UNIT-3: Building

Construction and
Sustainable
Development
 · 2. COMPONENTS Of BUILDING

2 A_·GENERAL IDEA &.ELEMENTS

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A Z~l GENERAL IDEA : ·/ ~ ,r / /. ~/ '{ I _,r/V ·.. T.
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.· J . I Bui1ding Structure:
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11 I ( i)
Every bui Iding struclm:e has its some portion below the ground and remaining

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po1·1ion above the ground as shown .in Fig. A.2.1 . .
(ii) The portion b~low the ground surface is known as sub-structure and the portion
above the ground level is known as super-structure. ·

Wall

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I Brjck
I - Brick Wall
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( w) ( w)

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Plinth ·course

Sub G.L.

t l ·= ping
·--,. ::. -;- -:.. -., - :; :. ·.: - _:.. ~"' Po un at on ;. : ., • __-- . . : - • .·. - • • : _.
Pig.A 2.1 . . General Idea 6 Elements of Building
Sub-Stru.c ture :
(-i) It is the .p·a rt of the structure·buried below the ground leveL
(ii) It includes the portion below the le~el of grcuncU!29r (plinth) because the~_ight of
~-ound floor above the ground level is neg~eted, ·as compared to the height, of the
· structure.
(iii) The ele1:nents of sub-structure are mainly foundation and the thicker stepped part of
the wall below t.he ground level. .
(iv) The function of the sub-structure is to distribute and transmit the structur.e load to a
Jargeare~iL .·
--c:: -

0-( i) S-Qper-Structure : · _
It ~s the portion of the stru~ture !bove_ the ground level_Jor· abo ~e ground fl oor ).
Ci i) It includes walls, doors, windows, statrs, slabs, roofs etc.
 6 B . t
as1c CIVIi En11n11r1nu . . . cructure I
• • • • 1. . supe1-s
··· , . . . 'Jnbigc1ue~. , . .·', : \
\·
( t11)~up~,r~s.t ruc1ure mi!y have single stor~ ot m~•lt~ -storteS. alied ·a ~ .
. co,~ stst s of large nL1111bcr of stol·1es. Such butldm gs are c . Ie
( 1v) Tl1 · f 11 s· •f · 1t to t ·
.: ~ elements of super-structure ca n be gro.uped as O ow · -ds and t r a ~ .
(a) Structural Elements : These elements ca rry the stru ~tural 1_o ~C0lurnns:·eu. .
sub- st ructure bel ow . These ·•~lemeRts are : ( I) :frusses, •(2) Bea~ ·:·.
w a· 11 can act as a structu ral elemeht
. ,. · ' case
in ' of·~mall but'Id mg.
' · ture other t h·a n the
th
( b). O er Elements : The building elements in · the super- 5 lrUC
st
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ru c nira l elements are us follows :
< ) Floors -Surfm.: e for occupants to '1ive on.
(~) Watts p1:otec tion and privacy puq?oses . • . hen required.
(.~) Doors - For 'a ce es); and circulation and for closing for protectt0n w ,
4
( ) Windows - For ventilation, lighting, viewing etc. . . in and snow ·• \
f ,1 .\
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(.5) Roofs - For protection of building arid occupants against sun rays , rd C} ( \
falls. d~t>\> ~.A
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/ A Z.2 BUILDING ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS): ~,r\,1,1\\j,'0 '\ "_:~( 1,;f
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· .ig. A. 2.1
. shows-some· of• the important
. .bmldmg
. . . elements.
. Th ey· are explame
. ;. ir;
__below with their functions and materi.als required. ·
,._Y. Foundation : t -r. I)\ cJ.. (') .
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(
' ) D e r·m1tion
1 . . . : It is defined
' as . the lowermost part of the structure and
. t h e sot·1 s·trat'l
. ' ovet \
which it stands. 'It is constructed below ·ground. ' 1;
(ii) Dead loads, live loads and :,wind loads a~t on the supe1:-structure of the_ b~i lding. They I!
are transmitted to the soil throuo-h the foundation at the base of the building. :¾
(iii) Functions_: The foundation ~onstructed to keep the structure in posit!on. It seryeb\l~\J\'(\J
the follo~mg functions . ,) \-e -hrcJf'S~ ~c\-~ \cc,._~ C'_Ort\\(\1 on
( a) To transmi~ and distribute the structure-load over a large area of soil or rock \~low, t •J
the foundation a,~d prevent overloading. \ °'"'B-e., 0 S .S\-l Sot l
(b) To load the substrata atu~iformTate so as_ to prevent unequa~ settlement _of .t , f'Y\n<'OVYi
"o -~v,d e
(c) :o
structure. \,e,v"() .s ..e. (on~~n.j ·'
i1~·ease the stabilit~ oL..,trncture so as to prevent it'from tilting and over turning
Ill case of rain , wihd, earthquake etc. ~) l'\'o :-S~f ~t . e_ St<\! ~ru~
( d) To prevent lateral movernent of supportmg material agamst d1sturbmg force of_wmd,
rain etc.
te) To provide firm arid leveled base for super-structure.
( iv) Ma-terials: The fallowing materials are used for the founoations.
(a) Concrete. (b) R. C. C., (c).Steel, (d) Wood, (~) Bricks,
(f) Stones, · (g) Mortars. (h) Soils etc.

