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Define Heuristic Function. Explain A*Search Algorithm for minimizing the

total estimated solution cost.

Heuristic Function Definition

A heuristic function, h(n), is an estimate of the cost to reach the goal state from node
n. It is used in informed search algorithms to guide the search process effectively and
efficiently. A good heuristic function can significantly reduce the computational effort by
helping the algorithm prioritize the most promising paths.

Key points about heuristic functions:

1. Admissibility: A heuristic is admissible if it never overestimates the true cost to

reach the goal.
2. Consistency: A heuristic is consistent (monotonic) if for every node n and
successor n′, h(n)≤c(n,a,n′)+h(n′), where c(n,a,n′) is the cost to reach n′ from n
using action a.

A Search Algorithm*

The A search algorithm* is one of the most popular informed search methods. It
minimizes the total estimated solution cost by combining the actual cost g(n) to reach a
node and the estimated cost h(n) to get from that node to the goal. The evaluation
function is defined as:

f(n)=g(n)+h(n)
Where:

g(n): Cost from the start node to n.

h(n): Heuristic estimate of the cheapest cost from n to the goal.
f(n): Total estimated cost of the cheapest solution through n.

Steps of A Search Algorithm*

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 1. Initialization:

Place the start node into an open list (priority queue).

g(start)=0, h(start)= heuristic estimate to the goal.
2. Node Expansion:

Remove the node with the lowest f(n) value from the open list.
Add this node to the closed list (indicating it has been explored).
3. Goal Check:

If the current node is the goal, return the path and its cost.
4. Generate Successors:

For each successor n′ of the current node:

Compute g(n′)=g(n)+c(n,a,n′).
Compute f(n′)=g(n′)+h(n′).
If n′ is not in the open or closed list, add it to the open list.
If n′ is already in the open list and the new path is cheaper, update its
g(n′) and f(n′) values.
5. Repeat:

Continue the process until the goal node is found or the open list is empty.

Properties of A*

1. Optimality:

If h(n) is admissible, A* guarantees to find the optimal solution.

If h(n) is consistent, A* guarantees optimality for graph searches.
2. Completeness:

A* is complete, meaning it will always find a solution if one exists, provided

the branching factor is finite.

Advantages

Combines the strengths of uniform-cost search (g(n)) and greedy best-first search
(h(n)).
Finds the least-cost solution efficiently if the heuristic is well-designed.

Limitations

Memory-intensive as it maintains all nodes in memory (open and closed lists).

Computationally expensive for large search spaces with poor heuristics.

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Illustration of A Search*

Suppose the start node S, goal node G, and intermediate nodes A and B. The heuristic
values h and path costs c are given as:

Node h(n) Path c

S 6 -

A 4 2

B 2 3

G 0 1

Steps:

1. Start at S (f(S)=g(S)+h(S)=0+6=6).
2. Expand S and explore A and B.
f(A)=g(A)+h(A)=2+4=6,
f(B)=g(B)+h(B)=3+2=5.
3. Expand B (lower f(n)).
f(G)=g(G)+h(G)=4+0=4.
4. Expand G. The total cost g(G)=4.

Thus, the path S→B→G is optimal with cost 4.

With a neat diagram explain Knowledge based Agent

Knowledge-Based Agent

A Knowledge-Based Agent (KBA) operates by reasoning with knowledge it possesses

about its environment. It uses a Knowledge Base (KB) to store facts about the world
and applies inference mechanisms to derive new knowledge or make decisions. The
KBA architecture supports TELL (adding information to the KB) and ASK (querying
information from the KB) operations.

Structure of a Knowledge-Based Agent

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 1. Knowledge Base (KB):

A repository of facts and rules about the environment, expressed in a

knowledge representation language.
Contains axioms and percepts (information perceived by the agent).
2. Inference Mechanism:

Derives new knowledge from the existing KB using logical reasoning.

