c) In what direction does the line x = −3t + 2, y = −2(t − 1), z = 8t + 2 point?

Solution:

(a) Note that P = (3, −1, 2) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and d = 2i − 3j + 4k, so a = 2, b = −3, and c = 4. Thus
the equations are
x = 3 + 2t, y = −1 − 3t; z = 2 + 4t.

(b) Here P = (1, −6) and d = 5i − πj. so the line is

R = (1, −6) + (5t, −πt) = (1 + 5t, −6 − πt).

or
x = 1 + 5t, y = −6 − πt.

(c) We construct the direction d = ai+bj+ck from the coefficients of t. This gives a = −3, b = −2,
and c = 8. Thus the line points in the direction of d = −3i − 2j + 8k.

Example 2.3

(a) Do the lines R1 = (t, −6t + 1, 2t − 8) and R2 = (3t + 1, 2t, 0) intersect?

(b) Find the equation of the line segment between (1, 1, 1) and (2, 1, 2).

Solution:

(a) If the lines R1 and R2 intersect, there must be real numbers t1 , and t2 such that the corre-
sponding points are equal:

(t1 , −6t1 + 1, 2t1 − 8) = (3t2 + 1, 2t2 , 0),

i.e.,
t1 = 3t2 + 1 − 6t1 + 1 = 2t2 , 2t1 − 8 = 0.
From the third equation we have t1 = 4. The first equation then becomes 4 = 3t2 + 1 or t2 = 1.
We must check whether these values satisfy the middle equation: i.e., is −6t1 + 1 = 2t2 ? This is
the same as saying is −24 + 1 = 2? The answer is no; therefore the lines do not intersect.

7
(b) The line through (1, 1, 1) and (2, 1, 2) is described in parametric form by

R = (1 − t)(1, 1, 1) + t(2, 1, 2) = (1 + t, 1, 1 + t),

as t takes on all real values. However, the point R lies between (1, 1, 1) and (2, 1, 2) only when
0 ≤ t ≤ 1, so the line segment is described by

R = (1 + t, 1, 1 + t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

2.0.3 Length of a vector

Since all the line segments representing a given vector v = ai + bj + ck have the same length, we
may define the length of v to be the length of any of these segments.

Figure 5:

−→
To calculate the length of v, it is convenient to use the segment OR, where P = (a, b, c),(see Figure
5 so that the length of v is just the distance from (0, 0, 0) to (a, b, c). We apply the Pythagorean
theorem twice to calculate this distance as follows. √
Let Q = (a, b, 0) and R = (a, 0, 0). Then |0R| = |a| and RQ = |b|, so |OQ| = a2 + b2 . Now
|QP | = |c|, so applying Pythagoras’ theorem again, this time to the right triangle OQP , we obtain
|OP | = c . We denote the length of a vector v by ∥v∥ and is sometimes called the magnitude of
v as well.

Definition 2.3

The length ∥v∥ of a vector v is the square root of the sum of the squares of the components of v:
√
∥v∥ = ∥ai + bj + ck∥ = a2 + b2 + c2 .

Example 2.4

8
(a) Find the length of v = 2i − 6j + 7k.

(b) Find the values of c for which ∥i + j + ck∥ = 4.

Solution 2.1

p √
(a) ∥v∥ = ∥2i − 6j + 7k∥ = 22 + (−6)2 + 72 = 89.

√ √ √
(b) ∥i + j + ck∥ = 12 + 12 + c2 = 2 + c2 = 4 ⇒ 2 + c2 = 16 ⇒ c = ± 14.

2.0.4 Properties of length

If u, v, w are any vectors and r is any number:

(1) ∥u∥ ≥ 0;

(2) ∥u∥ = 0 if and only if u = 0;

(3) ∥ru∥ = |r|∥u∥;

(4) ∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥;

(5) ∥w − v∥ ≥ |∥w∥ − ∥v∥|

Solution 2.2

Proof of (4) & (5). In terms of vectors, the law of cosines states that

∥w − v∥2 = ∥v∥2 + ∥w∥2 − 2∥v∥∥w∥ cos θ, (1)

where θ is the angle between the vectors v and w, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. In particular, since cos θ ≤ 1, we
get from equation (1) that

∥w − v∥2 ≥ ∥v∥2 + ∥w∥2 − 2∥v∥∥w∥ = (∥w∥ − ∥v∥)2 (2)

√
Taking square roots and remembering that x2 = |x|, we get

∥w − v∥ ≥| ∥w∥ − ∥v∥ | .

