Lecture 10

Linked Lists
15-122: Principles of Imperative Computation (Spring 2020)
Frank Pfenning, Rob Simmons, André Platzer, Iliano Cervesato

In this lecture we discuss the use of linked lists to implement the stack and
queue interfaces that were introduced in the last lecture. The linked list
implementation of stacks and queues allows us to handle work lists of any
length.
This fits as follows with respect to our learning goals:
Computational Thinking: We discover that arrays contain implicit infor-
mation, namely the indices of elements, which an be made explicit as
the addresses of the nodes of a linked list. We also encounter the no-
tion of trade-off, as arrays and linked lists have different advantages
and drawbacks and yet achieve similar purposes.
Algorithms and Data Structures: We explore linked lists, a data structure
used pervasively in Computer Science, and examine some basic algo-
rithms about them.
Programming: We see that programming algorithms for linked lists can
be tricky, which exposes once more the power of stating and checking
invariant. We use linked lists to implement stacks and queues.

1 Linked Lists
Linked lists are a common alternative to arrays in the implementation of
data structures. Each item in a linked list contains a data element of some
type and a pointer to the next item in the list. It is easy to insert and delete
elements in a linked list, which are not natural operations on arrays, since
arrays have a fixed size. On the other hand access to an element in the
middle of the list is usually O(n), where n is the length of the list.
An item in a linked list consists of a struct containing the data element
and a pointer to another linked list. In C0 we have to commit to the type

L ECTURE N OTES c Carnegie Mellon University 2020

Lecture 10: Linked Lists 2

of element that is stored in the linked list. We will refer to this data as
having type elem, with the expectation that there will be a type definition
elsewhere telling C0 what elem is supposed to be. Keeping this in mind
ensures that none of the code actually depends on what type is chosen.
These considerations give rise to the following definition:
struct list_node {
elem data;
struct list_node* next;
};
typedef struct list_node list;
This definition is an example of a recursive type. A struct of this type
contains a pointer to another struct of the same type, and so on. We usually
use the special element of type t*, namely NULL, to indicate that we have
reached the end of the list. Sometimes (as will be the case for our use of
linked lists in stacks and queues), we can avoid the explicit use of NULL and
obtain more elegant code. The type definition is there to create the type
name list, which stands for struct list_node, so that a pointer to a list
node will be list*. We could also have written these two statements in the
other order, to make better use of the type definition:
typedef struct list_node list;
struct list_node {
elem data;
list* next;
};
There are some restriction on recursive types. For example, a declara-
tion such as
struct infinite {
int x;
struct infinite next;
}
would be rejected by the C0 compiler because it would require an infinite
amount of space. The general rule is that a struct can be recursive, but
the recursion must occur beneath a pointer or array type, whose values are
addresses. This allows a finite representation for values of the struct type.
We don’t introduce any general operations on lists; let’s wait and see
what we need where they are used. Linked lists as we use them here are
a concrete type which means we do not construct an interface and a layer of
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 3

abstraction around them. When we use them we know about and exploit
their precise internal structure. This is in contrast to abstract types such as
queues or stacks whose implementation is hidden behind an interface, ex-
porting only certain operations. This limits what clients can do, but it al-
lows the author of a library to improve its implementation without having
to worry about breaking client code. Concrete types are cast into concrete
once and for all.

2 List segments
A lot of the operations we’ll perform in the next few lectures are on segments
of lists: a series of nodes starting at start and ending at end.

