Internet overview

The Internet is a giant network of networks.

• A network may include PCs, and other devices like servers or printers. • A network is connected through a
communication channel.

• Early research was performed by the US Department of Defense in 1962. This research group established
ARPAnet (Advanced Research Project Agency) in order to connect the US Defense Department network.

What did the Internet come from?

• Original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to
be able to ‘talk to’ research computers at other universities.

• A side benefit of ARPAnet’s design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than
one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a
military attack or other disaster.

• The users of the Internet took a direction of their own.

History of the Internet

• The first long distance communication took place in 1965 between a computer in MIT and California.

• In 1969, four computers clients were connected together via ARPAnet.

How old is the Internet ?

• Leonard Kleinrock is accredited with the idea of packet switching, which describes how data can be sent
across a network. The Ethernet was developed by Xerox during this period. This was inspired by Robert
Metcalfe’s PhD on ‘packet networks’.

• An Ethernet is a protocol for describing how computers can be connected in a LAN (Local Area network)

• Through the use of Ethernet and ARPAnet the US were able to develop a working network.

• In the late 1970s and early 1980s other networks were developed, e.g. CSNET, USNET and BITNET. In 1973
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn created the TCP/IP communication protocols.

• TCP/IP: Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules that describe how computers can
communicate over a network.

• To send information over the Internet, a computer packs data into Internet Protocol (IP) packets and labels them
with the correct address. They are then sent across a packet switched interconnected network.

Introduction to Data Communication

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. ”ata communications are the exchange
of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Computer Network

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Software modules in one system are used to communicate with one or more software modules in the distance
System. Such interfaces across a distance are termed as “peer-to-peer” interfaces; and the local interfaces are
termed as “service” interfaces. The modules on each end are organized as a sequence of functions called “layers”.
The set of modules organized as layers is also commonly called a “protocol stack”.

Over the years, some layered models have been standardized. The ISO Open Systems Interconnection (ISO/OSI)
layered model has seven layers and was developed by a set of committees under the auspices of International
Standards Organization (ISO).

Classification of Computer Networks

1.Based on Transmission Mode

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three types of
transmission modes.

Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only one can transmit and the
other can only receive.

Half-Duplex

In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station can sent and receive but not at
the same time.

Full-Duplex

In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

2. Based on Time in Transmission Type

• Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous Transmission both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle for the transmission.
We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group
the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and given error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with
the same time delay after leaving the source.

• Asynchronous Transmission

In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning and one stop bit at the end of each
byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets. Packets are received with
varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some packets are not received correctly.

3. Based on Authentication
 • Peer to Peer Connection

In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and, therefore, are
termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as both a client and a server. No one can control the
other computers.

• Server Based Connection

Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network which functions as
a server, and cannot be used as a client or a workstation. A dedicated server is optimized to service requests
from network clients. A server can control the clients for its services.

4. Based on Geographical location

• Local Area Networks (LAN)

LAN is a small high speed network. In LAN few numbers of systems are interconnected with networking
device to create network. As the distance increases between the nodes or system it speed decreases. So it is
limed to few meters only. Networks which cover close geographical area. LAN used to link the devices in a
single office, building or campus. It provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are connecting directly
to Network. The LAN is owned by private people.

• Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is collection of network (or LAN). This network speed is less than the LAN network speed.WAN network
connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over the world may be spread over more than one city country or
continent. Systems in this network are connected indirectly. Generally WAN network are slower speed than
LAN’s. The WAN network are owned or operated by network providers. If it is owned by a single owner then
it is called Enterprise network. Often these types have combination of more than one topology.

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network to spread over the city. Itmay be a single
network or a network in which more than one local area network canshare their resources.

5. Based on Reliability

Reliability is maintained by authentication.

• Connection-oriented

This type of communication establishes a session connection before data can be sent. This method is often
called a “reliable” network service. It can guarantee that data will arrive in the same order.

• Connection less

This type of communication does not require a session connection between sender and receiver for data
transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to the destination. A connectionless network provides
minimal services.
Topology
What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other. There are
two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of network
topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.

