PRACTICAL NO.

1
SEARCHING AND SORTING

using namespace std; //Header Files

#include<iostream>
#include <string.h>
int const size = 3; // Enter 3 students data fixed size

struct student //structure for storing different information

{
int rno;
char name [20];
float SGPA;
};

void accept(struct student list [size]); //accept() accept students data

void display(struct student list [80]); // display() display students data
void bubbleSort(struct student list [size]); // Arrange list of students according the number
void insertSort(struct student list [size]); // Arrange list of students alphabetically
void search(struct student list [size]); //Serach students according the SGPA
void binarysearch (struct student list [size]); // Search students according the Name

main() //Starting Function

{
int ch, i;
struct student data[20]; //data array stored students data
accept(data); //call accept method for accept written data
//Opetions for Which operations are performed?
cout << "\n 1: Bubble Sort"; //Choice 1
cout << "\n 2: Insertion Sort"; //Choice 2
cout << "\n 3: Search"; //Choice 3
cout << "\n 4: Binary Search"; //Choice 4
cout << "\n Select your choice:";
cin>>ch; //Selected Choice stored into ch variable.

switch(ch) // Switch case is used for select 1 choice from multiple choice
{
case 1:
bubbleSort(data); //Call bubbleSort()
display(data);
break;

case 2:
insertSort(data); //Call insertSort()
display(data);
break;

case 3:
search (data); //Call search()
break;

case 4:
binarysearch(data); //Call binarysearch()
break;

default:
cout << " Invalid choice ..."; //If invalid (other than 4) so print msg
}
}

void accept(struct student list[size]) //Accept() Logic

{
int i;
for (i = 0; i< size; i++) //Enter data one by one. size=3
{
cout << " Enter rollno, name and SGPA:"; //Print 1st msg
cin >> list[i].rno >> list[i] .name >> list[i].SGPA; //Read Rno, Name and SGPA
}
}

void display (struct student list[80]) //Display given data

{
int i;
cout <<"\n Rollno \t Name \t SGPA \n"; //Display data in table format
for (i = 0; i< size; i++) //Display complete data in Array
{
cout <<"\n" << list[i].rno << "\t" << list[i].name << "\t" << list[i].SGPA;
}
}

void bubbleSort (struct student list[size]) // Arrange list of students according the number
{
int i, j;
struct student temp;
for (i = 0; i< size -1; i++) //For first Roll No.
{
for (j = 0; j< (size-1-i); j++) //For second Roll No.
{
if (list[j].rno > list[j + 1].rno) //If first roll no. > second roll no.
{
temp = list[j]; //Perform swapping/ interchange opertaion.
list [j] = list [j+ 1];
list [j + 1] = temp;
}
}
}
}

void insertSort(struct student list[size]) // Arrange list of students alphabetically

{
int k,j;
struct student temp;

for(k=1;k<size;k++) // Complete students names in list

{
temp=list[k]; //stored first names (one by one) in list in temp variable.
j=k-1; //for backword comparision i.e k=1 then j=0

while(strcmp(list[j].name,temp.name) > 0 && j>=0)

// Compare first name in list with name in temp list
{
list[j+1] = list[j]; //stored backword in list all name alphabetically
--j; //insertion sort compare in in backword way
}
list[j+1]=temp; //finaly all name stored in temp shift into list array
}
}

void search(struct student list[size]) //Serach students according the SGPA

{
float SGPA;
int i;
cout<<"\n Enter SGPA:";
//Msg
cin>>SGPA; //Read SGPA

cout<<"\n Rollno\t Name\t SGPA\n";

for (i = 0; i < size;i++) //Search complete SGPA in array
{
if(SGPA==list[i].SGPA) //If given SGPA is matched with List array of SGPA

cout<<"\n"<<list[i].rno<<"\t" <<list[i].name <<"\t" << list[i].SGPA;

//Print complete details of that SGPA of students
}
}

void binarysearch (struct student list[size]) //binarysearch

{
int k, lower, upper, mid; //variable declaration
char search[80];

cout<<"\n Enter name of student you want to search"; //name you want to search
cin>>search;

lower= 0; //Binary search formula

upper = size -1;
mid=(lower + upper)/2;

while(lower <= upper) //if lower index less then greater index
{
if(strcmp(list[mid].name,search)<0) //Compare search with mid element
lower = mid + 1; //if greater then set

else if (strcmp(list[mid].name, search)==0) //Mid element exactly equal to search

{
cout<<"\n"<<list[mid].rno<< "\t" <<list[mid].name<< "\t" << list[mid].SGPA; //Display msg
break;
}
else
upper = mid- 1; //if smaller then set
mid = (lower + upper)/2; //formula
}
if (lower > upper) //not found in list
cout <<search<< "Not found in the list";
}
 PRACTICAL NO. 2
STACK
#include <iostream> //Header Files
#include <cctype>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

// Sreucture Node definition for singly linked list

struct Node {

char data;

Node* next;

};

// Stack ADT using singly linked list

class Stack {

Node* topNode;

public:

Stack() : topNode(nullptr) {}

void push(char value) {

Node* newNode = new Node{value, topNode};

topNode = newNode;

char pop() {

if (isEmpty()) return '\0';

Node* temp = topNode;

char value = temp->data;

topNode = topNode->next;

delete temp;
 return value;

char top() {

return (topNode) ? topNode->data : '\0';

bool isEmpty() {

return topNode == nullptr;