Example techniques: Modus Ponens, resolution, etc.
3. Perception:

Takes input from sensors about the environment and updates the KB using
TELL.
4. Action Execution:

Based on the knowledge in the KB, the agent decides the next action using
ASK and performs it through actuators.

Agent Workflow

1. Perceive: The agent perceives its environment and updates its KB with new
percepts.
2. Reason: The agent queries the KB to determine the best action based on its
knowledge and inference rules.
3. Act: The agent executes the chosen action and updates the KB with its effect.

Diagram of a Knowledge-Based Agent

Below is a simple diagram illustrating the components and workflow:

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 lua

+------------------------+
| Environment |
+------------------------+
|
Percepts
|
v
+------------------------+
| Sensors |
+------------------------+
|
+-------v--------+ +----------------------+
| TELL (KB) |<--------+ Knowledge Base (KB) |
+-------+--------+ +----------------------+
|
+---v---+ +-----------------+
| ASK |-------->+ Inference |
+---+---+ +-----------------+
|
Decision
|
v
+------------------------+
| Actuators |
+------------------------+
|
Actions
|
v
+------------------------+
| Environment |
+------------------------+

Example: Wumpus World

In the Wumpus World problem, the agent uses its KB to safely navigate a cave with
hazards (e.g., pits and a Wumpus) while searching for gold.

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 1. Initial Knowledge:

The agent knows its starting position is safe.

It uses rules like:
"If a square is breezy, then there is a pit in an adjacent square."
2. Perception:

Sensors detect conditions such as breeze, stench, or glitter.

3. Inference:

If the agent perceives a stench, it infers that the Wumpus must be in an

adjacent square.
4. Action:

The agent decides to move, grab the gold, or shoot the Wumpus based on its
KB.

This illustrates how a KBA uses TELL to update its knowledge and ASK to decide on
actions.

Explain Wampus world problem in detail;

Wumpus World Problem

The Wumpus World Problem is a classic AI problem used to illustrate the concepts of
knowledge-based agents, logic, and reasoning. It involves navigating a grid-like cave
environment while avoiding hazards to achieve a goal.

Environment Setup

The Wumpus world is represented as a 4x4 grid of rooms.

The agent starts at the bottom-left corner (square [1,1]).
The grid contains:
Wumpus: A monster that kills the agent if entered.
Pits: Bottomless pits where the agent falls and dies.
Gold: A treasure the agent must find and retrieve.
Empty spaces: Safe rooms with no hazards.

Goal of the Agent

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The agent's goal is to:

1. Locate the gold.

2. Avoid falling into pits or being eaten by the Wumpus.
3. Exit the cave safely after obtaining the gold.

Performance Measures
+1000: Reward for finding and exiting with the gold.
-1000: Penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into a pit.
-10: Penalty for shooting an arrow.
-1: Penalty for each step taken.

Percepts

The agent's sensors provide percepts that help it infer the state of the environment.
Each percept is based on the current room:

1. Stench: Detects Wumpus in adjacent rooms (not diagonal).

2. Breeze: Detects pits in adjacent rooms.
3. Glitter: Indicates gold in the current room.
4. Bump: Indicates hitting a wall.
5. Scream: Indicates the Wumpus has been killed (heard globally).

Actions
The agent can perform the following actions:

Move forward: Navigate to an adjacent room.

Turn left/right: Change direction.
Grab: Pick up gold.
Shoot: Fire an arrow in the current direction to kill the Wumpus (limited to one
arrow).
Climb: Exit the cave (only from [1,1]).

Key Properties of the Wumpus World

1. Partially Observable: The agent perceives only local information.

2. Deterministic: The outcomes of actions are predictable.
3. Sequential: The order of actions matters.
4. Static: The environment does not change except for the Wumpus' death.

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 5. Discrete: The grid world is finite and well-defined.

PEAS Description (Performance, Environment, Actuators, Sensors)

Aspect Description

Performance Maximize score by finding gold and exiting safely while avoiding
penalties.