2~h : 1c. -/i ; o ·~ r\

( i) Definition : Plinth is· the part of the structure between the ground level and the
ground ·f loor level. [t is_the portion of sub-structure abo,;,e the ground surface up ·to
the surface of the floor imm~diately above the surrounding ground.
(ii) The thickness of the pli:nth is determined by the width of foundation and the weight
of the super-structure. · · . · ,
( iii)The minimun1 height of the plinth should be 45 cm according to the· bye laws. It may
,. he incre.<tsed·by considering the following ·factors .
(a) Necessity of Architectural treatment.
4. (b) Highest floor level in the surrounding area .
.(c) Nature or'surrounding ground . · ·
). (i,v) Functions: (a) l·t transfers the l_oad of super-structure to the foqndation .
· 6. (h) lt functions as a retaining wall belo~ the raised floor level of the bui\dino.
(c) It protects .the buil9ing from the moisture 6r dampness to penetrate in it. e
(d) It adds beauty to the architectural appearance-of the building.
cv ) Materials: It utilizes the foundation and flooring materials. ·
9.
 I LA lillllllr•uu11• •
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1_1. Chajjas
,i'. weather
· _ ·
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. .\ ( 1) Thes , Sheds, Sun breakers: - .
(ii) F · t:: .cements are provided in the wall openirtgs along with doors and wmdows.
(iii) Munction . 'l'l . . . • f ll f
t . · t 1ey are used for protec tion against sun rays, ram a , rosl, sno , ·
w etc
·., (iv)Tl•ae e)r~a_l: R . C . C . is used wide ly . · .
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space c ions o1. these ele1nents should not obstruct free c ·ircu \au.on
· ·m the open
.· .;
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1_2. Beams:
(i) Det'in't•
1 •on : Bea. mf: ure the ~tn., ctural horiz.ontal element which
· take up t he vertica
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Ioads 0 f
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• •) T · upper f1oo,·•·., . .
.. .
YPes : Beam!. may be 'a) Simply supported beams and (b) C antilever beams. \
· ( 111) Funct'ion
.· Tl1ey are u sed
' to transfer the load of upper flo ors to the supportmg
· wa· ll s· I
. or columns.
. ls : C ommon materials are R . C. C ., stee I, ttm
(w) Mate raa . b er etc .

13. Slabs: \
<!~ Definition·: Slab is a series of beams spanning in one direction plac·ed -srde by side.
(l1) Function: It is used to distr'ibute the loads on the upper floors uniformly and transfer
. . . them to the walls and columns through the beams.
. ) Mat. ena
<111 · 1 :· Slabs are R. C. C . ·
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(iv) Slabs are necessary to work as floors or roof for multi-story buildings. They are the
honzontal ~uilding elements which divide the building int!? differe~t levels to creat
more -,pace. They accommodate and support the occupants and their belongings.
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14. Stairs : · ·· · • . ·· · · ·· · · .· .
( i) Definition : Stairs is an element connecting the two adjacent floors. They ar~ the
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passages used for vertical transportation or communication of men·and materials.
(ii) Function : It provides access to the occupants of different floors. It is for free
circul~tion.lt can be used ·for escaping in case of fire hazards . .The stairs should
provid~ easy, sa{e and quick access.
( iii) Types: (a) Straight stairs, (b) Quarter stairs, (c) Half turn stairs;
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· (d) Circular stairs, . (e) Spiral stairs. . . . .
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(iv) Parts : It consists of number of steps running from oµe floor to the next fl_oor. l't has a
.1 side railing for safety and protection.
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,.· (v) Materials: Materials for stairs may be: (a) KC. C., (b) Tiles, .· (c) Stones, · (d)
Bricks,, (e) Wood , (f) Steel etc .
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15. Roof:
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(Refer Article 5.12 of Chapter 5 for more details.) ·
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· (i) Definition: Roof is the top most part of the building in the form· of covering.
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( ii) Function :_ It protects the building and occupants from sun rays, rains, wind and .
·I snow .fall. It also provides natural day light on _large floor area in case of halls,
factories and public places.
(iii)Types_.: There are three types: (a) Flat roofs, (b) Sloping or pitd\ed roofs and
(c) Curved roofs.
(iv) Flat Roofs-: .
(a) They are nearly horiz_o ntal. A slight slope is necessary to drain the rain water. his
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similar to flo'or with more sloping.
(b) Advantages : (I) Simpler and more economical than sloping roofs .
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(2) Roof area is_useful for other purposes.
:, (3) Futu1·e construction of upper floors is possible. .
• (<,:) Disadvantages: ( l) Unsuitable for long spans without use of beams and columns .
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.t (2) Temperature variati_o ns may produce cracks .
(~) Possibility of water leakage due to insufficient slope.

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(4) Unsuitable for heavy rain fall regions.
(5) He·a vier and initial cost ishigher thar, that of pitched roofs.
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ofs etc.
(v) Pi.tched or Sloping ltoofs : 4 1'rus~ed r~ . •away
<a) T hese ai·e t.he roof1- wi th hettv) slo~es . f ( 3 ) T iled rdofs_;. ( )f 11 to draln ·
<bl ':'y pes_: (I ) T_hntc hed roofs. (2) Shingle roo s, · a·n fall and ,ce a ' ts
· ,,., of heavy r 1
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1 c ) F• 011 ct1on: th~y nr·e _uscd 111 t ,e reg,o -~ . (4• ) Q. I. Shee •
the waler and ice quickly . . (J) -r,tes,
(d) Material : (1 ) S1n1w s und reeds. (2) Shingles,
(5) Alumi nium shei:t..;;. (6 ) A sbestos Cement shee ts etc .
vi ) Curved Roof's : . .
<_ . 1 · • factories,
( a) Th ese i.it'e the 1nod1f1ed
pitched roofs. · . t ccures- such as
( b) They are used as shell roofs , dome roofs etc.. for high s ru nomical structure. ·
· monuments etc. They have very pkasant-appearance and eco _
I (c.:) Material of curved roofs is R. C. C. · . the roo f s.
t
t .·
l . .]din to support
I 16. Truss : ft ,s the structural element-used at the top of the but g · .
r, They are of steel material : . · .
· · · · · d . the top
.. . . . . . 11 constn1cte on .
-17· P arapet Walls and Coping : Parapet wall 1s the short wa .
·s lab i•oof fo~· viewing and safety. . ·
' The top portion of the parapet wull is called as coping.