};

// Function to check precedence of operators

int precedence(char op) {

if (op == '+' || op == '-') return 1;

if (op == '*' || op == '/') return 2;

return 0;

// Infix to Postfix conversion

string infixToPostfix(const string& infix) {

Stack s;

string postfix;

for (char ch : infix) {

if (isalnum(ch)) {

postfix += ch; // Append operand to result

} else if (ch == '(') {

s.push(ch);

} else if (ch == ')') {

while (s.top() != '(') postfix += s.pop();

 s.pop(); // Remove '('

} else {

while (!s.isEmpty() && precedence(s.top()) >= precedence(ch))

postfix += s.pop();

s.push(ch);

while (!s.isEmpty()) {

postfix += s.pop(); // Pop remaining operators

return postfix;

// Infix to Prefix conversion

string infixToPrefix(const string& infix) {

Stack operators;

string result;

// Reverse traversal for prefix conversion

for (int i = infix.length() - 1; i >= 0; --i) {

char ch = infix[i];

if (isalnum(ch)) {

result = ch + result; // Operand goes to result

} else if (ch == ')') {

operators.push(ch);

} else if (ch == '(') {

while (operators.top() != ')')

result = operators.pop() + result;

 operators.pop(); // Remove ')'

} else {

while (!operators.isEmpty() && precedence(operators.top()) > precedence(ch))

result = operators.pop() + result;

operators.push(ch);

while (!operators.isEmpty()) {

result = operators.pop() + result; // Pop remaining operators

return result;

int main() {

string infix;

cout << "Enter an infix expression: ";

cin >> infix;

// Postfix Conversion

string postfix = infixToPostfix(infix);

cout << "Postfix Expression: " << postfix << endl;

// Prefix Conversion

string prefix = infixToPrefix(infix);

cout << "Prefix Expression: " << prefix << endl;

return 0;

}
 PRACTICAL NO. 3
Circular Queue

#Include <iostream> //header file declaration

using namespace std;

int cqueue[5]; //queue array fixed 5 elements

int front = -1, rear = -1, n=5; //initialization

//Insert Circular Queue Operation

void insertCQ(int val) {
if ((front == 0 && rear == n-1) || (front == rear+1)) { //Queue is full
cout<<"Queue Overflow \n";
return;
}
if (front == -1) { //Queue is empty
front = 0; //Pointer initialization
rear = 0;
} else {
if (rear == n - 1) //If rear points to max condition cant insert element
rear = 0;
else
rear = rear + 1; //Otherwise insert element, rear pointer increamented
}
cqueue[rear] = val ; //New inserted value insert into array
}

//Delete element from Circular Queue

void deleteCQ() {
 if (front == -1) { //Queue is empty, Display message
cout<<"Queue Underflow\n";
return ;
}
cout<<"Element deleted from queue is : "<<cqueue[front]<<endl;
if (front == rear) { //Queue is empty
front = -1;
rear = -1;
} else {
if (front == n - 1) //After deleting last element queue is empty
front = 0;
else
front = front + 1; //After deletion front ++
}
}

//Display elements from Circular Queue

void displayCQ() {
int f = front, r = rear; //Pointer Initialization
if (front == -1) { //Queue is empty, Display message
cout<<"Queue is empty"<<endl;
return;
}
cout<<"Queue elements are :\n";
if (f <= r) {
while (f <= r){ //Dispay elements from front pointer to rear pointer
cout<<cqueue[f]<<" "; //All display elements stored in array
f++; //Display one by one
}
 } else {
while (f <= n - 1) { //Display all elemets in queue
cout<<cqueue[f]<<" "; //All display elements stored in array
f++; //Display one by one
}
}
cout<<endl;
}
int main() { //Starting of the program

int ch, val; //Variable Declaration

cout<<"1)Insert Element in Queue \n"; //Display Message
cout<<"2)Delete Eelement in Queue \n";
cout<<"3)Display All Elements in Queue \n";
cout<<"4)Exit\n";
do {
cout<<"Enter choice : "<<endl; //Read choice number as per operations
cin>>ch;
switch(ch) {
case 1: //Choice for Insertion
cout<<"Input for insertion: "<<endl;
cin>>val;
insertCQ(val); //Call Insert Function
break;

case 2: //Choice for Deletion

deleteCQ(); //Call Delete Function
break;
 case 3: //Choice for Display elements in queue
displayCQ(); //Call Display Function
break;

case 4:
cout<<"Exit\n"; //Exit operations
break;
default: cout<<"Incorrect!\n"; //Incorrect Choice
}
} while(ch != 4);
return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO. 4
Expression Tree
#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
#include <string.h>
using namespace std;

struct node
{
char data;
node *leftchild;
node *rightchild;
}*root;

node *store_root_address;

node *construct_prefix_tree(char prefix[]);

node *construct_postfix_tree(char posfix[]);
void recursive_nonrecursive_choice();
void expression_choice();

void recursive_inorder(node*root);
void recursive_preorder(node*root);
void recursive_postorder(node*root);

void nonrecursive_inorder(node *root);

void nonrecursive_preorder(node *root);
void nonrecursive_postorder(node *root);

bool isOperator(char c)
{
if (c == '+' || c == '-' || c == '*' || c == '/' || c == '^')
{
return true;
}

return false;
}

node* newNode(char v)
{
node *temp = new node;
temp->leftchild = NULL;
temp->rightchild = NULL;
temp->data = v;
return temp;
};

node* construct_postfix_tree(char postfix[])