Environment 4x4 grid, hazards (pits, Wumpus), gold, agent starting at [1,1].

Actuators Move forward, turn, grab, shoot, climb.

Sensors Detect stench, breeze, glitter, bump, and scream.

Agent’s Reasoning Process

The agent uses a knowledge base (KB) and logical inference to decide its actions. It
performs the following steps iteratively:

1. Perceive: Sense the current room's conditions.

2. Update KB: Use percepts to update the knowledge base.
3. Infer: Use logical rules to deduce safe rooms or hazards.
4. Decide: Choose the next action based on the updated KB.
5. Act: Execute the chosen action.

Example Execution

Step 1: Initial State

Agent starts at [1,1].

Percepts: No stench, no breeze, no glitter.
KB: [1,1] is safe. Adjacent rooms [2,1] and [1,2] are candidates for exploration.

Step 2: Move to [2,1]

Percepts: Breeze detected.

KB: A pit must be in one of the adjacent rooms ([3,1] or [2,2]).

Step 3: Move to [1,2]

Percepts: Stench detected.

KB: Wumpus must be in one of the adjacent rooms ([1,3] or [2,2]).

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Step 4: Infer and Act

The agent uses logical reasoning to identify safe rooms.

If gold is found, the agent grabs it.
If the Wumpus is in a deduced room, the agent can shoot it (if necessary).

Step 5: Exit Safely

The agent backtracks to [1,1] and climbs out.

Diagram of the Wumpus World

Below is a visual representation:

diff

+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | W | | |
| | | | |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | | P | |
| | | | |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | | | |
| G | | | |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| A | | | |
| | | | |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+

A: Agent's initial position.

G: Gold.
P: Pit.
W: Wumpus.

Key Takeaways

The Wumpus World demonstrates logical reasoning, inference, and decision-

making under uncertainty.

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 It serves as a benchmark problem for evaluating knowledge-based agents.

Explain Propositional Logic syntax and Semantics with suitable example.

Propositional Logic Syntax and Semantics

Propositional logic is a formal system used in AI for reasoning. It represents statements

that can either be true or false.

Syntax of Propositional Logic

The syntax defines the rules for constructing valid sentences in propositional logic.

Components of Syntax

1. Atomic Sentences:

Single proposition symbols that represent basic facts.

Examples: P, Q, W1,3 (Wumpus is in room [1,3]).
2. Complex Sentences:

Constructed by combining atomic sentences with logical connectives.

Logical Connectives:
Negation (¬): Denotes NOT. Example: ¬P means P is false.
Conjunction (∧): Denotes AND. Example: P∧Q means both P and Q
are true.
Disjunction (∨): Denotes OR. Example: P∨Q means at least one of P
or Q is true.
Implication (⇒): Denotes IF-THEN. Example: P⇒Q means if P is true,
then Q must also be true.
Biconditional (⇔): Denotes IF AND ONLY IF. Example: P⇔Q means
P is true if and only if Q is true.
3. Parentheses:

Used to enforce precedence. For example: (P∨Q)∧R.

Semantics of Propositional Logic

The semantics defines how the truth value of sentences is determined based on the
truth values of the atomic propositions.

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Truth Values

Each proposition P has a truth value: True (T) or False (F).

The truth of complex sentences is determined using truth tables for logical
connectives.

Truth Tables for Logical Connectives

P Q ¬P P∧Q P∨Q P⇒Q P⇔Q

T T F T T T T

T F F F T F F

F T T F T T F

F F T F F T T

Example: Wumpus World

Scenario

W1,3​: "There is a Wumpus in room [1,3]."

B1,2​: "There is a breeze in room [1,2]."
P2,2​: "There is a pit in room [2,2]."

Syntax

¬W1,3​: "There is no Wumpus in room [1,3]."

B1,2​⇒(P1,3​∨P2,2​): "If there is a breeze in room [1,2], then there is a pit in room
[1,3] or [2,2]."
W1,3​∨W2,2​: "There is a Wumpus in room [1,3] or [2,2]."