Hence

−(∥w − v∥) ≤ ∥w∥ − ∥v∥ ≤ ∥w − v∥.

9
In particular, from the right-hand inequality, we get

∥w∥ ≤ ∥w − v∥ + ∥v∥,

that is, the length of one side of a triangle is less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of the
other sides. If we write u = w − v, then w = u + v, and the inequality above takes the useful
form
∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥,
which is called the triangle inequality.

Definition 2.4

A vector u is called a unit vector if its length is equal to 1. If v is any nonzero vector, ∥v∥ =
̸ 0
1
then we can obtain a unit vector pointing in the direction of v by taking u = ∥v∥ v. In fact,

1 1
∥u∥ = || v|| = ∥v∥ = 1.
∥v∥ ∥v∥

We call u the normalization of v.

Example 2.5

(a) Verify the triangle inequality for u = i + j and v = 2i − j + k.

(b) Normalize v = 2i + 3j − 12 k.

Solution:

(a) QED. We just need to show that ∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥.

p
(b) ∥v∥ = 22 + 32 + 1/22 = 2√153 . So the normalization of v is u = 1
∥v∥
v = √4 i
53
+ √6 j
53
− √1 k.
53

2.0.5 Distance between any two points in space.

We can use the formula for the length of vectors to obtain a formula for the distance between any
two points in space as follows.

Definition 2.5 If P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ), then the distance between P1 and P2 is
the length of the vector from P2 to P1 , that is,
p
∥P2 P1 ∥ = ∥(x1 − x2 )i + (y1 − y2 )j + (z1 − z2 )k∥ = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 .

10
Example 2.6

(a) Find the distance between (2, 1, 0) and (3, −2, 6).
(b) Let Pt = t(1, 1, 1).
(i) What is the distance from Pt to (3, 0, 0)?
(ii) For what value of t is the distance shortest?
(iii) What is the shortest distance?

Solution:
p √
(a) The distance is (2 − 3)2 + (1 − (−2))2 + (0 − 6)2 = 46.

p √
(b) (i) By using the distance formula, the distance is (t − 3)2 + (t − 0)2 + (t − 0)2 = 3t2 − 6t + 9.
d
(ii) The distance is shortest when 3t2 −6t+9 is least-that is, when dt
(3t2 −6t+9) = 6t−6 = 0,
i.e., when t = 1.
√
(iii) Now for t = 1, the distance in b (i) is 6.

3 The Dot Product

In this section we will introduce the dot product. This is an operation that assigns a real number
to pairs of vectors and enables us to measure the angle between them.

3.1 Angles between two vectors in terms of the their components

If v1 and v2 are two vectors, we know clearly from cosine rule that
∥v2 − v1 ∥2 = ∥v1 ∥2 + ∥v2 ∥2 − 2∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ cos θ,
where θ is the angle between v1 and v2 ; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. This implies that
2∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ cos θ = ∥v1 ∥2 + ∥v2 ∥2 − ∥v2 − v1 ∥2 . (3)
Let v1 = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v2 = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k, then the right-hand side of eqn (3) is
(a21 + b21 + c21 ) + (a22 + b22 + c22 ) − [(a1 − a2 )2 + (b1 − b2 )2 + (c1 − c2 )2 ] = 2(a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 ).
Substituting back into Equation (3) and simplifying gives
∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ cos θ = a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 . (4)
This very convenient formula enables us to compute cos θ and hence θ; thus the quantity on the
right-hand side deserves a special name.

11
Definition 3.1 If v1 = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v2 = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k, are two vectors, the number
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 is called their dot product and is denoted by v1 · v2 .

Remark 3.1 The dot product in the plane is defined analogously; just think of c1 and c2 as being
zero. Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a number, not a vector. It is sometimes called
the scalar product (do not confuse this with scalar multiplication) or the inner product.

Example 3.1

(a) If v1 = 3i + j − 2k and v2 = i − j + k, calculate v1 · v2 .

(b) Calculate (2i + j − k) · (3k − 2j).

Solution

(a) v1 · v2 = (3i + j − 2k) · (i − j + k) = 3(1) + 1(−1) + (−2)(1) = 3 − 1 − 2 = 0.

(b) (2i + j − k) · (3k − 2j) = 2(0) + 1(−2) + (−1)(3) = 0 − 2 − 3 = −5.