{
stack<node *> s;
node *root, *t1, *t2;

for (int i=0; i<strlen(postfix); i++)

{
if (!isOperator(postfix[i]))
{
root=newNode(postfix[i]);
s.push(root);
}

else
{
root= newNode(postfix[i]);

t1 = s.top();
s.pop();
t2 = s.top();
s.pop();

root->rightchild = t1;
root->leftchild = t2;

s.push(root);
}
}

root= s.top();
s.pop();

return root;
}

node* construct_prefix_tree(char prefix[])

{
stack<node *> s;
node *root, *t1, *t2;

for (int i=0; i<strlen(prefix); i++)

{
if (!isOperator(prefix[i]))
{
root= newNode(prefix[i]);
s.push(root);
 }

else
{
root= newNode(prefix[i]);

t1 = s.top();
s.pop();
t2 = s.top();
s.pop();

root->leftchild = t1;
root->rightchild = t2;

s.push(root);
}
}

root = s.top();
s.pop();

return root;
}

void recursive_inorder(node*root)
{
node*temp;
temp=root;
if(temp!=NULL)
{
recursive_inorder(temp->leftchild);
cout<<" "<<temp->data;
recursive_inorder(temp->rightchild);
}

void recursive_preorder(node*root)
{
node*temp;
temp=root;
if(temp!=NULL)
{
cout<<" "<<temp->data;
recursive_preorder(temp->leftchild);
recursive_preorder(temp->rightchild);
}
}

void recursive_postorder(node*root)
{
node*temp;
temp=root;
if(temp!=NULL)
{
recursive_postorder(temp->leftchild);
recursive_postorder(temp->rightchild);
cout<<" "<<temp->data;
}

void nonrecursive_inorder(node *root)

{

stack<node *> s;

node *current_node = root;

while (current_node != NULL || s.empty() == false)

while (current_node!= NULL)

{
s.push(current_node);

current_node=current_node->leftchild;

current_node= s.top();

s.pop();
cout<<current_node->data;

current_node=current_node->rightchild;
}
}

void nonrecursive_preorder(node *root)

{
 stack<node *>s;
s.push(root);
if (root == NULL)
{
return;
}

while (s.empty()==false)
{
node *temp=s.top();
s.pop();
cout<<" "<<temp->data;

if (temp->rightchild)
{
s.push(temp->rightchild);
}

if (temp->leftchild)
{

s.push(temp->leftchild);
}
}

void nonrecursive_postorder(node *root)

{
if(root==NULL)
{
return;
}

stack<node *>s1;
stack<node *> s2;
s1.push(root);
node *temp;

while(s1.empty()==false)
{
temp=s1.top();
s1.pop();
s2.push(temp);

if(temp->leftchild)
{
s1.push(temp->leftchild);
}
 if(temp->rightchild)
{
s1.push(temp->rightchild);
}
}

while(!s2.empty())
{
temp=s2.top();
s2.pop();
cout<<" "<<temp->data;

int main()
{
int k =0;
int choice, choice_R, choice_NR;
node *root_address;
char reverse[100],prefix[100],postfix[100];

node *construct_prefix_tree(char prefix[]);

node *construct_postfix_tree(char posfix[]);
void recursive_non_recursive_choice();
void expression_choice();

void recursive_inorder(node*root);
void recursive_preorder(node*root);
void recursive_postorder(node*root);

void nonrecursive_inorder(node *root);

void nonrecursive_preorder(node *root);
void nonrecursive_postorder(node *root);

do
{
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"\n From which expression you want to construct binary expression tree?\n";
cout<<"\n 1) Prefix Expression. \n 2) Postfix Expression. \n 3) Exit.";
cout<<"\n Enter Your Choice: ";
cin>>choice;

switch(choice)
{
case 1:
//ACCEPTING PREFIX EXPRESSION
cout<<"\nEnter Prefix Expression: ";
cin>>prefix;

for(int j=strlen(prefix)-1;j>=0;j--)
reverse[k++]=prefix[j];
reverse[k]='\0';
//cout<<reverse;
root_address=construct_prefix_tree(reverse);

cout<<"\nIn which manner you want to traverse the binary expression tree?";
cout<<"1) Recursively. \n2) Non-Recursively. \n3) Exit.";
cout<<"Enter Your Choice: ";
cin>>choice_R;
switch(choice_R)
{
case 1:
//RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS ON PREFIX
cout<<"\nRecursive preorder is: ";
recursive_preorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nRecursive inorder is: ";

recursive_inorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nRecursive postorder is: ";

recursive_postorder(root_address);
break;

case 2:
//NON RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS ON PREFIX

cout<<"\n\nNon-Recursive preorder is: ";

nonrecursive_preorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nNon-Recursive inorder is: ";

nonrecursive_inorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nNon-Recursive postorder is: ";

nonrecursive_postorder(root_address);
break;

case 3:
cout<<"You Have Successfully Exitted.....";
break;

default:
cout<<"INVALID CHOICE.....";