EXERCISES:
·· d supe-
J· Draw . neat sketche.,;; and explain the different elements in sub-structure an
structure. Mention their functions . · · .. • : · ··
· 2 · Explain with sketch, what do you understand by sub-strncture and super- 5 rruct~r~.. .
1- Enumerate ·the different parts :of a bu'ildipg and which i.naterials are now-a-days
pr~ferred in constructing those parts. . ,
4 - · With the help of neat sketches differen.tiate between the . sub-sttucture· aflrl ::;uper-
structure. ·
5. · Draw a neat sketch to show various struct~ral components of a building. - .
6. Draw the section iif a wall showing various elements and write in short about eir th
functions.
7. · E~plain wl)y foundations are necessary fo;
buiidings .
. 8. Lrntels are provided over ·door, window openings. Justify the statement by giving
reasons.
9. Write in brief the purpos~ served_by doors and windows.
 2.,CONIPONENTS-OF BUILDING,,
2 C SUPERSTRUCTURE ·

C-.2.J WHAT IS SUPEll.STRU.CTU RR '!

1• Definiton : A superstru cwre is 1.1 part of 1he building structure whi<.:h is above th e
ground .l~vcl ( ground fl oor level) .
2. Elements :
( i) It indudes slructur,tl clements sue~ · as columns, beam, ?labs. tru~ ses and ott,er
building elements such as floors , walls, doors, windows. stairs, roofs etc .
(ii) The structural elei~ents ure the · building components which · withstand the loads
com_ing on them and transfer them safely to the foundation below.
-'· Multistoried Structure : · .
( i) ln city areas. the -space is not available easily. The land is either very costly or there is
sho1'tage : So each building has more than one story to make more floor arec.1 availabl:::
for the accommodation. Such bui.lding is called a multistoried structure.
t ii) Skyscraper building has large number of floors to reach high in.the sky . 1 •. .
· · .· . , · 11 qcif- :?~:;1/r · rf· _
, ·r-crr:· -s r,
· · ,,.- •1 10 Ol<:I.\' ·•
C 2.2 PRINCIPLE OF LOAD TRANSFER: l .-!'r <'~' n ·
:r. '',:)J~ o\s- 'oo ,~ b~1'1slr_ ·1 s.r-rv. '.•,,h,1'cr<>. _~ f f-.,:) ~~ F -~ ,-
L. Loads : There are dead loads, !Ive loads, wmd loads, impact and v1brat1onal loads.
earthquake loads etc. coming on the superstructure.
2. The superstructure should be designed to withstand these loads.
3. Load Transfer : ( i) Function : The structural elernents of the superstructure -transfer
the above loads down below to'the foundation safely. ·
(ii) Principles : The load transfer takes place according to any one of the following.three
principle< (a) . Frame acti011, · (b) Load beari11g wa_ll action and (~) Comp0site
action.
(iii) Typ~s of Super~structures : According to the types of ,·oad transfer actions ·stated
·above. the super-structures at·e clasi;ified into-three types : . (a) Framed Stnh::ture,

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(b) Load Bearing Walled Structure and (c) Composite Structure. \
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·, 2.3 FRAME ACTION AND FRAMED .STRUCTURE: £y~\Ql:l"' ~ ,-r·· \ ; i~ : ~ \ , ,.
·\ '°:J' f,,t;,,...I
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.,
c :,_,r. .,
1. Frame Action: According to this,;,.1:-'-(;V. ( h,!'
Roof Slab principle, load of the ·structure is UJ\ 'f--1/1
tr~nsferred to the foundati~n through ._v,,d? ,j
. the frame formed by the. structural Y'- .er - Ir-
elements . such-: as columns, beams and . ,
Floor Slab slabs. d, c, Cfl•
.,.,..,.L-1,... Floor Beam 1. Framed Structur_e :
· (i) In this stt:ucture, the columns are
.,.___,._. Plinth erected ..on independent foundation and
-Beam ti1ey . are branched togethei· by beams
and slabs. Thus a framed structure is
·-·
formed as showri in Fig. C.2:1 .
(ii) The open space between the beams
and colurrins is filled up by thin filler
Fig.C 2.1 _ Framed Structure
walis or panel walls as required.

2C Supen;trucll!re 31
 " 32 . .e'as1c CIVIi EnulnHrlnil . do not bear and·
. .. . . . . ·.. , .. If. The filler .pane l wall s . al' walts of.the_
(111.)The en tire lo:1J ,s earn ed by the fi arrn:: ,tse · II rve as .e ,<.tein ternal wall s \ ~ -
trans fe r any load except l I1e ir_ . we ·,g I1 ts · These ·wa •s se. . tc T h e ex
• owf! · · · : /

rooms and c l ,ddi ng wall s, part1l1 · ·

0 n wa II s,• -sc reens ' curta in s e · uire large
sho uld s_hare late ral wind press ure . . . . I ·truc tur~s - becomes
( iv) Applications : Mul tis tori ed buil d ings and hea vy mdµStna s 0. structtOfl ·, tui·e
• · ·· · d Such co · d struc
. • thi ckn ess of wa ll s if loud bearin g struc ture is- use ·. . d '(1o ns. frarne ·
uneco noniica l ,111d so metimes impracticable . Underth ese con 1 .
is the ideal :ii te rn at ive.
( v) Cost: The cos t o f th e fram e is about 40 % of the total cos t of cons
. . ·tru c tion - c;
( vi ) Material : . (