Combining formula (4) with the definition of the dot product gives

∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ cos θ = v1 · v2 . (5)

where θ is the angle between vectors v1 and v2 . We may solve (5) for cos θ to obtain

v1 · v2
cos θ = (6)
∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥

Example 3.2

(a) Find the angle between the vectors i + j + k and i + j − k, calculate v1 · v2 .

(b) Find the angle between 3i + j − 2k and i − j + k.

Solution

12
(a) (i + j + k) · (i + j − k) = 1(1) + 1(1) + (1)(−1) = 1 − 1 + 1 = 1.
√ √ p √
Also, ∥i + j + k∥ = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 and ∥i + j − k∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 = 3. From (6),
we get

v1 · v2 1 1
cos θ = = √ √ =
∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ ( 3)( 3) 3

Thus θ = cos−1 1


3
= 70.3 degrees.

(b) (3i + j − 2k) · (i − j + k) = 3(1) + 1(−1) + (−2)(1) = 3 − 1 − 2 = 0.

v1 · v2 0
cos θ = = √ √ = 0.
∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ ( 14)( 3)

Thus θ = cos−1 (0) = π2 .

Now, from (5) we get

|v1 · v2 | = ∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥| cos θ|.
However, since | cos θ| ≤ 1, so we have

|v1 · v2 | ≤ ∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥. (7)

Equation (7) a useful inequality called the Schwarz inequality (and sometimes the Cauchy-
Schwarz-Buniakowski inequality).

From either (4) or (5), we notice that if v = ai + bj + ck, then

v · v = a2 + b2 + c2 = ∥v∥2 .

Since two nonzero vectors are perpendicular when θ = π2 , i.e., when cos θ = 0, we have an
algebraic test for perpendicularity: The nonzero vectors v1 and v2 are perpendicular when
v1 · v2 = 0. (We adopt the convention that the zero vector is perpendicular to every vector.) The
synonyms ”orthogonal ” or ”normal ” are also used for ”perpendicular.”

Definition 3.2

AIgebraic definition: If v =< v1 , v2 > and w =< w1 , w2 > are two dimensional vectors, the dot
product v · w is the real number that is defined as

v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 .

13
If v =< v1 , v2 , v3 > and w =< w1 , w2 , w3 > are three dimensional vectors, the dot product v · w
is the real number that is defined as

v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + v3 w3 .

Geometric interpretation:
v1 · v2 = ∥v1 ∥∥v2 ∥ cos θ
where θ is the angle between v1 and v2 ; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. In particular, we can express the length of a
vector in terms of the product: √
∥v∥ = v · v.

3.2 Properties of dot product

For vectors u, v, w and a real number α, we have

(i) u · u ≥ 0, for any vector u.

(ii) u · u = 0 only if u = 0.

(iii) u · v = v · u.

(iv) (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w.

(v) (αu) · v = a(u · v).

(vi) |u · v| ≤ ∥u∥∥v∥ (Schwarz inequality).

(vii) u and v are perpendicular when u · v = 0.

Example 3.3 Find a unit vector in the plane which is orthogonal to v = i − 3j.

Solution: If w = ai + bj is perpendicular to i − 3j, we must have 0 = v · w = a − 3b; that is,

a = 3b. If w is to be a unit vector, we must also have 1 = a2 + b2 = (3b)2 + b2 = 10b2 , so b = ± √110

and a = ± √310 . Thus there are two possible solutions: b = ± √110 (3i + j) (See Figure 6).

Example 3.4

Let u and v be vectors in the plane; assume that u is nonzero.

14
 Figure 6:

(a) Show that

 
v·u
w=v− u
∥u∥2

is orthogonal to u.
(b) Sketch the vectors u, v, w and v − w. The vector

 
v·u
v−w = u
∥u∥2

is called the orthogonal projection of v on u. Why? (this vector is denoted by Proju (v).
and it is parallel to the vector u.
(c) Find the orthogonal projection of i + j on i − 2j.

Solution:

  
v·u
(a) We compute u · w = u · v − u.
∥u∥2

Now, using the algebraic properties of the dot product, we obtain that this is equal to

    
v·u v·u
u· v− u=u·v− u · u = u · v − u · v = 0.
∥u∥2 ∥u∥2

15
Therefore u · w = 0, hence w is orthogonal to u.

(b) We note that v − w is a multiple of u. Thus the configuration of vectors must be as in Figure
7. The vector v − w is called the orthogonal projection of v on u because it is obtained by
dropping a perpendicular from the ”tip” of v to the line determined by u. (The base points of u
and v must be the same for this construction.)

 
v·u
Figure 7: The vector v − w = ∥u∥2
u is the orthogonal projection of v on u.