1) Bus Topology

• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone
cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the
stations.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
• CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e.,
the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two
nodes send the messages simultaneously.
• CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once the
collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
• CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision by
checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media
becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on
"recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:

• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
upto 10 Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:

• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault
occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes
collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate
the signal.

2) Ring Topology

• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing

• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the token
received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:

• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network
down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single host
computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:

• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault
occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases
the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub, switch
or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known
as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
 • Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology

• Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus topology.
In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to
troubleshoot the problem.
• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any
changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in one
cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular
Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology

• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be
able to communicate with each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.

4) Tree topology

• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child
hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission,
i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
 • Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree
topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks
which can be easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the
overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each other
through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical
concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology
 o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers available in
the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected to those
computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
•
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology
 • The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar
topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a
ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is
very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from
usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.

Protocol
Protocols mean set of rules. It is a formal description of message formats and the rules two or more
machines has follow to exchange messages. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics
and timing.
• Syntax
• Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
arepresented.
• Semantics
• Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
• Timing
• Timing refers to when data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
Network Infrastructure or Transmission Infrastructure:
Network infrastructure is divided into two parts.

1. Access Networks
An access network is the part of a telecommunications network which connects end system to the first
router or subscribers to their immediate service provider as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Network Infrastructure

It is different from core network which connects all the routers to each other and ISP(Internet service
provider). An access network may be a so-called local area network within a company or university, a
dial telephone line with a modem, or a high-speed cable-based or phone-based access network.

Access networks can be loosely divided into three categories:

• Residential access networks, connecting a home end system into the network.

• Institutional access networks, connecting an end system in a business or educational institution into
the network.

• Mobile access networks, connecting a mobile end system into the network

Core Networks:
Core network connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Internet service provider). It is a main
 back bone for internet. Core network uses circuit switching and packet switching for data transmission.

ISPs:(Internet Service Provider)

In internet bottom-to-top the hierarchy consists of end systems (PCs, workstations, etc.)connected
to local Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The local ISPs are in turn connected to regional ISPs, which
are in turn connected to national and international ISPs. The national and international ISPs are connected
together at the highest tier in the hierarchy.

Let's begin at the top of the hierarchy and work our way down. Residing at the very top of the
hierarchy are the national ISPs, which are called National Backbone Provider (NBPs). The NBPs
form independent backbone networks that span North America (and typically abroad as well). Just as there
are multiple long-distance telephone companies in the USA, there are multiple NBPs that compete
with each other for traffic and customers. The existing NBPs include internetMCI, SprintLink, PSINet,
UUNet Technologies, and AGIS. The NBPs typically have high-bandwidth transmission links, with
bandwidths ranging from 1.5 Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher. Each NBP also has numerous hubs which
interconnect its links and at which regional ISPs can tap into the NBP.

The NBPs themselves must be interconnected to each other. To see this, suppose one regional ISP,
say MidWestnet, is connected to the MCI NBP and another regional ISP, say EastCoastnet, is connected
to Sprint's NBP. How can traffic be sent from MidWestnet to EastCoastnet? The solution is to introduce
switching centers, called Network Access Points (NAPs), which interconnect the NBPs,

thereby allowing each regional ISP to pass traffic to any other regional ISP. To keep us all confused,
some of the NAPs are not referred to as NAPs but instead as MAEs (Metropolitan Area Exchanges).

Component of Internet:
A network (or internet) is formed using Hardware (or network device) and network software or
Application and protocols.

Hardware or Network device:

1. Hub:
• It is uses to connect systems or nodes or networks.
• It has direct connection to a node (point to point connection).
• It suffers from high collision of data, results to data loss.
• A hub takes data from input port and retransmits the input data on output port.
2. Repeater:
• A repeater is a device which regenerates or amplifies the data or signal so that it can
be travel to the other segment of cable.
• It is use to connect two networks that uses same technology and protocol.
• It does not filter or translate any data.
• Work in physical layer.

3. Bridge:
• It is used to connect two networks.
• It divides the collision domain based on number of ports or interface present in a bridge.
• It uses the packet switches that forward and filter the frames using LAN destination address.
• Bridge examines the destination address of frame and forwards it to the interface or
port which leads to the destination.
• It uses the routing table for routing frame from one node to other using MAC address.
• It works in Data Link Layer.