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( a ) Timbe r fr:1 1111: is used upt o 2 to'.' stori ed buildings. . . used . . .
u re . ~- C. C. framed structure ts co ~rno n 1~nd workshops.
· ( b) For 111ulti s1ori ed stru <.: t_
t
(c) Stru c tura l stee l frame 1s suitable for heavy structure of factorie s i,, s to carry
(vii) TJ1e co lumn s ize is small for the top floor becau se ~he top flo?r colu~:hi~e coming -
th c.:- loaci o f roo f onl y. The column size ha~ to. be mcreased m st ePS · , um size
d own to the successive .lcwer floors and the ground floor column has maxim
as ir h,ts to c arry the load of all the tloors above . . loads of
(v iii ) The size of beatns or slabs is same for all floors as they have to carry th e
their respeclive fl oors only . ·

C 2.4 LOAD BEARING WALL ACTION AND LOAD BEARING WAl~LED

STRUCTURE:

1. Load Bearing Action : . . · · ·

be
<i) According to this principle, the loads of the building are .carried and· ·ansfer eJ
foundation th.rough the walls themselves in cc~ of one or two storied structure~.
( ii) Thus the walls become the structural elements or load · carrying members . Th. . ey me
called as lo,td bearing walls. · . . .
( iii) Such walls should have large thickness. It is designed by · considering followmg ·
points : (a) Wall material properties e .g . strength, (b) Expected load,
(c) U1isupported height, (d) Span length, (e) Openings in the waU. ·
(iv) 'Nomograrns ' are us ed in the absence of any specific calculations, for decidi_ng wall .
, lhickness .of brick masonry. ·
7 , \t>s_\ (l _ . . . .
_ _3,v-Load Beating Walled Structure:
(i) In this. structure, load bearing
Roof · Slab
walls are constructed on continuous
foundation as shown in Fig.C.2.2.
· (fl) The walls are designed .to
supp~rt the entire lo~d of . beams ,
slab, trusses, above floor and their·
own weight load.
Ciii)The load. bearing walls b_ci.ng
_!_hjck, occupy the space-~r~. ·
Bed
(i\) These structures are used on\y
upto t_wo sto1·ied build~ngs'. because
the increased size of wa\\ thickness
becomes : uneconomica\ and
impracticable and he~ce prohibits
their use for multi storied-buildings
and heavy structures of factory and
... ;' work shops.
Cem. ent Concrete ( 1 : 4: 8 )
·(v) The materials used for this type
F'ig: C2 .2 Load Be.aring Walled Structure of structure are stones , b nc~ . ,,,
. I . cement concrete, mortars etc. . ,
 .J..l f . . ., '
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·rable C 2.1 : Con1parison between ·Framed Stru~ture & Load Bearing Walled ·
Structure. .c),;,£15 ,
'o tr\' 0 Q..·CC. c f11h c<" \ . \ . \ (i
,0)0.61 bc..QX)-, n \ s:t'tfV 1
\ 1

• -~ / ·Framed Structure Load Bearing Walle_d Structure ("t\Jr·r!

r. Load ·is carried and transferred· by 1. · Load is carr_ied and transferred by ii

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t.he·structural- ele1nent .of fran1:e . ..., the w_alls and hence walls are the
e.g. colu1nns ~bea1ns and slabs.
4.,,...., • • •
' structural elements.
. .
Wulls do-not carry any load.
2. . Thin walls are used. So fo.r the gi've_n ··2. Thick walls are necessary. So less . . .

plinth area, carpet area is increas.e·d. .. carpet area lS available for . the
given plinth area.
3. Frame can · be constructed . 1n <
_,. Structure · should be · erected ·
advance. Various . construction · uniformly · over the entire area ..
phases can- ·be carried out · Growth of structure should ·be of
si111ultaneously on · different fl_oors. sa1ne level all over the area.
·. The walls can be erected later on. - ·,

4. Speedy construction. ·so _shorter ti1ne · 4: Comparatively slow co'nstruction . I

for construction. and longer ti1ne for construction.

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,..:,,'
 34 Basic Civil Enu1neer111u .b 'rio-id' \
,--~--_:_-------:---:-::-:---:-;--;--;,~,--;:;~-:i~M\~;7"•;-~
The structure i~ said to be 'flexible'
--:J·idd to e
5. The Slructure. ,s sad ·stribution of
1 D .•

le'ss re 1· to ·u
· dden ·
.5. d ue
;,1s the stresses are rcJ istributed . So · th
· . y- be ·s
there IS no sudden co llapse of the stresses. so ere ma ·n case of
structure 111 case of excessive load s collapse of stnicture . t,
of short duration. excessive loads. -~ k._ ·as
~
(___-~~~~==~ : _ - - - - - - -i-- _\_.;~ ~ - --:-:-;-::-:=:~~ thql.la e.. .
6. It can withstand ea rthquak e s due to 6. It can not withstand ear k 5
· · · · t eartht1Ua e ·
redi,,.;tribution of stre sse s . tl ts sensitive O "1 .· d . d ,ng
. b\.11l .
st
7. Can be . .- onstructed for ,my number .7. Sllitable upto 2 to 3 oi ,e rnaY be
.ur stori es or floors . Sky-scrapers, are otherwise the- structure
possible i'n this type only . unsafe , heavy and bulky· . public
1--8-,_--+-'u_;·_s_
e_ .d for all structures including
t't_ 8. Useful for residential and
having.
heavy str.uctures of factories, buildings of general' use , . .I
wqrkshops etc. light and medium loads. -IS ·
9. Elaborate structural design 1s highly · 9. Simple structural design
, essential. sufficient.
10. Excellent supervision and effective 10. -· Simple gene1~a1 supervision is just \
quality control produce the best enough.
·-\
results.
the
I I. I~_ is possibl~ to. change the position 11. It is impossible to . change \
of p_anel walls at anv time as per positions of load bearing walls.
k
!
·requirement.
/ 12 -'cs~a~i~t,~ib~l~e~~i~~)r:.:_a_n_y~ty_p_e_s_·_o_f~f-o_L_n_1d-a~t-i_o_n--l-l-2-_--i--Su-it_a_b_le-~-t-.o~r-a-
.--p~a~r-ti_c_u_\_a_r_t_y~p-e___o~1~:-so-· ~t\:---1
i · and soi I. · · · oniy.
 10.
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WATER UNIGEME,lT
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10.1 WHY WATER MANA_G EMENT?