Semantics

Given the model:

W1,3​=F, B1,2​=T, P2,2​=T,

B1,2​⇒(P1,3​∨P2,2​) is true because B1,2​=T and (P1,3​∨P2,2​)=T (since P2,2​=T).

Key Takeaways

1. Syntax defines how to construct sentences in propositional logic.

2. Semantics defines how to interpret the truth of these sentences in a specific
situation.

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 3. Propositional logic enables reasoning by combining atomic facts with logical rules.

Explain the Knowledge–based agents with an algorithm and explain the

TELL and ASK functions used for same.

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Knowledge-Based Agents (KBA)

A Knowledge-Based Agent uses a Knowledge Base (KB) and inference mechanisms
to decide actions based on information about the environment. It is designed to perceive
the environment, update its knowledge, and make decisions through reasoning.

Key Components
1. Knowledge Base (KB):

A repository of knowledge in the form of facts and rules.

Facts are specific observations or truths about the environment.
Rules are logical statements that enable inference (e.g., A∧B⇒C).
2. Inference Mechanism:

Derives new facts from the existing KB using logical reasoning (e.g., Modus
Ponens, resolution).
3. TELL and ASK Functions:

TELL: Adds new information to the KB.

ASK: Queries the KB to infer new knowledge or decide the next action.
4. Sensors and Actuators:

Sensors provide percepts about the environment.

Actuators execute actions based on the agent's decisions.

Algorithm for a Knowledge-Based Agent

The agent works in a loop, performing three main steps: PERCEIVE, REASON, and
ACT.

Algorithm: Knowledge-Based Agent

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 sql

1. Initialize KB with prior knowledge.

2. LOOP:
a. Perceive the environment.
- Get percepts from sensors.
b. Update the KB using TELL.
- TELL(KB, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE(percept, time)).
c. Decide the next action using ASK.
- Action := ASK(KB, MAKE-ACTION-QUERY(time)).
d. Execute the action.
- Perform action using actuators.
e. Update KB with the chosen action.
- TELL(KB, MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE(action, time)).

Explanation of TELL and ASK Functions

1. TELL Function

Purpose: Updates the KB with new information (e.g., observations, actions).

Input: A fact or percept sentence.
Example:
If the agent perceives a breeze in room [1,2], it uses TELL(KB, Breeze([1,2]))
to add this to the KB.
This enables the KB to reason that there might be a pit in adjacent rooms.

2. ASK Function

Purpose: Queries the KB to infer information or decide actions.

Input: A query sentence.
Output: Answer derived through inference.
Example:
The agent queries ASK(KB, Safe([2,2])) to determine if room [2,2] is safe to
enter.

Practical Example: Wumpus World

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Scenario

The agent starts in room [1,1].

Observes no breeze or stench
(TELL(KB, Percept([1,1], \negBreeze \land\negStench))).
Infers that adjacent rooms ([1,2], [2,1]) are safe (ASK(KB, Safe([1,2]))).

Execution Flow

1. PERCEIVE:

Agent perceives no breeze or stench at [1,1].

Updates the KB: TELL(KB, Percept([1,1], \negBreeze \land\negStench)).
2. REASON:

Agent queries if [1,2] is safe: ASK(KB, Safe([1,2])).

KB infers that [1,2] is safe since no hazards are adjacent.
3. ACT:

Agent moves to [1,2]: TELL(KB, Action(Move([1,2]))).

Advantages of TELL and ASK

1. Modularity:
New facts and rules can be added easily.
2. Reasoning Power:
Combines existing knowledge to derive new facts.
3. Dynamic Updates:
Percepts and actions dynamically modify the KB.

Conclusion

The Knowledge-Based Agent framework, along with TELL and ASK functions, enables
intelligent decision-making by combining logical reasoning and dynamic knowledge
updates. It is highly effective in complex, partially observable environments like the
Wumpus World.