This is the familiar structure of an “inclusive-lower, exclusive-upper” bound:

we want to talk about the data in a series of nodes, ignoring the data in
the last node. That means that, for any non-NULL list node pointer l, a
segment from l to l is empty (contains no data). Consider the following
structure:

According to our definition of segments, the data in the segment from a1 to

a4 is the sequence 3, 7, 3, the data in the segment from a2 to a3 contains the
sequence 7, and the data in the segment from a1 to a1 is the empty sequence.
Note that, if we compare the pointers a1 and a3, C0 will tell us they are not
equal — even though they point to locations that contain the same data, a1
and a3 point to different locations in memory.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 4

Given an inclusive beginning point start and an exclusive ending point

end, how can we check whether we have a segment from start to end? The
simple idea is to follow next pointers forward from start until we reach end.
If we reach NULL instead of end then we know that we missed our desired
endpoint, so that we do not have a segment. (We also have to make sure
that we say that we do not have a segment if either start or end is NULL, as
that is not allowed by our definition of segments above.) We can implement
this simple idea in all sorts of ways:

Recursively:
bool is_segment(list* start, list* end) {
if (start == NULL) return false;
if (start == end) return true;
return is_segment(start->next, end);
}

Using a while loop:

bool is_segment(list* start, list* end) {
list* l = start;
while (l != NULL) {
if (l == end) return true;
l = l->next;
}
return false;
}

Using a for loop:

bool is_segment(list* start, list* end) {
for (list* p = start; p != NULL; p = p->next) {
if (p == end) return true;
}
return false;
}
However, every one of these implementations of is_segment has the same
problem: if given a circular linked-list structure, the specification function
is_segment may not terminate.
It’s quite possible to create structures like this, intentionally or uninten-
tionally. Here’s how we could create a circular linked list in Coin:
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 5

--> list* start = alloc(list);

--> start->data = 3;
--> start->next = alloc(list);
--> start->next->data = 7;
--> start->next->next = alloc(list);
--> start->next->next->data = 3;
--> start->next->next->next = alloc(list);
--> start->next->next->next->data = 12;
--> start->next->next->next->next = start->next;
--> list* end = alloc(list);
--> end->data = 18;
--> end->next = NULL;
--> is_segment(start, end);
and this is what it would look like:

Whenever possible, our specification functions should return true or false

rather than not terminating or raising an assertion violation. We do treat
it as strictly necessary that our specification functions should always be
safe — they should never divide by zero, access an array out of bounds, or
dereference a null pointer.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 6

3 Checking for Circularity

In order to make sure the is_segment function correctly handle the case of
cyclic loops, let’s write a function to detect whether a list segment is cyclic.
We can call this function before we call is_segment, and then be confident
that is_segment will always terminate.
Our cycle detection function makes use of two pointers, a fast and a
slow one. Let’s name them h for hare and t for tortoise. The slow pointer
t traverses the list in single steps. Fast h, on the other hand, skips two
elements ahead for every step taken by t. If the faster h starts out ahead of
t and ever reaches the slow t, then it must have gone in a cycle. Let’s try it
on our list. We show the state of t and h on every iteration.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 7

In code:
bool is_acyclic(list* start) {
if (start == NULL) return true;
list* h = start->next; // hare
list* t = start; // tortoise
while (h != t) {
if (h == NULL || h->next == NULL) return true;
h = h->next->next;
//@assert t != NULL; // faster hare hits NULL quicker
t = t->next;
}
//@assert h == t;
return false;
}
A few points about this code: in the condition inside the loop we exploit
the short-circuiting evaluation of the logical or ‘||’ so we only follow the
next pointer for h when we know it is not NULL. Guarding against trying to
dereference a NULL pointer is an extremely important consideration when
writing pointer manipulation code such as this. The access to h->next and
h->next->next is guarded by the NULL checks in the if statement.
This algorithm is a variation of what has been called the tortoise and the
hare and is due to Floyd 1967.