I. Our India is mainly .agricultural country and most of its agricultural outc~me depends
on the natural rains.
2. t As is well k1,own to all . .the rainfall is uncertain and unpredictable . .
3 . The rain varies ~idely from time to time and from region to region . . .
4. ·T he main sources for water supplies are rains, hail, ·snow and dew but the maximum
quantity of water comes to the earth through rains <>~ly. . .
s: Water is needed . in large quantity for people, ammal_s and plantat~on for various
~,: . purposes. · · · · · · .
.- ... '
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... t
•·.. 6. Thus tl).e problem of avaHing sufficient quarit,it_y of water to al\ th~ sectors as and
when needeq throughout the year is very acute. . . -
· 7. Hence there should be an: effective water management for the economical and
efficient use of available water foe balanced progress of all the sectors."
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10.2 SOURCES OF WATER :
The important w<\ter resources (sources) t\vailable on the earth are -classified in
the following Table I 0.1. ,
Table 10.1: Classification of Water -Sources .
.
Water Sources
Sr.No. (A) Surface Sources . Sr.No. . (B) Underground Sources
(i) Ponds and (ii) Lakes. 1. Springs. ·
I. lnfi ltration Galleries.
2. (i) streams and (ii) Rivers. 2.
Storage Reservoirs. 3; Infiltration·Welk:
i 3.
Oceans and seas. 4. (i) Wells, (ii) Tube-wells. ,
4.

l0~3 SURFACE SOURCES:

·The sources in which the water is available over the· surface of the earth are
· known as the surface: sources.
The ~ater is directly available from such sources.
· The_surfa.ce·sources of water supplies·are -discussed below. -

·10.3.1 (i) Ponds and (ii). Lakes : ,,; ·

I. Ponds and -lakes are fortned when the natural depressions within the surface of the
·e arth get fllled up with water. . .
2. Srnafl sized depression with comparative.Ly small water content is known as. a pend
·whereas the large d·epression with large water capacity ·is known as·the l~l<.e. -
J. The iakes and .ponds get the surface rtin~6ff water from their catchment areas through
drains and streams·. · . . _
4. In some ·iakes and ·ponds, the underground water gets ·collected through springs in the
depression. .
5. Iii case ·of still and stagnant lakes and p·onds, the algae, ~eed and vegetable grow
freely and give bad odour, col~ur and tas(e to. the water. . . . .
.6. Generally the lake· water ·is pute .and_·good quality because of th~ self puriµ.cation
properly. 1his _property .consists ~·of (i) Sedimentation of suspended particles .
.(ii) bleaching of colour, (iii) rerr1oval of bacteria etc. .
 . .\,

230 IHh;Ctv11l11-.•r1ni _ a nd 5 n,a \l e r la kes .

.•
,.11:
water 1han 1hnl o
f newer
AU£ 'l·t·
:,1.ratti'flilrd,ail' , ...ch,xU
·,a, ., ,;,-.
d~.-•-r
7, : l_c~c'.· •:11ld lu~gt!r J;_
1k cs c!l l1 gi ve pu~~r , -1
1 he ,lll 1f 1c rn l pu n f1 ca 1141n of l nkc wal~ il.,~U,~ ~ a tion S- Iii- •
8, Th ~ q1!:'l 11ti1 y of wm er in the l ak e ( iii ) G eo l ogical for:nd s, they arc no t
nd
,1re a ot th e lak e hns in, ( 11 1 /\ 1rnu1:1 I r 1:1 1nf0 ll an thC l ak es a p
IJ . Pu e to th e s m 11 II qu ont i t" l' f wa te r avail able f n ~rTl
• J , pphes . . · nD other. a\t.ern
·
ativi{
· '
supplis(1<1 10 be Ihi.:: m r1If1 1 , 011 rccs o f w ,11er SU . hefl there -JS ; 1 I -~pply fro m the
1
I 0 . L 1l'gc 111 1' c!s co n p rov i de the m llin water SUPP "/ ~v .. ~et the wate r s
, d S lfl 'l 11 l(J W II S C
.
so u 1'l.:e o f w a,t cr. Gcnl'.' 1n'll y 'Ii ill y a,•ef1 J:; an ' ,,
luk \!s,
I 0.3.2 (i) S lrclim,o, end ( ii J Ri vers : . -~f w ater a1id
(i J Stre1uns: eJ"Y s..,,.all q~ antit~ •'b le f o r wate r
.
. · · t •11n v . · '" u1ta -
I. The !-niUII ., trcmn:i .ch unq cb or nallahas con ' . general. uns ·
. S 0 they are ,n .
so m eume11 1jiey may become .dry even . .. · · , h· •source s. of ·water.
.
sup pl y . ., . Tl1 y can be t e .. ·
. I k . · nvers e · · -
1 Usuall y they cany w ater towai:c;ls a_es _01 ·: · · . ·
throu · hout the
suppl y for villages in th e hilly area on the way . ._ (having water g
·· d rennta 1 ·
3. By pro viding ;,;fprage reservoirs, the:large 8_1) pe ·· , · ·1t if stream
yea r) streams
. ·can be used for the water S':}pply. ·
.· · . t· treatment -
b ~fo~e supplying
- .· - · to the .sano • .
an d
4. ~ any _umes. the.~tr_e am water req~ir~~ wa _er ·. comes harmful due - · .
!lo ws over a long distance. Because su~h ~j:ltet be · · . ·
mine ral impuritie~ dissol ved in it. · . , . -' • . · · · .
(ii) Rivers: . :1 ., ' ' ; ·v~r'becatise most ot
• f the nearby fl
I. It 1s easy to get the water sµpply for the city rom _ _,
the cities are' loca 1 ed on the banks of th.e .riv_
··~- ·· e rs. · -. p
f 01· the u - · bli·c \\lat. e··r Works .
1 So the rivers -have become the major sources of water .. .
J.. Rivers ,~re of_ t:"o t)'.p,es, :,(i) P~l?Wi•~:1,<tJ1H t\i!), ~9.~:~retiia~!~ throughout ~he year are_
4. Perenmal ~•ver~ : The nvers Ill w~iFJM!l-e. ~i;lte,i ,.- 1s a~a ·rai~s dµring rarr).Y .~-~ asons
know11, ~~\ .P/~Hf!,111\\l;I ._rl:,'f~~- Thftse 1:ffyr.'j_,get th9 . ~-~f,~!. b~ .; ·,.~ , '
and by snow_duri~g su,rrn11er seas_ons .. _ . · .; . . ._. thtouahout the year. They
5. Non-perenmal Rivers : These nvers ~ue not ful,l, qf ~ater · I::!, · , . · •