Considering Wumpus world example give the characteristics and simple

knowledge base using propositional logic and Prove that Wumpus is in the
room (1, 3).

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Characteristics of Wumpus World

1. Partially Observable:

The agent only perceives local information (adjacent rooms).

2. Deterministic:

Outcomes of actions are predictable and predefined (e.g., moving to a room,

shooting an arrow).
3. Sequential:

The agent's actions depend on the order and history of previous actions.
4. Static:

The environment does not change except for the Wumpus being killed.
5. Discrete:

The environment consists of a finite grid (4x4), with clearly defined rooms.

Knowledge Base for Wumpus World

The knowledge base (KB) contains facts and rules about the environment. These are
represented in propositional logic.

Atomic Propositions:

Wi,j​: There is a Wumpus in room (i,j).

Si,j​: The agent perceives a stench in room (i,j).
Pi,j​: There is a pit in room (i,j).
Bi,j​: The agent perceives a breeze in room (i,j).
OKi,j​: Room (i,j) is safe.

Rules:

1. A room is breezy if and only if a pit is in an adjacent room:

Bi,j​⇔(Pi−1,j​∨Pi+1,j​∨Pi,j−1​∨Pi,j+1​)
2. A room is stenched if and only if a Wumpus is in an adjacent room:

Si,j​⇔(Wi−1,j​∨Wi+1,j​∨Wi,j−1​∨Wi,j+1​)
3. The Wumpus exists in exactly one room:

W1,1​∨W1,2​∨⋯∨W4,4​
(and only one of these is true).

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 4. Adjacent rooms to a non-stenched room cannot contain the Wumpus:

¬Si,j​⇒(¬Wi−1,j​∧¬Wi+1,j​∧¬Wi,j−1​∧¬Wi,j+1​)

Prove that Wumpus is in Room (1,3)

Given Information:

1. S1,2​: The agent perceives a stench in room (1,2).

2. ¬S2,1​: The agent does not perceive a stench in room (2,1).
3. Wumpus exists in only one room.

Logical Steps:

1. Stench Rule for Room (1,2):

Using the stench rule:

S1,2​⇔(W1,1​∨W1,3​∨W2,2​)
Since S1,2​is true, we know:
W1,1​∨W1,3​∨W2,2​
2. No Stench in Room (2,1):

Using the non-stench rule for S2,1​:

¬S2,1​⇒(¬W1,1​∧¬W2,2​∧¬W3,1​)
Since ¬S2,1​is true, we know:
¬W1,1​∧¬W2,2​∧¬W3,1​
3. Simplify the KB:

From step 1: W1,1​∨W1,3​∨W2,2​.

From step 2: ¬W1,1​and ¬W2,2​.
Substituting into step 1:
W1,3​
4. Conclusion:

The Wumpus is in room (1,3).

Final KB Representation
1. S1,2​: True (percept in room [1,2]).
2. ¬S2,1​: True (percept in room [2,1]).
3. S1,2​⇔(W1,1​∨W1,3​∨W2,2​).
4. ¬S2,1​⇒(¬W1,1​∧¬W2,2​∧¬W3,1​).

The agent uses this reasoning to safely infer that the Wumpus is in room (1,3).

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Solution using A Search Algorithm*

Given:

1. Heuristic values:
a=14, b=12, c=11, d=6, e=4, f=11, z=0
2. Costs (edges):
Costs are labeled on the graph edges.

Steps for A*:

Terminology:

1. g(n): Cost from start node to node n.

2. h(n): Heuristic value of node n.
3. f(n)=g(n)+h(n): Total estimated cost.

Initialization:
1. Start: a
2. Goal: z
3. Open List: [a] (nodes to be explored)
4. Closed List: [] (nodes already explored)

Step 1: Explore Node a

1. g(a)=0, h(a)=14, f(a)=g(a)+h(a)=14.