(c) With u = i − 2j and v = i + j, the orthogonal projection of v on u is

 
v·u 1−2 1
u= (i − 2j) = − (i − 2j) .
∥u∥2 5 5

3.3 Distance from a point to a line

We can use the dot product to find the distance from a point Q = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the line ℓ which
passes through a point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and has the direction d = ai + bj + ck. Indeed, in Figure 8
the distance from Q to the line is the distance between Q and R, where R is chosen on ℓ in such
−→ −→ −→ −→
a way that P R and QR are orthogonal. Then P R is the orthogonal projection of P Q on the line
ℓ.

Thus, by the previous Example,

−→
−→ P Q · d a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 )
PR = d= d.
d·d a2 + b 2 + c 2

16
 Figure 8:

By Pythagoras’ theorem,

−→ −→ −→
q
∥RQ∥ = ∥P Q∥2 − ∥P R∥2
which gives

[a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 )]2

 
2 2 2
dist(Q, ℓ) = (x1 − x0 ) + (y1 − y0 ) + (z1 − z0 ) − (8)
a2 + b 2 + c 2

as the distance from Q to the line ℓ.

Example 3.5 Find the distance from (1, 1, 2) to the line through the point (2, 0, 0) in the direction
√1 i − √1 j.
2 2

Solution: In Formula (8), we set (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (1, 1, 2), (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (2, 0, 0) and obtain a, b, c
from ai + bj + ck = √12 i − √12 j to be a = √12 , b = − √12 , c = 0. Thus,

)1/2
[ √12 (1 − 2) − √1 (1)]2
(
2
dist(Q, ℓ) = (1 − 2)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 − 1 1 = (6 − 2)1/2 = 2.
2
+ 2

3.3.1 Equation of a plane

The dot product makes it simple to determine the equation of a plane. Suppose that a plane P
passes through a point P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is perpendicular to a vector n = Ai + Bj + Ck. (See
Figure 9).

17
 Figure 9:

Let P = (x, y, z) be a point on P . Then n must be perpendicular to the vector v from P0 to P ;

that is, n · v = 0, or

(Ai + Bj + Ck) · [(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k] = 0.

Hence
A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0.
We call n the normal vector of the plane. If we let D = −(Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ), then the equation
of the plane becomes
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.

Example 3.6 Find the equation of the plane through (1,1,1) with normal vector 2i + j − 2k.

Solution: Here Ai + Bj + Ck = 2i + j − 2k and (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (1, 1, 1), so we get

A(x − 1) + B(y − 1) + C(z − 1) = 0.

Hence
2(x − 1) + (y − 1) − 2(z − 1) = 0,
2x + y − 2z = 1.

Example 3.7 Find a unit normal vector to the plane 3x + y − z = 10.

Solution: A normal vector is obtained by making a vector out of the coefficients of x, y and z;
that is, < 3, 1, −1 >. Normalizing, we get

1 3 1 −1 1
√ < 3, 1, −1 >=< √ , √ , √ >= √ (3i + j − k).
9+1+1 11 11 11 11

18
Example 3.8

(a) Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (3, −1, −1) and perpendicular to the
vector i − 2j + k.

(b) Find the equation of the plane containing the points (1, 1, 1), (2, 0, 0), and (1, 1, 0).

Solution:
(a) Choosing the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (3, −1, −1) and components of the normal vector to be
A = 1, B = −2, C = 1 gives

1(x − 3) − 2(y + 1) + 1(z + 1) = 0

which simplifies to
x − 2y + z = 4.
(b) The general equation of a plane has the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0. Since the points
(1, 1, 1), (2, 0, 0), and (1, 1, 0) lie on the plane, the coefficients A, B, C, D satisfy the three equations:

A + B + C + D = 0, 2A + D = 0, A + B + D = 0.

Solving simultaneously if we let D = −2, then A = 1, B = 1, C = 0. Thus x + y − 2 = 0 is an

equation of the plane that contains the given points.

Example 3.9 Where does the line through the origin in the direction of i + j + 2k meet the plane
x + y + 2z = 5? Use your answer to find the distance from the origin to this plane.