4 Queues with Linked Lists

Here is a picture of the queue data structure the way we envision imple-
menting it, where we have elements 1, 2, and 3 in the queue.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 8

A queue is implemented as a struct with a front and back field. The

front field points to the front of the queue, the back field points to the back
of the queue. We need these two pointers so we can efficiently access both
ends of the queue, which is necessary since dequeue (front) and enqueue
(back) access different ends of the list.
It is convenient to have the back pointer point to one element past the
end of the queue. Therefore, there is always one extra element at the end
of the queue which does not have valid data or next pointer. We call it the
dummy node and we have indicated it in the diagram by writing X.
The above picture yields the following definition.
typedef struct queue_header queue;
struct queue_header {
list* front;
list* back;
};
We call this a header because it doesn’t hold any elements of the queue, just
pointers to the linked list that really holds them. The type definition allows
us to use queue_t as a type that represents a pointer to a queue header. We
define it this way so we can hide the true implementation of queues from
the client and just call it an element of type queue_t.
typedef queue* queue_t;
When does a struct of this type represent a valid queue? In fact, when-
ever we define a new data type representation we should first think about
the data structure invariants. Making these explicit is important as we
think about and write the pre- and postconditions for functions that im-
plement the interface.
What we need here is if we follow front and then move down the
linked list we eventually arrive at back. We called this a list segment. We
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 9

also want both front and back not to be NULL so it conforms to the pic-
ture, with one element already allocated even if the queue is empty; the
is_segment function we already wrote enforces this.
bool is_queue(queue* Q) {
return Q != NULL
&& is_acyclic(Q->front)
&& is_segment(Q->front, Q->back);
}
To check if the queue is empty we just compare its front and back. If
they are equal, the queue is empty; otherwise it is not. We require that we
are being passed a valid queue. Generally, when working with a data struc-
ture, we should always require and ensure that its invariants are satisfied
in the pre- and post-conditions of the functions that manipulate it. Inside
the function, we will generally temporarily violate the invariants.
bool queue_empty(queue* Q)
//@requires is_queue(Q);
{
return Q->front == Q->back;
}
To obtain a new empty queue, we just allocate a list struct and point both
front and back of the new queue to this struct. We do not initialize the list
element because its contents are irrelevant, according to our representation.
Said this, it is good practice to always initialize memory if we care about
its contents, even if it happens to be the same as the default value placed
there.
queue* queue_new()
//@ensures is_queue(\result);
//@ensures queue_empty(\result);
{
queue* Q = alloc(queue); // Create header
list* dummy = alloc(list); // Create dummy node
Q->front = dummy; // Point front
Q->back = dummy; // and back to dummy node
return Q;
}
To enqueue something, that is, add a new item to the back of the queue,
we just write the data into the extra element at the back, create a new back
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 10

element, and make sure the pointers are updated correctly. You should
draw yourself a diagram before you write this kind of code. Here is a
before-and-after diagram for inserting 3 into a list. The new or updated
items are dashed in the second diagram.

In code:
void enq(queue* Q, elem x)
//@requires is_queue(Q);
//@ensures is_queue(Q);
{
list* new_dummy = alloc(list); // Create a new dummy node
Q->back->data = x; // Store x in old dummy node
Q->back->next = new_dummy;
Q->back = new_dummy;
}
Finally, we have the dequeue operation. For that, we only need to
change the front pointer, but first we have to save the dequeued element
in a temporary variable so we can return it later. In diagrams:
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 11

And in code:
elem deq(queue* Q)
//@requires is_queue(Q);
//@requires !queue_empty(Q);
//@ensures is_queue(Q);
{
elem x = Q->front->data;
Q->front = Q->front->next;
return x;
}
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 12

Let’s verify that our pointer dereferencing operations are safe. We have
Q->front->data
which entails two pointer dereference. We know is_queue(Q) from the
precondition of the function. Recall:
bool is_queue(queue Q) {
return Q != NULL
&& is_acyclic(Q->front)
&& is_segment(Q->front, Q->back);
}
We see that Q->front is okay, because by the first test we know that Q != NULL
is the precondition holds. By the second test we see that both Q->front and
Q->back are not null, and we can therefore dereference them.
We also make the assignment Q->front = Q->front->next. Why does
this preserve the invariant? Because we know that the queue is not empty
(second precondition of deq) and therefore Q->front != Q->back. Be-
cause Q->front to Q->back is a valid non-empty segment, Q->front->next
cannot be null.
An interesting point about the dequeue operation is that we do not ex-
plicitly deallocate the first element. If the interface is respected there cannot
be another pointer to the item at the front of the queue, so it becomes un-
reachable: no operation of the remainder of the running programming could
ever refer to it. This means that the garbage collector of the C0 runtime sys-
tem will recycle this list item when it runs short of space.