2. Expand a: Neighbors are b,c:
f(b)=g(a)+cost(a,b)+h(b)=0+4+12=16.
f(c)=g(a)+cost(a,c)+h(c)=0+3+11=14.

Open List: [c,b] (sorted by f(n))

Closed List: [a]

Step 2: Explore Node c

1. g(c)=3, h(c)=11, f(c)=14.

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 2. Expand c: Neighbors are b,d,e:
f(b)=g(c)+cost(c,b)+h(b)=3+12+12=27 (already in Open List, no update).
f(d)=g(c)+cost(c,d)+h(d)=3+7+6=16.
f(e)=g(c)+cost(c,e)+h(e)=3+10+4=17.

Open List: [d,e,b]

Closed List: [a,c]

Step 3: Explore Node d

1. g(d)=10, h(d)=6, f(d)=16.

2. Expand d: Neighbors are e:
f(e)=g(d)+cost(d,e)+h(e)=10+2+4=16 (update e).

Open List: [e,b]

Closed List: [a,c,d]

Step 4: Explore Node e

1. g(e)=12, h(e)=4, f(e)=16.

2. Expand e: Neighbors are f,z:
f(f)=g(e)+cost(e,f)+h(f)=12+5+11=28.
f(z)=g(e)+cost(e,z)+h(z)=12+4+0=16.

Open List: [z,b,f]

Closed List: [a,c,d,e]

Step 5: Explore Node z

1. g(z)=16, h(z)=0, f(z)=16.

2. Goal reached.

Final Solution Path:

Start from a: a→c→d→e→z.
Total cost: g(z)=16.

Open and Closed Lists at Each Step

Step Open List Closed List

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Step Open List Closed List

1 [c,b] [a]

2 [d,e,b] [a,c]

3 [e,b] [a,c,d]

4 [z,b,f] [a,c,d,e]

5 Goal Reached (z) [a,c,d,e,z]

In the below graph, find the path from A to G. Using Greedy Best First
search and A* search algorithm. The values in the table represent heuristic
values of reaching the goal node G pass current node.

Solution

Given:

1. Graph:
Nodes: A,B,C,D,E,F,G.
Directed edges are labeled in the graph.
2. Heuristic Values (h(n)):
A=5, B=6, C=4, D=3, E=3, F=1, G=0.

1. Greedy Best-First Search (GBFS)

Approach:

1. Always expand the node with the smallest heuristic value h(n).
2. Ignore g(n) (cost so far).

Steps:

1. Start at A, h(A)=5.

Neighbors: B,C.
Choose C (h(C)=4).

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 2. At C, h(C)=4.

Neighbors: E.
Choose E (h(E)=3).
3. At E, h(E)=3.

Neighbors: G.
Choose G (h(G)=0).
4. Goal G reached.

Solution Path (GBFS):

Path: A→C→E→G.
Cost: Not calculated (GBFS ignores edge costs).

2. A Search Algorithm*

Approach:

1. Use f(n)=g(n)+h(n), where:

g(n): Cost so far.
h(n): Heuristic value.
2. Expand the node with the smallest f(n).

Steps:

1. Start at A:

g(A)=0, h(A)=5, f(A)=0+5=5.

Neighbors: B(g=1,f=1+6=7), C(g=2,f=2+4=6).
Choose C (f(C)=6).
2. At C:

g(C)=2, h(C)=4, f(C)=6.

Neighbors: E(g=5,f=5+3=8).
Choose E (f(E)=8).
3. At E:

g(E)=5, h(E)=3, f(E)=8.

Neighbors: G(g=7,f=7+0=7).
Choose G (f(G)=7).

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 4. At G:

Goal reached.

*Solution Path (A)**:

Path: A→C→E→G.
Cost: g(G)=7.

Summary

Algorithm Path Cost

Greedy Best-First A→C→E→G Not calculated

A* Search A→C→E→G 7

ChatGPT can make mistakes. Check important info.

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