can -go d1:y 1ur1,i~g~pt s~a~ons. . _ . >.... . · ter sJ \y. tf the water is
6. The pereniJtal pve1; yan .be _u _sed duec;:tly for the pubhc wa _ , . PP _
1

available in plent( . _ . · . · ___ . . . . the head work such as

7· If the wate1· quant1t- y Is
-· '
Iikely to be
-
reduced ·
dun
·
n a di Y seasons? - , ,:;
0 .• .- , . . . : ,· . . , ,
· :· ~- · ·,, -. ·rrofo the ' · erenma\
a barrage or a weir 1s constructed to mamtarn the wate1 supp Y P ·
river. .·_. . · .. · · • . · \1
8. a
A dam _is, construciedac1:oss perenniil river i'f it is rnul_ti-pu~~ose proJeCt SUC as
1
a
water supply. irrigation. hydropow~r, f}()od co_n trol e~c. · . . . . _ . .
9. be
The . non-pereimial riyers c;an. u~ep for pp~li~ ~ ·a ter suP,ply only by cort~tructmg
storage on the upstream side of the intake worl<s·. .· .
I0 . Highly non-perennial-rivers tan be rnade useful for water s_upl?lY
• • . . . . . • • •.. •• • •
~x co•~~-~t~~tl\1g _daITl,.
I .. • f .. '· ' , . . . ., . . .

across 1t. ., .
IL The ri·ver 'A;·atef ~oiitains large quantity ·of silt, sand and· suspended m_~teria\. So its
qu_;ility is not pure usable. Additionally tpe treated and untreated sewage are di&po~ed
in 1t. So
the ::i·,ci·'water ·is contaminated. .. '. _ . . - - . , .
12, Thu.s the 11atu1:,d dv:e/ water '\s' not sui\ab,le '. for direct .water ·supply. So it . is first ,
carefully analyzed ·,1-nd treated well before -it is· supplie·d to the publit .
l 0.3.3 . Storage Reservoirs : · , · ·
-I. ·_The p6of o,:- a,:cifi~iai fake -forrrnid on the upstream side of the river by const~ucti ng a
qa11·1 or barrit;r across it is known _as st9r1:1-ge. res~rvoir: _ ·
2. , - The : '~ ater supply ,s cheme tafiryg, wat~r ;directly_'from, river can, n,ot meet the the
._.. ,den~µ~d, .?.uri,~~ lo~-,flo\V ~~-~i~ds :~~y ;t,o s~?rtig~ o~ water.' ~t cannot _supply' the wa_ter
-even c;funng high-flow peno,ds due to the heavy floods . ·
J. So the bat~riei· is construct'ed acr,oss' the_' ri_ve'r
anct':th'e reservoir IS formed on ib
upstream side.
4. The puhlic water supply gets water from this rese rvoir thrnugh canals & .sub-cana\ s.
 The qualitv of water of this, reservoi r i!> simil ar to that of th e natural\~~~·., , ,. : · .

'
5.
6. 1:he storaSe rese•·so;r prov;dca no, on l~ wq\er ~upply b,ut also other pur~.oses such a,
, i1-r~ gati on. hyd roeleotnc pQw~r. fl ood contrpl etc.. i •

1Q;3.4 .,..I Ocenns and.Seas,:

f t\,ese ;;;ou rc:es t-s. ··no1,su1lable
. for· y.,ater su pply· a t present.
1
I
• 1 • l • ,e water, o r .,,·e ,--seless because · they are far away from · the interior regions.
1
-··
? 1ese soun.:e" ,
10.4TlUNDERGROUND · SOURCES: .. \ ·:. ' .! , •• ~i- .
· • • wt, ·ic ll tl• e water i!. uvaih1ble from be low th,e grou nd level or ·s urface of
i · Tl. ,e sou rces _ th
k • ,., a" . •
the ·
unde ,
rg rou nd• .sottrces. . .
ti 1e ea1·t 1
1 ,are n 0 y~
11 "
l d,·,-,,ctly ttva1\able from
: .•
such
, •
sources
,
.
., • , e water 1s no . ..,· td s·mall qu anuty • . of · . water .
. 2.,. Tl
,,
These snurces can y,e •" ' · · : ·· 1 • • •· · ,