5 Stacks with Linked Lists

For the implementation of stacks, we can reuse linked lists and the basic
structure of our queue implementation, except that we read off elements
from the same end that we write them to. We call the pointer to this end
top. Since we do not perform operations on the other side of the stack,
we do not necessarily need a pointer to the other end. For structural rea-
sons, and in order to identify the similarities with the queue implementa-
tion, we still decide to remember a pointer floor to a dummy node right
after the last element (or bottom) of the stack. With this design decision,
the validation function is_stack, internal to the library implementation,
and the client operations stack_empty and stack_new are implemented
identically to what we saw for queues. The floor pointer of the stack is
otherwise unused. A typical stack then has the following form:
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 13

Here, 3 is the element at the top of the stack.

We define:
typedef struct stack_header stack;
struct stack_header {
list* top;
list* floor;
};

bool is_stack(stack* S) {
return S != NULL
&& is_acyclic(S->top)
&& is_segment(S->top, S->floor);
}
Popping from a stack requires taking an item from the front of the
linked list, which is much like dequeuing.
elem pop(stack* S)
//@requires is_stack(S);
//@requires !stack_empty(S);
//@ensures is_stack(S);
{
elem x = S->top->data;
S->top = S->top->next;
return x;
}
To push an element onto the stack, we create a new list item, set its data
field and then its next field to the current top of the stack — the opposite
end of the linked list from the queue. Finally, we need to update the top
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 14

field of the stack to point to the new list item. While this is simple, it is still
a good idea to draw a diagram. We go from

to

In code:
void push(stack* S, elem x)
//@requires is_stack(S);
//@ensures is_stack(S);
{
list* p = alloc(list); // Allocate a new top node
p->data = x;
p->next = S->top;
S->top = p;
}
The client-side type stack_t is defined as a pointer to a stack_header:
typedef stack* stack_t;
This completes the implementation of stacks.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 15

6 Sharing
We observed in the last section that the floor pointer of a stack_header
structure is unused other than for checking that a stack is empty. This sug-
gests a simpler representation, where we take the empty stack to be NULL
and do without the floor pointer. This yields the following declarations
typedef struct stack_header stack;
struct stack_header {
list* top;
};

bool is_stack(stack* S) {
return S != NULL && is_acyclic(S->top);
}
and pictorial representation of a stack:

But, then, why have a header at all? Can’t we define the stack simply to be
the linked list pointed by top instead?
Eliminating the header would lead to a redesign of the interface and
therefore to changes in the code that the client writes. Specifically,

1. NULL is now a valid stack — it represents the empty stack. Therefore,

we would have to remove all those NULL checks from the interface.
(Alternatively, we can bring back the dummy node, but this time with
a mandatory NULL pointer in the next field.)

2. More dramatically, we need to change the type of push and pop. Con-
sider performing the operation push(S, 4) where S contains the ad-
dress of the stack from the caller’s perspective:
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 16

This call would result in the following stack:

where p is a pointer to the newly allocated list node. Note that the
stack has not changed from the point of view of the caller! In fact,
from the caller’s standpoint, S still points to the node containing 3.
The only way for the caller to access the updated stack is that the
pointer p be given back to it. Thus, push must now return the updated
stack. Therefore, we need to change its prototype to
stack_t push(stack_t S, elem x);

The same holds for pop, with a twist: pop already returns the value
at the top of the stack. It now needs to return both this value and the
updated stack.