}
break;
 case 2:
cout<<"\nEnter Postfix Expression: ";
cin>>postfix;
root_address=construct_postfix_tree(postfix);
cout<<"\nIn which manner you want to traverse the binary
expression tree?";
cout<<"1) Recursively. \n2) Non-Recursively. \n3) Exit.";
cout<<"\nEnter Your Choice: ";
cin>>choice_R;
switch(choice_R)
{
case 1:
//RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS ON PREFIX
cout<<"\nRecursive preorder is: ";
recursive_preorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nRecursive inorder is: ";

recursive_inorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nRecursive postorder is: ";

recursive_postorder(root_address);

break;

case 2:
//NON RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS ON PREFIX

cout<<"\n\nNon-Recursive preorder is: ";

nonrecursive_preorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nNon-Recursive inorder is: ";

nonrecursive_inorder(root_address);

cout<<"\nNon-Recursive postorder is: ";

nonrecursive_postorder(root_address);
break;

case 3:
cout<<"You Have Successfully Exitted.....";
break;

default:
cout<<"INVALID CHOICE.....";

}
}
}
while(choice!=3);
return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO. 5
Binary Search Tree
#include<iostream>
#include<stdlib.h>
using namespace std;

struct treeNode
{
int data; //Value of Node
treeNode *left; //Left address pointer
treeNode *right; //Right address pointer
};
treeNode* FindMin(treeNode *node) //Function for find min value node
{
if(node==NULL) //if node value is Null
{
return NULL; // There is no element in the tree
}
if(node->left) //Go to the left sub tree to find the min element
return FindMin(node->left);
else
return node;
}

treeNode* FindMax(treeNode *node) //Function for find max value node

{
 if(node==NULL) //if node value is Null
{
return NULL; //There is no element in the tree
}
if(node->right) //Go to the Right sub tree to find the min element
return(FindMax(node->right));
else
return node;
}

treeNode *Insert(treeNode *node,int data) //Insert Node in Binary Tree

{
if(node==NULL) // If node is NULL then create new node
{
treeNode *temp; //Newnode1 is called as temp node
temp=new treeNode; //Allocate memory run time
temp -> data = data; // Stored value in data part.
temp -> left = temp -> right = NULL; //Stored Null value in Left &
Right Part bcz only 1 node create
return temp; //Return single node.
}
if(data >(node->data)) //If new data greater then root data
{
node->right = Insert(node->right,data); // add new node in Right subtree.
}
else if(data < (node->data)) //If new data less then root data
{
node->left = Insert(node->left,data); //add new node in Left subtree.
}
 return node; //Return complete tree nodes.
}

treeNode * Delet(treeNode *node, int data) //Delete node in tree

{
treeNode *temp;
if(node==NULL) //If no node is present i.e. Null
{
cout<<"Element Not Found"; //Display msg
}
else if(data < node->data) //If value less then root node
{
node->left = Delet(node->left, data); //Delete node in Left Sub Tree
}
else if(data > node->data) //If value greater then root node
{
node->right = Delet(node->right, data); //Delete node in Right Sub Tree
}
else
{
/* Now We can delete this node and replace with either minimum element
in the right sub tree or maximum element in the left subtree */

if(node->right && node->left) //Deleted Node

{
/* Here we will replace with minimum element in the right sub tree */

temp = FindMin(node->right);
node -> data = temp->data;
 /* As we replaced it with some other node, we have to delete that node */
node -> right = Delet(node->right,temp->data);
}
else
{
/* If there is only one or zero children then we can directly
remove it from the tree and connect its parent to its child */

temp = node;
if(node->left == NULL) //If deleted node has no left child
node = node->right; // Conncet right child to its parent node.
else if(node->right == NULL) //If deleted node has no right child
node = node->left; // Conncet left child to its parent node.
free(temp); //temp is longer required
}
}
return node; //Return remaining tree
}

treeNode * Find(treeNode *node, int data) //Search Node in Binary Tree

{
if(node==NULL) //If node value is null
{
return NULL; //Element is not found
}
if(data > node->data) //If search value grater then root node
{
return Find(node->right,data); //Search in the right sub tree.
 }
else if(data < node->data) //If search value less then root node
{
return Find(node->left,data); // Search in the left sub tree.
}
else
{
return node; //Element not Found
}
}
void Inorder(treeNode *node) //Find Inorder traversal of node
{
if(node==NULL) //If node not present
{
return;
}
Inorder(node->left); //Apply Inorder Principle "left-root-right"
cout<<node->data<<" ";
Inorder(node->right);
}

void Preorder(treeNode *node) //Find Preorder traversal of node

{
if(node==NULL) //If node not present
{
return;
}
cout<<node->data<<" "; //Apply Preorder Principle "root-left-right"
Preorder(node->left);
 Preorder(node->right);
}

void Postorder(treeNode *node) //Find Postorder traversal of node

{
if(node==NULL) //If node not present
{
return;
}
Postorder(node->left); //Apply Postorder Principle "left-right-root"
Postorder(node->right);
cout<<node->data<<" ";
}

int main() //main function

{
treeNode *root = NULL,*temp; //Initially Tree is Null
int ch, val;
//clrscr();
while(1) //If condition set true, Display Message
{