Solution: The line has parametric equations x = t, y = t, z = 2t. It meets the plane when

x + y + 2z = t + t + 4t = 5

i.e., when t = 5/6. The point of intersection is thus P1 = (5/6, 5/6, 5/3).

−−→
The distance from the origin to the plane is the length of OP1 :

r √ √
−−→ 25 25 25 150 5 6
d = ∥OP1 ∥ = + + = = .
36 36 9 6 6

19
 Figure 10:

3.4 Distance from a point to a plane

Let A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0 be the equation of a plane P through the point
P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in space. We want to determine the distance from a point Q = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) in space
to the plane (see Figure 10). Consider the vector n = √Ai+Bj+Ck
A2 +B 2 +C 2
which is a unit vector normal to
the plane. Next drop a perpendicular from Q to the plane and construct the triangle P QR. The
−→ −→
distance d = RQ is the length of the projection of v = P Q (the vector from P to Q) onto n; thus

distance = |v · n| = |[(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k] · n|

|A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 )|

= √ .
A2 + B 2 + C 2

If the plane is given in the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, choose a point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on it and note
that D = −(Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ). Substituting in the previous formula gives

|Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D|

dist(Q, P ) = √ . (9)
A2 + B 2 + C 2

for the distance from the point Q to the plane P .

Example 3.10 Find the distance from Q = (2, 0, −1) to the plane P : 3x − 2y + 8z + 1 = 0.

20
Solution: We substitute into (9) the values x1 = 2, y1 = 0, z1 = −1 (from the point) and
A = 3, B = −2, C = 8, D = 1 (from the plane) to give

|3.2 + (−2).0 + 8(−) + 1| | − 1| 1

dist(Q, P ) = p = √ =√ .
32 + (−2)2 + 82 77 77

4 Cross Product

The dot product of two vectors is a scalar. In this section, we define another product of two
vectors: their cross product, which is a vector. Since our discussion requires basic familiarity
with 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 determinants, a quick look at these concepts in Linear Algebra will be helpful.

A determinant of order 2 is defined by

a1 a2
= a1 b 2 − a2 b 1
b1 b2

A determinant of order 3 is defined by

a1 a2 a3
b b b b b b
b1 b2 b3 = a1 2 3 −a2 1 3 +a3 1 2 = (a1 b2 c3 +a2 b3 c1 +a3 b1 c2 )−(a3 b2 c1 +a1 b3 c2 +a2 b1 c3 ).
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Definition 4.1

Definition. Let u = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and v = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ be two vectors in three dimension. Then their
cross product v × w is the vector

v × w = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.

The cross product is only defined for vectors with 3 components, and outputs another vector with
3 components. In contrast, the dot product is defined for vectors of any length, and outputs a
scalar.

A way to remember the cross product formula is the determinant formula

21
 i j k
a a a a a a
v×w = a1 a2 a3 = i 2 3 −j 1 3 +k 1 2 = (a2 b3 −a3 b2 )i+(a3 b1 −a1 b3 )j+(a1 b2 −a2 b1 )k.
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

In the last section we introduced a vector product which reveals information about angle; in this
section we will see a new vector product which gives us information about area.

The cross product of u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) is defined by expanding the following
‘determinant’ by minors along the first row:

i j k
u × v = u1 u2 u3 = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 )i − (u1 v3 − u3 v1 )j + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 )k.
v1 v2 v3

Note that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar, while the cross product of two vectors is
another vector. It turns out that this vector is orthogonal to both of the first two.

Example 4.1 Confirm that u × v is orthogonal to u and to v.

Solution: We compute u · (u × v) as follows:

⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩ · ⟨u2 v3 − u3 v2 , −(u1 v3 − u3 v1 ), u1 v2 − u2 v1 ⟩

= (u2 v3 − u3 v2 )u1 −(u1 v3 − u3 v1 )u2 + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 )u3
= 0.

This implies that u × v is orthogonal to u. In a similar way, swapping out u for v, we see that
u × v is orthogonal to v as well.

Alternatively, we could note that

u1 u2 u3
u · (u × v) = u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

and conclude that this determinant equals zero.

The following exercise provides the advertised connection to area. Recall from geometry that the
area of a parallelogram with sides of length a and b meeting at an angle θ is equal to ab sin θ.

22
Exercise 4.1 Verify that ∥ u × v ∥2 =∥ u ∥2 ∥ v ∥2 −(u · v)2 . Use this fact to show that
∥ u × v ∥=∥ u ∥∥ v ∥ sin θ,
where θ is the angle between u and v.