With such header-less stacks, the client has the illusion that push and pop
produces a new stack each time they are invoked. However, the underlying
linked lists share many of the same elements. Consider performing the
following operations on the stack S above:
stack_t S1 = push(S, 4);
stack_t S2 = push(S, 5);
This yields the following memory layout:
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 17

All three stacks share nodes 3, 2 and 1. Observe furthermore that the second
call to push operated on S, which remained unchanged after the first call.
At this point, a pop on S would result in a fourth stack, say S3, which points
to node 2.
Sharing is an efficient approach to maintaining multiple versions of a
data structure as a sequence of operations is performed on them. Sharing is
not without its perils, however. As an exercise, consider an implementation
of queues such that enq and deq return to their caller a pair of pointers
to the front and back of the underlying linked list (maybe packaged in a
struct). A carefully chosen series of enq and deq operations will break the
queue (or more precisely its representation invariant).
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 18

7 Exercises
Exercise 1 (sample solution on page 21). Define the function
bool is_sum(list* start, list* end, int sum);
that checks that the sum of all nodes in the segment from start to end is equal
to sum. You may assume that the data contained in each node is an integer. How
should it behave if the segment is empty?

Exercise 2 (sample solution on page 21). Define the function

int lseg_len(list* start, list* end)
/*@requires is_segment(start, end); @*/ ;
that returns the number of elements in the list segment [start,end).

Exercise 3 (sample solution on page 21). Define the function

elem ith(list* l, int i)
/*@requires i >= 0; @*/ ;
that returns the data in i-th elements in list l (counting from 0). If there are fewer
than i elements before encountering a NULL pointer, an assertion should fail.
What is the asymptotic complexity of calling ith(l,i) on a list l with n
elements, assuming 0 <= i < n?

Exercise 4 (sample solution on page 22). Define the following specification

functions on list segments with integer elements:
bool is_in_lseg(int x, list* start, list* end)
/*@requires is_segment(start, end); @*/ ;
bool is_sorted_lseg(list* start, list* end)
/*@requires is_segment(start, end); @*/ ;
The first returns true if x occurs in the list segment [start,end) and false
otherwise. The second returns true if the input list segment is sorted in ascending
order.

Exercise 5 (sample solution on page 23). The function ith(l,i) you defined
in an earlier exercise works just like an array access A[i], except that it does
so on a linked list. Using it and other functions you wrote for previous exercises,
implement a version of binary search that operates on list segments. For simplicity,
you may assume that the type elem of data elements has been defined to be int.
Here’s the function prototype.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 19

int lseg_binsearch(int x, list* start, list* end)

//@requires is_segment(start, end);
//@requires is_sorted_lseg(l, start, end);
/*@ensures (\result == -1 || !is_in_lseg(x, start, end))
|| (0 <= \result && \result < lseg_len(start, end) &&
ith(start, \result) == x);
@*/ ;
What is the asymptotic complexity of calling lseg_binsearch(x,start,end)
on a list segment [start, end) with n elements?

Exercise 6. The tortoise-and-hare implementation of circularity checking we gave

has an assertion, t != NULL, which we can’t prove with the given loop invariants.
What loop invariants would allow us to prove that assertion correct? Can we write
loop invariants that allow us to prove, when the loop exits, that we have found a
cycle?

Exercise 7. Consider what would happen if we pop an element from the empty
stack when contracts are not checked in the linked list implementation? When
does an error arise?

Exercise 8. Complete the implementations of stack as defined at the beginning

of Section 6, dispensing with the floor pointer, terminating the list with NULL
instead.

Exercise 9. Consider an implementation of queues as linked list such that enq

and deq return to their caller a new header to the front and back of the underlying
linked list each time they are called. Engineer a series of enq and deq operations
that, starting from a valid queue, will result in a data structure that does not satisfy
the representation invariant of queues (i.e., result in a broken queue).