cout<<"\n1.Insert\n2.Delete\n3.Inorder\n4.Preorder\n5.Postorder\n6.FindMin\n
7.FindMax\n8.Search\n9.Exit\n";
cout<<"Enter ur choice:";
cin>>ch; //Read your choice
switch(ch) //Select one choice from multiple choice
{
case 1:
 cout<<"\nEnter element to be insert:"; //Insert Node as root
cin>>val;
root = Insert(root, val); //Call Insert()
cout<<"\nElements in BST are:";
Inorder(root); //Insert inorder way
break;
case 2:
cout<<"\nEnter element to be deleted:"; //Delete Node
cin>>val;
root = Delet(root,val); //Call Delete()
cout<<"\nAfter deletion elements in BST are:";
Inorder(root); //After deletion inorder way element display
break;
case 3:
cout<<"\nInorder Travesals is:";
Inorder(root); //Call inorder()
break;
case 4:
cout<<"\nPreorder Traversals is:";
Preorder(root); //Call preorder()
break;
case 5:
cout<<"\nPostorder Traversals is:";
Postorder(root); //Call postorder()
break;
case 6:
temp = FindMin(root); //FindMin() used in Delete case
cout<<"\nMinimum element is :"<<temp->data;
break;
 case 7:
temp = FindMax(root); //FindMax() used in Delete case
cout<<"\nMaximum element is :"<<temp->data;
break;
case 8:
cout<<"\nEnter element to be searched:";
cin>>val;
temp = Find(root,val); //Call search()
if(temp==NULL)
{
cout<<"Element is not foundn"; //Display Message
}
else
{
cout<<"Element "<<temp->data<<" is Found\n";
}
break;
case 9:
exit(0); //Exit Program
break;
default:
cout<<"\nEnter correct choice:"; //Chioce other then 9 invalid
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO. 6
Threaded Binary Tree

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Node structure for Threaded Binary Tree

class Node {
public:
int data;
bool lth; // Left Thread Flag
bool rth; // Right Thread Flag
Node* left;
Node* right;

Node(int val) {
data = val;
left = right = NULL; // Using NULL for compatibility
lth = rth = false;
}
};

// Threaded Binary Tree class

class ThreadedBinaryTree {
private:
 Node* root;
Node* dummy;

public:
ThreadedBinaryTree() {
root = NULL;
dummy = new Node(-999); // Dummy node to simplify traversal
dummy->left = dummy->right = dummy;
}

// Function to create and insert a new node

void create() {
int value;
cout << "\nEnter The Element: ";
cin >> value;
Node* newNode = new Node(value);

if (root == NULL) { // If tree is empty, new node becomes root

root = newNode;
root->left = dummy;
root->right = dummy;
dummy->left = root;
} else {
insert(root, newNode);
}
}

// Function to insert a node into the threaded binary tree

void insert(Node* current, Node* newNode) {
Node* parent = NULL;
Node* temp = current;

while (temp != dummy) {

parent = temp;
if (newNode->data < temp->data) {
if (temp->lth) {
temp = temp->left;
} else {
break;
}
} else if (newNode->data > temp->data) {
if (temp->rth) {
temp = temp->right;
} else {
break;
}
} else {
cout << "\nDuplicate value! Insertion skipped.";
return;
}
}

if (newNode->data < parent->data) {

newNode->left = parent->left;
newNode->right = parent;
parent->lth = true;
parent->left = newNode;
} else {
 newNode->right = parent->right;
newNode->left = parent;
parent->rth = true;
parent->right = newNode;
}
}

// In-order traversal
void inorder() {
if (root == NULL) {
cout << "\nTree is empty!";
return;
}

Node* temp = root;

while (temp->lth && temp->left != dummy) {
temp = temp->left;
}

while (temp != dummy) {

cout << temp->data << " ";
if (!temp->rth) {
temp = temp->right;
} else {
temp = temp->right;
while (temp->lth && temp->left != dummy) {
temp = temp->left;
}
}
 }
}

// Pre-order traversal
void preorder() {
if (root == NULL) {
cout << "\nTree is empty!";
return;
}

Node* temp = root;

while (temp != dummy) {

cout << temp->data << " ";
if (temp->lth) {
temp = temp->left;
} else if (temp->rth) {
temp = temp->right;
} else {
while (temp != dummy && !temp->rth) {
temp = temp->right;
}
if (temp != dummy) {
temp = temp->right;
}
}
}
}
 // Function to display both In-order and Pre-order traversals
void display() {
if (root == NULL) {
cout << "\nTree is not created.";
return;
}
cout << "\nIn-order Traversal: ";
inorder();
cout << "\nPre-order Traversal: ";
preorder();
}
};

// Main function
int main() {
int choice;
char ans = 'N';
ThreadedBinaryTree th;

do {
cout << "\n\n=== Program For Threaded Binary Tree ===\n";
cout << "1) Create\n2) Display\n3) Exit\n";
cout << "Enter Your Choice: ";
cin >> choice;

switch (choice) {
case 1:
do {
th.create();
 cout << "\nDo you want to enter more elements? (y/n): ";
cin >> ans;
} while (ans == 'y' || ans == 'Y');
break;

case 2:
th.display();
break;

case 3:
cout << "\nExiting program.";
return 0;

default:
cout << "\nInvalid choice! Please try again.";
}

} while (ans == 'y' || ans == 'Y' || choice != 3);

return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO: 7
Graph: Minimum Spanning Tree

Prim's Algorithm
#include<iostream>
#define SIZE 20
#define INFINITY 99
using namespace std;

class MST {
private:
int G[SIZE][SIZE], nodes;
public:
MST();
void Prim();
void get_data();
};

