LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering (EIE)
V SEMESTER Academic Year : 2022-23
Subject : LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION Sub Code : 18 EI 55
Faculty : Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept.

Module II : Generation of Lasers: Single mode operation, frequency stabilization. Q-switching,

mode locking, lasing threshold.
Applications of Laser: Measurement of distance: Interferometric methods, Beam modulation
telemetry, Pulse echo techniques; Holography & its Applications.
Contents: Module II : Questions: 1. Discuss the features of single mode operation
Generation of Lasers – elimination of modes, disadvantages and applications.
2.1 Single mode operation 2. Compare single mode and multi mode operation.
2.2 frequency stabilization 3. Explain ‘hole burning’ w.r.t. gain curves.
2.3 Mode locking 4. Explain the Lamb dip technique of frequency
2.4 Q-switching stabilization. 5. How is frequency stabilization obtained in
semiconductor lasers? 6. Define Mode Locking.
7. Discuss the formation of a Q-switched laser pulse using
the schematic of the variation of various parameters as a
function of time. 8. What is meant by Q-Switching? Why is
it used?
2.1 Single mode operation

● The output of a laser is not always a beam of coherent, monochromatic radiation.

● The output may be continuous or in form of spikes within a pulse.

● It may also consist of several longitudinal and transverse modes of varying

wavelengths.
In Applications such as chemical & physical investigations, it is desirable to have the
Greatest possible spectral purity. Achieved by operating a CW (Continuous Wave) laser
in a single longitudinal, single transverse mode.

Single mode operation can be achieved by arranging for one mode to have higher gain
than all others. A few methods are elaborated below.
A prism or grating in the optical cavity
may select one of the wavelengths
produced.

Ensure that the laser cavity will support a single

transverse mode – TEM00, while eliminating the others
– by placing an aperture within the cavity.
As the higher order TEM modes spread out further
than TEM00 mode, an aperture of suitable diameter will
transmit TEM00 while eliminating the others.

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

To reject all longitudinal modes and keep

only one, increase the frequency separation
δν = c/2L between the adjacent modes, by
reducing the length L of the laser cavity.
This ensures that only one mode within the
transition linewidth will oscillate.
Disadv: Laser output power is severely
reduced as cavity length is reduced.
Overcome by other techniques such as Fabry-Perot resonator (either inside or outside the
laser cavity), third mirror techniques or absorbers (within the cavity).

2.2 Frequency Stabilization : implies maintaining the wavelength of the single mode at a
constant value in the laser output.
Done by rigid construction (to stabilize the cavity dimensions), temperature control or by
introducing compensating devices. If not done, L will change and the frequency & power of
laser output will change. It is possible to stabilize the operating frequency of laser to about 1
part in 109 Hz. These stabilized outputs give a long coherence length – useful for
applications such as long path difference interference measurements. The techniques of
‘frequency stabilization’ are different for different lasers.
In an ideal homogeneously broadened laser,
the laser output will oscillate only at a single
freq. – (no need of freq. stabilization).

Reason: All the individual atoms are considered to

behave identically. The response of these atoms
described by the Spectral lineshape function g(v),
shows that as the pumping is increased from
below the threshold (A curve in Fig), the laser
will begin to oscillate at center freq. ν0, (B curve).
Beyond the threshold, further pumping will not Curves A, B, C correspond to pumping levels
increase the gain (saturated – C curve is same as –
B) A -below threshold, B - at threshold &
C - above threshold

Freq Stabilization in inhomogeneously

broadened lasers - Consider Gas Lasers
TWO methods – I: Lamb Dip method
Basic Principle: Individual atoms behave
differently from one another – Doppler
Broadening
Gain at resonant freq ν0 remains clamped
at threshold value due to gain saturation
(curve B).
Further pumping (curve C) may increase
the gain at other freqs (ν1 & ν-1) until
oscillations commence at those freqs also.
Gain curve (C) acquires depressions or holes
at these oscillating freqs (ν1 & ν-1) - ‘HOLE
BURNING’

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

Inhomogeneously broadened due to Doppler effect -

there are two groups of atoms 2 holes are burned – symmetrically placed about
whose stimulated emission contributes to the vx = 0 and correspond to atoms with velocities of
laser output intensity; plus and minus vx.
the population inversion is reduced for these vx = component of velocity of atom along the
atoms and gain saturation occurs. direction of observation

Lamb Dip method of freq stabilization

Plot of output power vs freq shows a dip at vm =
νo – center freq LAMB DIP
INCREASE in power resulting from any slight
deviation from the center of laser line can be used,
as the basis of a feedback system,
to stabilize the freq of the laser at the line center
by minimizing the o/p
These techniques enable the freq to be stabilized
to better than 1 part in 109.