Exercise 10 (sample solution on page 23). Here’s a simple idea to check that a
linked list is acyclic: first, we make a copy p of the start pointer. Then when we
advance p we run through an auxiliary loop to check if its next element is already
in the list. The code would be something like this:
bool is_acyclic(list* start) {
for (list* p = start; p != NULL; p = p->next)
//@loop_invariant is_segment(start, p);
{
if (p == NULL) return true;

for (list* q = start; q != p; q = q->next)

Lecture 10: Linked Lists 20

//@loop_invariant is_segment(start, q);

//@loop_invariant is_segment(q, p);
{
if (q == p->next) return false; /* circular */
}
}
return true;
}
This code has however an issue. Can you find it?

Exercise 11. We say “on the ith iteration of our naive is_segment loop, we know
that we can get from start to p by following exactly i pointers.” Write a func-
tion is_reachable_in(list* start, list* end, int numsteps); this
function should return true if we can get from start to end in exactly numsteps
steps. Use this function as a loop invariant for is_segment.

Exercise 12. What happens when we swap the order of the lines in the enq func-
tion and why?

Exercise 13. Write an interface and implementation of a double-ended queue

where we can add and remove elements at both ends. Make sure that all operations
you specify can be implemented in constant time.
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 21

Sample Solutions

Solution of exercise 1 The sum of all the elements in a list (or array) seg-
ment would be defined recursively as the first element plus the sum of
the rest of the segment. Then, it is natural to define the sum of an empty
segment to be zero. Thus, is_sum(start, end, n) on an empty segment
would return true exactly when n == 0.

bool is_sum(list* start, list* end, int sum)

//@requires is_segment(start, end);
{
list* l = start;
int n = 0;
while (l != end) {
n += l->data;
l = l-> next;
}
return n == sum;
}

Solution of exercise 2
int lseg_len(list* start, list* end)
//@is_segment(start, end);
{
int n = 0;
for (list* p = start; p != end; p = p->next)
//@loop_invariant p != NULL;
{
n++;
}
return n;
}

Solution of exercise 3
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 22

elem ith(list* l, int i)

//@requires i >= 0;
{
for (list* p = l; p != NULL; p = p->next) {
if (i == 0) return p->data;
i--;
}
assert(false); // i is greater than the length of l
return p->data; // possibly unsafe but unreachable
}
For an n-element list l, the asymptotic complexity of ith(l,i) is O(n).

Solution of exercise 4
bool is_in_lseg(int x, list* start, list* end)
//@requires is_segment(start, end);
{
for (list* p = start; p != end; p = p->next)
//@loop_invariant p != NULL;
{
if (p->data == x) return true;
}
return false;
}

bool is_sorted_lseg(list* start, list* end)

//@requires is_segment(start, end);
{
if (start == end) // empty list segment
return true;

int x = start->data;
for (list* p = start->next; p != end; p = p->next)
//@loop_invariant p != NULL;
{
if (x > p->data) return false;
x = p->data;
}
return true;
}
Lecture 10: Linked Lists 23

Solution of exercise 5
int lseg_binsearch(int x, list* start, list* end)
//@requires is_sorted_lseg(A, 0, n);
/*@ensures (\result == -1 || !is_in_lseg(x, start, end))
|| (0 < \result && \result < lseg_len(start, end) &&
\ith(start, \result) == x); @*/
{
int lo = 0;
int hi = lseg_len(start, end);

while (lo < hi)

//@loop_invariant 0 <= lo && lo <= hi && hi <= n;
{
int mid = lo + (hi - lo)/2;
//@assert lo <= mid && mid < hi;

int mid_data = ith(start, mid);

if (mid_data == x) return mid;
if (mid_data < x) {
lo = mid+1;
} else { //@assert mid_data > x;
hi = mid;
}
}
//@assert !is_in_lseg(x,start,end);
return -1;
}
The complexity of lseg_binsearch is O(n log n): it will make log n ac-
cesses to the list (just like binary search) but each access now costs O(n).

Solution of exercise 10 The code does not work when the input-list is a
self-loop, as in the following example:

int main() {
list* a = alloc(list);
a->next = a; // self loop
assert(is_acyclic(a, NULL));
return 0;
}