4. Switch :
• It is similar to bridge. It has more number of interfaces as compared to bridge.
• It allows direct communication between the nodes.

• It works in Data Link Layer.

• It uses MAC address for data transmission and communication.
5. Router:
• It is used to connect different types of network (types- architecture/ Protocol).
• It work similar to bridge but it uses IP address for routing data.
• Router can't be used for connecting Systems.
• It works in Network Layer.
6. Gateways:
Gateways make communication possible between systems that use different communication
protocols, data formatting structures, languages and architectures. Gateways repackage data going
from one system to another. Gateways are usually dedicated servers on a network and are task-
specific.
OSI model
OSI (Open System Interconnection), developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), was the solution designed to promote interoperability between vendors. It
defines architecture for communications that support distributed processing.
The OSI model describes the functions that allow systems to communicate successfully
over a network. Using what is called a layered approach, communications functions are broken
down into seven distinct layers.

Figure 2 Interaction between layers in OSI model.

 The seven layers, beginning with the bottom layer of the OSI model, are shown in
figure 2.Routers are used as intermediate node to create a link between A and B end system.
OSI model layers are dependent on each other. Each layer serves the upper layer and
also depends upon the services from the lower layer.
OSI model also provide the layer abstraction. Layers are dependent on each other for
services but in terms of protocol they are independent.
In each layer information is added into original data as header but in data link layer
trailer is added into the data as shown in figure .

Figure 3 Exchange of data using OSI model

OSI Model Layer

Layer 1: Physical Layer

▪ It defines the transmission of data across the communications medium

and translation of binary data into signals.
▪ Mode of transmission over the link i.e Simplex or Half Duplex or Full Duplex
▪ It defines the transmission rate of bits per second.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
▪ It divides the data into number of frames.
▪ It uses the MAC address for sending frames from one node to other.
▪ It provides flow control, error control and access control.
Layer 3: Network Layer
▪ It divides data into number of packets.
▪ It uses IP address for routing packets to their destination.
▪ It provides end to end connection.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
▪ It divides message into segments and also reassemble the segments to create
original message.
▪ It can be either connection-oriented or connectionless.
▪ It uses service-point address or port address for process to process
communication.
▪ Flow control and error control also provided by transport layer.
Layer 5: Session Layer
▪ Session Layer establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among
communicatingsystems.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

▪ It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the informationexchangedbetweentwo systems.
▪ It translates information from text/numeric into bit stream.
▪ It also encrypts the information for security purpose and compress the
information to reduce the number of bits in the information.

Layer 7: Application Layer

▪ It provides the interface to the end user and supports for services such as Email,
file transfer and distributed information service.

OSI Model and Protocol stack

Layer Protocol
 Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP,TELNET
Presentation JPG, GIF, MPEG,
Session TCP 3-way Handshaking
Transport TCP, UDP
Network IP, IPX
Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, HDLC
Physical X.21, RS-232, DS, DS3

TCP/IP model
• TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model.
• TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources
across a network.
• In 1969 the Defense Advanced research projects Agency (DARPA) funded a research and
development project to create an experimental packet switching network. This network is
called ARPANET.
• In 1975 the ARPANET was converted from an experimental network to an operational network,
and the responsibility for administering the network was given to the Defense Communication
Agency (DCA).
• The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military Standards (MIL STD) in 1983, and all hosts
connected to the network were required to convert to the new protocols.
• DARPA funded to implement TCP/IP in BerkelyUnix.
• In 1983, the old ARPANET was divided into MILNET and smaller ARPANET. The Internet was used
to refer to the entire network; MILNET and ARPANET.

Advantages of TCP/IP
Open protocol standards, freely available and developed independently from any specific computer
hardware or operating system. A common addressing scheme which is enable to connect the most widely
used networks. It may use any protocols. It connects dissimilar systems. It provides client/server
framework. It provides access to the Internet
Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer. TCP/IPcombines the OSI data link and
physical layers into one layer. TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers. TCP/IP transport layer using UDP
does not always guarantee reliable deliveryof packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.