Gas Lasers – Method II of Freq. stabilization

Consider a laser output with two modes operating with equal
irradiance (I) – due to the symmetrical gain profile (dotted
line in Fig.). Any drift in the gain profile will cause one
mode freq to increase in irradiance & the other to decrease.
Monitor the 2-mode irradiance;
Use the difference to operate a feedback loop that
controls the cavity length (by changing the cavity
temperature) & hence the operating freq is stabilized i.e.,
the freq is held fixed at some fixed position relative to the
gain profile.

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

Freq Stabilization in Semiconductor lasers: The techniques used are different from that of
gas lasers. Aim: To ensure that only a SINGLE MODE can oscillate
It is easy to obtain a single transverse mode by using heterojunction semiconductor lasers
(with narrowed gain region). However, many longitudinal modes are present. Even after
ensuring that only one longitudinal mode can oscillate, there is a problem with temperature
stability. This is due to the position of gain profile depending on bandgap – which depends on
temp. This causes the laser to ‘hop’ to another longitudinal mode (mode changes). This can
be improved by using wavelength sensitive feedback that is relatively insensitive to temp.

Distributed Bragg Reflector – DBR

- Feedback Structure used to
provide wavelength sensitive
feedback by using corrugations (fig).
Ensures only one mode is present in
output – by the
Constructive interference between the
2 beams (fig below) when 2D =
mλo/n
m–integer; n–refractive index;
λo -vacuum wavelength;
D – wavelength of corrugations

A more Efficient structure is obtained by extending the corrugations throughout pumped

regions – DFB – Distributed feedback laser. The corrugations are in a layer adjacent to
active layer.
2.3 Mode locking

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

• It is a technique for producing periodic, high power, short duration laser pulses
• An inhomogeneously broadened laser cavity supports many modes simultaneously
• Output of such a laser as a function of time depends on the relative phases - δn, freqs -
ωn and amplitudes - ξ0(n) of the modes - n
N −1
Total electric field as a function of time: ξ (t) ¿ ∑ ( ξ 0 )n e ¿ 🡪 Eqn. 1
¿¿
•
n=0
• Usually parameters - phases - δn, freqs - ωn and amplitudes - ξ0(n) of the modes – n
are all time varying. Hence Modes are incoherent
• Assuming all N modes have same amplitude ξ0 , the Total irradiances – sum of
irradiances of individual modes I = N(ξ0)2

Non Modelocked Output Mode locked laser output - consists of a

Irradiance shows random fluctuations series of narrow intense pulses
Plot for N =3 modes.

Theory: In a Mode locked laser output, the Phase relationships of the modes are kept
constant. The Output consists of a series of narrow intense pulses of time spacing 2L/c and
duration (1/N)(2L/c)
• Force the various modes to maintain the same relative phase δ to one another
• Mode lock the laser - δn = δ
• Now total irradiance is found by adding the individual electric fields rather than the
irradiances
N −1
• In Eqn. 1 with δn = δ ; ξ ( t ) =ξ 0 e iδ
{ }
∑ e {i ω t }
n
🡪 Eqn. 2
n=0
• Let angular freq ωn = ω - n Δω ; where ω corresponds to highest freq mode & Δω =
freq separation b/w modes = πc/L & ωn = ω - nπc/L . Let ϕ = πct/L
N −1 N−1 N−1
Now Eqn. 2 is ξ ( t ) =ξ 0 e iδ ∑ e ¿ ξ 0 e {i(δ +ωt) } ∑ e {−inπct / L }=ξ 0 e {i(δ +ωt) } ∑ e {−inϕ }
{ } {i ( ω−nπc / L ) t }
•
n=0 n=0 n=0

{i (δ+ωt )} sin ⁡( Nϕ /2)

ξ ( t ) =ξ 0 e
🡪 Geometric series 🡪 ϕ
sin sin( )
2
2
sin ⁡(Nϕ /2)
Irradiance I ( t ) =ξ ( t )∗ξ¿ ( t )=ξ20
• ϕ
( )
2
• I(t) is periodic (Δφ = 2π) in time interval t=2L/c => round trip transit time for light
within the cavity
2
• when ϕ=0 , pπ ⇒maximum value of Irradiance I ( t )=ξ 0 N2

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

• Minimum value of I ( t )=0 when ϕ=2 pπ /N

Summary
Output of a mode locked laser consists of a sequence
of short pulses, Separated in time by 2L/c
Each of peak power equal to N times the average
power
or N times the power of the same laser with the
modes uncoupled
Ratio of pulse spacing to pulse width approx. equal
to N – number of modes ( (2L/c) ÷ (2L/c)(1/N) ) = N

Hence to obtain high power, short duration pulses, a large number of modes are required in the laser
output which requires a broad laser transition & a long laser cavity.