MST::MST() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < SIZE; j++) {
G[i][j] = 0;
}
}
}

void MST::Prim() {
int select[SIZE] = {0}; // To mark selected vertices
 int min_dist, v1 = 0, v2 = 0, total = 0;

cout << "\nThe minimum spanning tree:\n";

select[0] = 1; // Starting vertex (0) is selected

for (int k = 0; k < nodes - 1; k++) {

min_dist = INFINITY;

// Find the minimum distance edge from the selected set to an unselected
vertex
for (int i = 0; i < nodes; i++) {
if (select[i]) {
for (int j = 0; j < nodes; j++) {
if (!select[j] && G[i][j]) { // Vertex j is not selected, and there's an
edge
if (G[i][j] < min_dist) {
min_dist = G[i][j];
v1 = i;
v2 = j;
}
}
}
}
}

// Mark the selected vertex

select[v2] = 1;
cout << "Edge (" << v1 << ", " << v2 << ") and Weight = " << min_dist
<< endl;
total += min_dist;
 }

cout << "\nTotal path length is " << total << endl;
}

void MST::get_data() {
int v1, v2, length, edges;

cout << "\nEnter the total number of nodes in the graph: ";
cin >> nodes;

cout << "\nEnter the total number of edges in the graph: ";
cin >> edges;

cout << "\nEnter the edge and weight of the graph:\n";

for (int i = 0; i < edges; i++) {
cout << "\nEnter the edge in the form of v1 v2 (e.g., 0 1): ";
cin >> v1 >> v2;
cout << "\nEnter corresponding weight: ";
cin >> length;
G[v1][v2] = G[v2][v1] = length; // Since the graph is undirected
}
}

int main() {
MST obj;
cout << "\nPrim's Algorithm\n";
obj.get_data();
obj.Prim();
 return 0;
#include<iostream>
#define SIZE 20
#define INFINITY 99
using namespace std;

class MST {
private:
int G[SIZE][SIZE], nodes;
public:
MST();
void Prim();
void get_data();
};

MST::MST() {
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < SIZE; j++) {
G[i][j] = 0;
}
}
}

void MST::Prim() {
int select[SIZE] = {0}; // To mark selected vertices
int min_dist, v1 = 0, v2 = 0, total = 0;

cout << "\nThe minimum spanning tree:\n";

select[0] = 1; // Starting vertex (0) is selected
 for (int k = 0; k < nodes - 1; k++) {
min_dist = INFINITY;

// Find the minimum distance edge from the selected set to an unselected
vertex
for (int i = 0; i < nodes; i++) {
if (select[i]) {
for (int j = 0; j < nodes; j++) {
if (!select[j] && G[i][j]) { // Vertex j is not selected, and there's an
edge
if (G[i][j] < min_dist) {
min_dist = G[i][j];
v1 = i;
v2 = j;
}
}
}
}
}

// Mark the selected vertex

select[v2] = 1;
cout << "Edge (" << v1 << ", " << v2 << ") and Weight = " << min_dist
<< endl;
total += min_dist;
}

cout << "\nTotal path length is " << total << endl;
}
void MST::get_data() {
int v1, v2, length, edges;

cout << "\nEnter the total number of nodes in the graph: ";
cin >> nodes;

cout << "\nEnter the total number of edges in the graph: ";
cin >> edges;

cout << "\nEnter the edge and weight of the graph:\n";

for (int i = 0; i < edges; i++) {
cout << "\nEnter the edge in the form of v1 v2 (e.g., 0 1): ";
cin >> v1 >> v2;
cout << "\nEnter corresponding weight: ";
cin >> length;
G[v1][v2] = G[v2][v1] = length; // Since the graph is undirected
}
}

int main() {
MST obj;
cout << "\nPrim's Algorithm\n";
obj.get_data();
obj.Prim();
return 0;
}
 Kruskal's Algorithm:
#include <iostream>
#include <algorithm>
#include <vector>

using namespace std;

#define edge pair<int, int>

class Graph {
private:
vector<pair<int, edge>> G; // graph: weight, (u, v)
vector<pair<int, edge>> T; // MST: weight, (u, v)
int *parent;
int V; // Number of vertices

public:
Graph(int V);
void AddWeightedEdge(int u, int v, int w);
int find_set(int i);
void union_set(int u, int v);
void kruskal();
void print();
};

Graph::Graph(int V) {
parent = new int[V]; // Dynamic array to store parent for union-find
this->V = V;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) {
 parent[i] = i; // Initialize each vertex as its own parent
}
G.clear(); // Clear the graph
T.clear(); // Clear the MST
}

void Graph::AddWeightedEdge(int u, int v, int w) {

G.push_back(make_pair(w, edge(u, v))); // Add edge to the graph
}

// Find set using path compression

int Graph::find_set(int i) {
if (i == parent[i])
return i;
else
return parent[i] = find_set(parent[i]); // Path compression
}

// Union of two sets

void Graph::union_set(int u, int v) {
parent[u] = v; // Union by setting parent of one root to the other
}

// Kruskal's algorithm
void Graph::kruskal() {
int uRep, vRep;
sort(G.begin(), G.end()); // Sort edges by weight

for (int i = 0; i < G.size(); i++) {

 uRep = find_set(G[i].second.first);
vRep = find_set(G[i].second.second);