So to sum up: u×v is a vector which is orthogonal to both u and v and whose length is equal to
the area of the parallelogram spanned by u and v. Note that there are only two vectors satisfying
both of these conditions. To determine which one is u × v, we use the right-hand rule: imagine
orienting your right hand so that you can curl your fingers from u towards v. The direction of
your thumb (if it’s orthogonal to your fingers) is the direction of u × v.

Lemma 4.1 u × v is zero exactly if u and v are parallel, that is if u = λv for some real number
λ.

Proof: This follows immediately from the sine formula and the fact that sin(α) = 0 if α = 0 or
α = π.

Proposition 4.1 (Properties of Cross Products)

For any vectors u, v, v1 , v2 , w, and any scalar λ, the following properties hold:

1. The cross product of two vectors is orthogonal to both vectors: that is, u · (u × v) = 0 and
v · (v × u) = 0.
2. The cross product distributes over addition: (v1 + v2 ) × w = (v1 × w) + (v2 × w).
3. The cross product distributes through scaling: (λv) × w = λ(v × w) = v × (λw).
4. The dot product is anticommutative: (u × v) = −(v × u ). In particular, u × u = 0 for any
vector u.

Example 4.2 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are the points A(1, −1, 2), B(2, −3, 1),
and C(2, 2, 2).

Solution: By the Cross Product Theorem, the area of the triangle is A = 12 ||v × w||, where v
and w are vectors representing two sides of the triangle. We can take v = B − A = ⟨1, −2, −1⟩

i j k
and w = C − B = ⟨0, 5, 1⟩. Then v × w = 1 −2 −1 = 3i − 1j + 5k.
0 5 1

√ √
35
Thus, the area of the triangle is 21 ||3i − 1j + 5k|| = 1
2
9 + 1 + 25 = 2
.

23
4.0.1 Triple product, vector identities and other applications

The dot and cross multiplication of three vectors u,v,w may produce meaningful products of the
form (u · v)w, u · (v × w) and u × (v × w). The expression u · (v × w) is called the triple scalar
product while the expression u × (v × w) is called the triple vector product.

Note that

(i) u × (v × w) ̸= (u × v) × w except when any one of these vectors is zero.

(ii) u × (v × w) = (u · w)v − (u · v)w.
(iii)

u1 u2 u3
u · (v × w) = v · (u × w) = w · (u × v) = u · (u × v) = v1 v2 v3 .
w1 w2 w3

(iv) The triple scalar product has an important geometric interpretation. The magnitude of
the scalar triple product namely ∥ u · (v × w) ∥ is the volume of the paralellopiped whose
coterminal edges are given by u, v and w.
(v) The volume of a tetrahedron is one sixth that of a parallelopiped.

Properties of triple scalar product

(i) The absolute value of the triple scalar product does not depend on the order of the vectors
but the sign changes whenever two of the vectors are switched. u · (v × w) = −v · (u × v) =
v · (w × u).
(ii) i · (j × k) = 1.
(iii) If two of the vectors u,v or w are equal, the triple scalar product will be zero, that is, giving
a zero volume of the parallelopiped.

Exercise 4.2 Find the scalar triple product and vector triple product for the vectors ⟨3, 1, 0⟩,
⟨0, 0, 1⟩, and ⟨1, 1, −1⟩.

Exercise 4.3 Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by ⟨3, 4, 1⟩, ⟨−2, 4, 0⟩, and ⟨−5, 5, 2⟩.
(Hint: first find the area of the base, then figure out how to use dot products to find the height.)

Exercise 4.4 Cross product distributive property. Show that ⃗u × (⃗v + w)

⃗ = ⃗u × ⃗v + ⃗u × w,
⃗ if ⃗u, ⃗v ,
and w
⃗ are vectors.

24
Exercise 4.5 Find the volume of the paralellopiped whose coterminal edges are given by ⟨1, 2, 1⟩,
⟨2, 0, −4⟩, and ⟨0, −1, 2⟩.

Exercise 4.6 Compute the volume of a tetrahedron whose coterminal edges are given by ⟨1, 3, 0⟩,
⟨2, 1, −1⟩, and ⟨1, 1, −1⟩.

Exercise 4.7 Given the vectors ⟨1, 2, 2⟩, ⟨2, 0, 0⟩, and ⟨1, 2, λ⟩. Find the value of λ that will make
the three vectors coplanar.

25