l0.5 INTRODUCTiON
. d f " . d as theTO l)~MSstructure
,nass1ve : . barrier
or ·. . con structed across the. nver
. . for
.
I D am 1s e ,ne .- . d . · . .
s·toring lat'ge quantity ,of water beh)t1 .1t. 0 · ·
2. Dams are constructed, w_ith concrete, stone~ .~-~a;t:t~- •i. . • ,.
1,. Dam has re.c tangular, triangul,ar or tr,ap~zo1dal ·cro~s-~ectton . . : ..
4. The dam which withs~nds the . water p~;;sure -~Y .,ts o_wn weighr-is l\n6wn as the
'gravity dam'. . · ; ' ·. : · . .· . . . ·, . · ..
5. · On the upstream side of the dat'n, the storage reserv?ir ts forme~_. The_u_p st~eam water
flows towards the dam. The oiher side of the 9am ,.s_ kno.wn as the doy,nsiream side
The water is released from this side during flood penods. · ..... ,, ., .· . .·

10.6 SELECTION OF DAM SITE : The. following factor,s. govern the selection of
_ site f~r the 'dam const~uction.?~~o~~; ~h~. ~iver_:
----'---Basin Width I. ,AvaUability ofsu.itable fo\111:dation.· .
2. · The ·ri~:W ·~:aU~y should ::be ~ar~QW. at , the
. dam . site_... '.fhi.s y.,,jl\ . need, sm~le.j . qam length
which becomes economical. , .._ , , . i ·. , ,
3. The_:_ river ya\ley · shou.ld . ~e , w~de, at.. the
· upstream sidx to provide large ba$in for the
reseryoir, ' This will 'store ' ~ax-i mum water. 'for
the given height of the d~m: Th~ ideal ·dam she
~Z:Z~~~nam and its contours are shown in :fi.g.-:lQ,J . ,.. -~. .
4. The river bed level at the dam site shou\d
. _Fig.10"1 Dam site be hig~er:.thai;i ..tha~ 0( 1 ~~e river basin. This
reduces the dam height and solves drainage problem. . . ..
5 . . Site for spillway should be available n,ear to :t~e.,c;lam loq:1tiq~. . . .
, 6. Nearness to the . locality is, desiniple so that _.cpnstrµction materials ca1~ be m_ade
. /
available easi.ly and .the ~ost of transportation ~an b~ reduced: . . . . ' . .
7 , . The ~,isprV9 i r baSi.11 shou IQ ,be leak ,proof_. to a.void excessive Ioss .of wa_ ter by leakage
anddrains . · . · 1
. . ·: .. :1 · . , · , . :.

8. The Ill i11 imu Ill, I.and' and .property. shou Id_be..SU bm.<irged by 'the propo~ed:da.111 i;i:oj ect.
. 9. • .The ,dam site shoµ ld be acce"~s ibl e to the cities so tl;iat .ti)~ trans!)pdation can be
economically provided . · ,. , .
Jo: Sufficient area for de~~lopirig ·colo,nies fpr \abour s.ho\}ld be Available near..riam site .
. 11. The proj<!ct should 111eet the iricreilsed demand io ne"ar future. _· ' . .

~YPES OF DAMS:
. ii · .

Tl1e. various .ki1,19~

. , · _ .~f.<lams
. . . . .. are classified
. . '· as foll~;,,s..
, .

(a) Older Types (An~ientTypes).: . 3. Solid;tviasonry Gravity Darn.

I . Earth Dains, . 2. Rock~fi.\\ q~ms,
(b) New Types (Recent Types). ;: . · ·
5. Steel Dams ;
4: Hollow Masonry Gravity Dams,
7. Arch Dams.
6.· Timber Dams,
 l. Earth Oa~s :
(b1)
(, ) These
. · darn s. a ,·.e. co nstru c ted by poun d"mg
· d o wn
. the ·soil
. solidly.
. 1 ble ·•for construction as
'.
,uch dams are constructed whet, the earth 1s readily avai a · · .
compared to the other mat eria ls s uc h as ~tones, r~ks _o r con~rete.
st enough to bear th~
1
(c) They nre built in the locations where the foundauon s not rong e
weight of the .conc rete dam s .
2.
(a) Rock
L · -- Fill
- Dams ·• -. • ..... r1 struct these d ams. .
oose rocks and boulders are piled nv'the rl'\7er ucu to con_. "d concrete across th
(b) Thi s dam is rnad e w ..11e 1· - ti g ht by applying ·a slab of reinforce . ·· e
upsl'n-'! a m S't lrface of the dam . ·
.3. Solid Masonry Gravity Dams : · · th re is strong foundation
( a ) The se dams are. made of stone masonry or concrete where e ·
to bear the heavy weight of the dam . · ·. k d
(b) Such dams at'e expensive_but more durable and ·massive than earth or roe ams .
4. Hollow Masonry Gravity Dams: · · · · b t th
(a) Thes,e dam~ are simil.a r to the solid masot1ry gravity ' dams indesign u . e concrete
·b or masonry required for it is Jess.·about 3s'to 40 percent.C C ·· arches
by· · which sha
< > The weight of -the water is taken by the deck of R, - · · · or · re
some of the weight.
(c) Such dams require highly skilled and experisive·la_bour.
5. Steel Dams : · ' ·
la) These dams are constructed as the temporary coffer dams required for the permanent
dams. in the rnajor work-s. ·
(b) The-se dams are reihforced with timber or earth fill.
6. · Tin1 be-r Dams :
(a) Timber dams are notdurable. The usual 1ife is 30 to 40 years.
(b) They requi.-c regular maintenance. . . - .
· (c) Such dams are useful for providing ·water for catties and other low level needs.
7. ~rch pams: · ·· .
(a) Arch dams are ve,~y
complicated and complex. ·
(b) They are suitable where dams must be·high and ·narrow. . .
(c) They utilise horizontal arch actiy,n instead of weight to r~sist water presiure.
 9.14 °"'ATER TREATMENT PLANT:
,.;• , •· ,

Sedimanta"tion ··.Tenk
.: ·I
Chlorination
Elevated Tank
• -,
1
1
:· Coagulation ·Ta=nk
~i- -
House
/ .

Pumping
Sump· Well for Clear- Waffr . ~ ,· r:·-, _,, .
Distribution System or Low Areas/ / _
Jack· Well n1strib1;1tion • System - ·
. . . :~;
. '• .. ,.,,_ •'.'·•·-;.~~
. . . ..... :, :_-•.·. ~ -':''; ._·-~ . .. . _ .........,.. . .
~ -" ....--· .. .

Gravity Pipe .,; \· ), , ' .

Fig.
.
9.3(b)...4•,. Water T~l&;i~t P!'fint \ . '.
. -~ . - . ··".· . .- ·<·. ,:: ...:· :.·: . .. . -' . ,./'.. . --· . _:;;-:!:_,'";-,_, _:;:~. . -
The w4ter tq~~tme,11t· plant• of·t he 'wat¢r,stippl){- ~~fr~me has th~. f9Uowing c.ompc,nel'l'ts
as 's"i:1o'i ~-"i'"rt ftfj,~_:_(~):~:.:~~-~--~:} ti--•, .· :~:':J. :·. :;~::::>>':.;-• <rli--~..:~r ··.
: · ·- · ·. . -.•··
L Int.ake::Wen-··t 'It .-is ·consfru cted ·i1f '.the. rivefbed·•neiir· the bank arid is above the high
. flpod J_e \'l'.el (H. F. ~. ): Water._ :~ t_e.rs. in: .i t_t_brp~gq,Jhe ..scfeens ·pr6viddd;in :il~ ope'rrings.
The stones can not enter_in ·it due to thes·e. screens. . - . ·· · .. ·
2. · Gravity Pipe •,: It conn~cts-~ he-:b0tt0·m ·- of;t-He +rttake well, anif Jack well so thaf water
flows from the intake ·w ell to. the.jack well through it by gravity. · ·
3 . . Jack Well : It is cons(1ucted, qtlf Jhe riV~f banf.atil-.higber ,position . ft i~ ·suffidently
d~ep to receive the water ~hrough th~,-gr.avity, pip~ .by gra,vit.¥ ,. _ .:; · . . .: ., '
4. ·. · Pump House: It is the at
top ·o f the jack _well_and it:pumps the -
-water frow-the .jack .·
we! Uowani.s ~he ,c,;,oagula.tJQn {e:l;nk_ s.: ., ... . . . ·_1 • .• , · , _, - .· , . • , : ·. , .' , ,

5. Rising Mains : .These are the pipes which carry the .wa;tet ;,µnd~ r:-pi;e,_<;s\lreJ,:Qm: the
-p 1;1 r;np house-t(i); tby series of.coagulation tank.s.. Thes~rmain.s -m<11y4':8 ei_very.long._. ·_.
6. Coagulatfon Tiinks .:, ·' th,e se tanks tnay.b~ sorne,kilometers .il_w ay:£rom tli~ ja,ok _.weil.
They collect t he water_for ·a long time for the settlement:~Q.f4. tbe org~nic •- and -~m i:f:l·e1:a\
suspeAded matter and . some bacteria. They are removed:,periodically. Generally. a lpm
,,
I
'
224·,... Bastc,c;1,r11:Eaqa._,_.·; i,, . .

is add~d in the tanks to reduce LUrbidit~' ·of the water.- c w

flocculatiL. ·, tank .
.
-Th · acer then p~s~e.

. 1. O f the water. Then water

. .

·· .
,s to the

I
-7 . Flocculativn Tank : It is used to remove some u.ir~•c:I tY · ·
: passes towards the sedimentation tanl<.s. f h- reduction of turbid, ty.
·s d" · · · d f Or the urt er ·_
8 • · . e 1mentatmn TI\Qks : They are al$O use _ . • - _ -
. Then the Welter. i·s ai•owed to the filter bed tanks or filt~rs. Thl"V contain the· layers
f water.
• , . 1 .·
9. FIiters : These are the tanks used for the f1ltratton
• •
° ....,J
t wards 'the top. The
·

.. of c_o arse, medium and . fine sand particles

d "dfrom
5
and-bouom
clear wa . ote_r is available
- . . at the.
suspended particles are caught in the sa11 vot •. · ~ds So these sand beds are
bottom . The bacteria are also removed by the tilt~r b . · ·
periodically washed to maintain the filtration quality·
t 11 t bacteria Afterwards
10. ·C lorination : This is carried out after filtration to deS roy a tie · • d .
some prncesses such as removal o'r colour, odour, taste, hardness etc. are carne out
in some speciai cases'. Then the water· is collected in large sump w:ells. ·
11 · Sump Well ·.: The clear· water is stored in the large .capacity sump wells. .
12. Low Level Distri_b~tion : The sump wells supply the water thro11gh these pipes to
the low areas -directly. -·· . · . , . · . ·. . . _ . _ ·
13. Pun1ping : The clear water of the sump well is raised to the elevated tank or storage
_ ·_ tank by these pumps. ·
14~ Storage Tanks : These tanks store the required capacit_y of clear water at a high
level. .
IS. Dis_tribution System : The water fro~ the storag~ tanks -tS supplied to the city
consumers by gravity thr5mgh the distribution system ofpipes.