// If u and v belong to different sets, add this edge to the MST

if (uRep != vRep) {
T.push_back(G[i]); // Add edge to the tree
union_set(uRep, vRep); // Union the sets
}
}
}

// Print the Minimum Spanning Tree

void Graph::print() {
cout << "Edge : Weight\n";
for (int i = 0; i < T.size(); i++) {
cout << T[i].second.first << " - " << T[i].second.second << " : " <<
T[i].first << endl;
}
}

int main() {
Graph g(6);
g.AddWeightedEdge(0, 1, 4);
g.AddWeightedEdge(0, 2, 4);
g.AddWeightedEdge(1, 2, 2);
g.AddWeightedEdge(1, 0, 4);
g.AddWeightedEdge(2, 3, 3);
g.AddWeightedEdge(2, 1, 2);
g.AddWeightedEdge(3, 4, 3);
 g.AddWeightedEdge(5, 2, 2);
g.AddWeightedEdge(5, 4, 3);
g.kruskal();
g.print();
return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO: 8
Graph: Shortest Path Algorithm
#include <iostream>
#define MAX 20

using namespace std;

char v1;

class Graph {
int g[MAX][MAX], n, c[MAX], ch[MAX], min_dist, client_dist, visit_dist;
char v[MAX], str[MAX][MAX], min_path[MAX], client_path[MAX],
visit_path[MAX];

public:
Graph(int m) {
n = m;
visit_dist = 0;
client_dist = 0;
min_dist = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
g[i][j] = 0;
}
}
}

void acceptVertices();
void acceptEdges();
 void displayMatrix();
void initializeDijkstra();
void initializeDijkstra(int i);
void dijkstra(char src, char dest, int flag);
void dijkstraToAllDestinations(char src);
};

// Accept names of landmarks

void Graph::acceptVertices() {
int i = 0;
cout << "\nEnter Names of Landmarks:";
while (i < n) {
cout << "\nLandmark [" << i + 1 << "] : ";
cin >> v[i];
i++;
}
cout << "\n";
}

// Accept distances between landmarks

void Graph::acceptEdges() {
char v1, v2;
int cst;

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

for (int j = i; j < n; j++) {
if (i == j) {
g[i][j] = 0;
continue;
 }
cout << "\nDistance Between Landmark [" << v[i] << "][" << v[j] << "]
: ";
cin >> cst;
g[i][j] = g[j][i] = cst;
}
}
cout << "\n";
}

// Display adjacency matrix

void Graph::displayMatrix() {
cout << "\nAdjacency Matrix:\n";
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
cout << "\t" << v[i];
}
cout << "\n";
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
cout << v[i];
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
cout << "\t" << g[i][j];
}
cout << "\n";
}
cout << "\n";
}

// Initialize Dijkstra's algorithm

void Graph::initializeDijkstra() {
 for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
c[i] = 9999;
ch[i] = 0;
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
str[i][j] = '-';
}
}
cout << "\n";
}

void Graph::initializeDijkstra(int i) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
str[i][j] = '-';
}
}

// Dijkstra's algorithm for shortest path

void Graph::dijkstra(char s, char d, int f) {
initializeDijkstra();
int i = 0, j, k, min, cst;

while (v[i] != s) i++;

c[i] = 0;
k = 0;
str[i][k] = v[i];

do {
ch[i] = 1;
min = 999;
 for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
if (g[i][j] != 0 && i != j && c[i] + g[i][j] < c[j]) {
c[j] = c[i] + g[i][j];
initializeDijkstra(j);
for (k = 0; str[i][k] != '-'; k++) {
str[j][k] = str[i][k];
}
str[j][k] = v[j];
}
}
min = 999;
for (int l = 0; l < n; l++) {
if (c[l] < min && ch[l] == 0) {
min = c[l];
i = l;
}
}
} while (v[i] != d);

// Print minimum distance and path

cout << "\nShortest Distance from " << s << " to " << d << ": " << c[i] <<
"\nPath: ";
for (int m = 0; str[i][m] != '-'; m++) {
cout << str[i][m] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
}

// Dijkstra's algorithm to find shortest distances from source to all destinations

void Graph::dijkstraToAllDestinations(char src) {
dijkstra(src, '-', 0);
cout << "\nShortest Distances from " << src << " to all Landmarks:\n";
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
cout << "\nFrom " << src << " to " << v[i] << ": " << c[i] << "\nPath: ";
for (int j = 0; str[i][j] != '-'; j++) {
cout << str[i][j] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
}
}

int main() {
int n, ch;
char src, dest;
cout << "Enter Number of Landmarks: ";
cin >> n;

Graph cityGraph(n);

do {
cout << "\n1. Accept Names of Landmarks\n2. Accept Distances Between
Landmarks\n3. Display Adjacency Matrix\n4. Find Shortest Path\n5. Exit";
cout << "\nEnter Your Choice: ";
cin >> ch;

switch (ch) {
case 1:
cityGraph.acceptVertices();
 break;
case 2:
cityGraph.acceptEdges();
break;
case 3:
cityGraph.displayMatrix();
break;
case 4:
cout << "\nEnter Source (Landmark to start from): ";
cin >> src;
cout << "\nEnter Destination (Landmark to reach): ";
cin >> dest;
cityGraph.dijkstra(src, dest, 0);
break;
case 5:
cout << "Exiting...\n";
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid choice. Try again.\n";
}
} while (ch != 5);

return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO: 9
Heap Sort
#include <iostream> //header files
using namespace std;

//Heapify function to maintain heap property.

//n is size of heap, i is every elements in array

void heapify(int arr[], int n, int i)

{
int largest = i; // Initialize largest as root Since we using 0 based indexing
int l = 2 * i + 1; // Find out left child = 2*i + 1
int r = 2 * i + 2; // Find out right child = 2*i + 2

if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largest]) // If left child exist & larger than root
largest = l; //Consider left child as root node

if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largest]) //If right child exist & largest then root
largest = r; //Consider right child as root node

if (largest != i) { //If largest is not root

swap(arr[i], arr[largest]); //Swap elements
heapify(arr, n, largest); // Recursively heapify affected sub-tree
}
}

//Function to sort an array using Heap Sort.

void heapSort(int arr[], int n)
{
for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--)
// index of the last non-leaf node to 0. leaf node always consider as heap.
Because they dont have child node for comparision.
heapify(arr, n, i); //Call function maintain heap property

for (int i = n - 1; i >= 0; i--) { // One by one extract an element from heap

swap(arr[0], arr[i]); // Move current root to end

heapify(arr, i, 0); // call max heapify on the reduced heap
}
}

//Function to print array of size n

void printArray(int arr[], int n)
{
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) //Print all the elements in array in sorted form
cout << arr[i] << " ";
cout << "\n";
}

//Starting of the program

int main()
{
int arr[] = { 60 ,20 ,40 ,70, 30, 10}; //Unsorted elements in array
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]); //Calculate size of array

for(int i=n/2 -1;i>=0;i--){ //comparision start from index of the last non-
leaf node to root
heapify(arr,n,i); //Call function maintain heap property
}

cout << "Before heapifying array is \n";

printArray(arr, n); //Unsorted array

heapSort(arr, n); //Call heapsort function for sorting

cout << "After heapifying array is \n";

printArray(arr, n); //Sorted array

return 0;
}
 PRACTICAL NO: 10
File Organization

#include <iostream> //Header Files

#include <fstream>
using namespace std;

class student //Create Class

{
int roll_no; //Members of Class
char Name[30];
char Division[5];
char Address[50];

public: //Functions of Class

void accept();
void display();
int rollno()
{
return roll_no;
}
};
void student::accept() //Accept Students Data
{
cout<<"\nEnter Roll Number: ";
 cin>>roll_no;

cout<<"\nEnter Name: ";

cin.ignore();
cin.getline(Name,30);

cout<<"\nEnter Division: ";

cin>>Division;

cout<<"\nEnter Address: ";

cin>>Address;

cout<<"\n";
}
void student::display() //Display Students
Data
{
cout<<"\n "<<roll_no<<"\t "<<Name<<" \t\t "<<Division<<"\t
"<<Address;
}

void create() //Create File

{
student s;
int n, i;

ofstream out("Student.txt");
 cout<<"\nHow many records do you want to enter?: ";
cin>>n;

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
s.accept();
out.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
}
out.close();
}

void search() //Search data in file

{
int n, flag=0;

cout<<"\nEnter Roll Number To Be Searched: ";

cin>>n;
ifstream infile("Student.txt");

student s;
while(infile.read((char *)&s,sizeof(s)))
{
if(s.rollno()==n)
{
cout<<"\nRecord Found\n";
cout<<"\nRoll Number Name
Division Address";
 s.display();
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==0)
{
cout<<"\nRecord Not Found.";
}

infile.close();
}
void display() //Display data in file
{
student s;
ifstream infile("Student.txt");
while(infile.read((char *)&s, sizeof(s)))
{
s.display();
}

infile.close();
}

void add_record() //Add records in file

{
 student s;
ofstream outfile("Student.txt",ios::app);
s.accept();
outfile.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
outfile.close();
cout<<"Record Successfully Added.";
}

void delete_record() //Delete records from file

{
int n, flag=0;
cout<<"\nEnter Roll Number Whose Record To Be Deleted:";
cin>>n;
ifstream infile("student.txt"); // to read from source file
ofstream temp("temp.txt"); // to write in destination
file(temporary file)
student s;
while(infile.read((char *)&s, sizeof(s)))
{
if(s.rollno()!=n)
{
temp.write((char *)&s, sizeof(s));
}
else
{
flag=1;
cout<<"\nRecord Successfully Deleted.";
 }
}
if(flag==0)
{
cout<<"\nRecord Not Found.";
}

infile.close();
temp.close();
remove("Student.txt");
rename("temp.txt","Student.txt");
}
int main() //Starting function
{
int choice,roll_no,Marks;
char Name[30];
ofstream out("Student.txt");
out.close();
do
{ cout<<"\n";
cout<<"\nMenu:\n1) Create Database.\n2) Display.\n3)
Add record.\n4) Search Record.\n5)Delete Record.\n6) Exit.";
cout<<"\n\nEnter Your Choice: ";
cin>>choice;

switch(choice)
{
 case 1:
cout<<"\n";
create();
break;

case 2:
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"\nRoll Number Name
Division Address";
display();
break;

case 3:
cout<<"\n";
add_record();
break;

case 4:
cout<<"\n";
search();
break;

case 5:
cout<<"\n";
delete_record();
break;
 case 6:
cout<<"\n";
cout<<"You Have Successfully Exitted...";
break;
}
}
while(choice!=5);
return 0;
}