Compute pulse duration & pulse separation in a mode locked Nd- YAG laser with
fluorescent linewidth = 1.1 x 1011 Hz, 0.1m laser rod, refractive index – 1.8.
Solution: (speed c -> c/n); Mode separation δυ = Δυ = c/2Ln = 8.3 x 108 Hz.
Number of modes N = linewidth/ δυ = 1.1 x 1011 / 8.3 x 108 🡪 N = 132
Pulse separation – 2Ln/c = 1.24 ns (1/ Δυ) 🡪 Pulse duration - (1/N) (2Ln/c) = 9 ps

Q. Describe the achievement of active and passive mode locking

Active Mode Locking
• Mode locking achieved by forcing longitudinal modes to maintain fixed phase
relationships. Nd:YAG – 50 ps & Nd: Glass – 1ps duration (larger N – broader
linewidth)
• Done by modulating the loss (or gain) of laser cavity at a freq equal to intermode freq
separation δυ = c/2L or Δω = πc/L
• Consider that the loss modulation is provided by a
• Shutter placed near one of the mirrors
• Shutter is closed most of the time – corresponding to high losses (no mirror
reflection –oscillations die down)
• And open very briefly every 2L/c seconds (cavity round trip time)
• If the wave packet is exactly as long in time as the shutter remains open
• and if it arrives exactly when the shutter is open,
• It will be unaffected by the presence of the shutter.
• Any parts of the wave packet arriving before the shutter opens or after it closes
will be eliminated
• Hence phase relationships of the oscillating modes are continuously restored
by the periodic operation of the shutter
• Electro-optic or Acousto –optic modulators can be used as shutter

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

Passive Mode Locking

Mode locking is achieved using certain
dyes whose absorption decreases with
increasing irradiance-
Saturable Absorbers: Chose a dye
with an absorption band at lasing
transition freq.
At low light levels dye is opaque (large
no. of molecules absorb light)
As irradiance increases; dye becomes
transparent – bleached
Growth of mode-locked pulses: The Laser medium has spontaneous emission –
incoherent fluctuations in energy density in cavity
Some of these short duration fluctuations can grow to such an extent, the dye is transparent
to this peak; However, the lower parts of the fluctuations are strongly attenuated due to
absorption by the dye. Hence high power pulse can grow in the cavity; provided the dye
can recover in a time short compared to duration of pulse.
Adv: Simple, inexpensive and rugged method. 9740, 9860 dye solutions, cryptocyanine,
etc. – saturable absorbers for Nd:glass, Ruby
When a saturable absorber is used to mode-lock a laser; the laser is simultaneously Q-
switched.

2.4 Q-Switching
Another method of obtaining short, intense bursts of
oscillations from lasers, which is obtained by
introducing time- or irradiance dependent losses in
the cavity.
Initially though the flash lamp is on,
the high loss present in the cavity (i)
Prevents the occurrence of laser oscillations –(ii)
Gain due to population inversion can reach a
very high value – (iii) & Energy is pumped into
excited state of the medium
When a high population inversion has been
achieved;
Cavity loss is suddenly reduced (iv)
(i.e., cavity Q is switched to a high value)
Laser oscillations will suddenly commence (v)
And all of the available energy is emitted in a
single large pulse which
quickly depopulates the upper lasing level (vi);
gain reduces below lasing threshold and the
lasing action stops (vii)

Fig: Various parameters as a function of time

during formation of Q-switched laser pulse.

2 important requirements for effective Q-switching

• Rate of pumping must be faster than the Spontaneous decay rate of the upper lasing
level, else Upper level will empty faster than it can be filled & required population
inversion may not be achieved
• Q-switch must switch rapidly in comparison with the build-up of laser oscillations, else
Laser oscillations will build up gradually and a Longer pulse is obtained, hence
reducing the peak power. In practice, Q-switch should operate in a time less than 1 ns.

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & Optical Instrumentation 18EI55 Module II: Generation of Lasers Handout

Methods of Q – Switching
• Rotating Mirror Method
• Electro – optic Q – Switching
• Passive Q – Switching

Rotating Mirror Method: Rotate one of the mirrors at high speed. Optical losses are
high (Q-low) except for the brief interval in each rotation cycle during which the mirrors
are nearly parallel. Just before this interval, the laser is pumped through the flash lamp so
that the population inversion can build up (> Nth)
Laser action starts when the mirrors are parallel (Q-high). Laser firing Repetition rate is
controlled by flash lamp – not by mirror rotation speed – 60,000 rpm => 1000 times/sec
– laser o/p – excessive heating of laser rod
Advantages – cheap, reliable, rugged
Disadv – inefficient production of Q-switched pulses – lower peak power
Electro – optic Q – Switching: Change of voltage synchronized with pumping mechanism
done in <10 ns – effective Q switching

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT