Engineering Chemistry I

Unit I

Dr P Subhapriya
PSP Department of Chemistry
10/14/2023 1
Creation and early evolution of matter in
the universe
 Between about 10-12 and 10-6 second after the Big Bang,
neutrinos, quarks, and electrons are formed.
 Protons and neutrons began forming shortly after, from about
10-6 to 1 second after the Big Bang.
 Within about 3 minutes after the Big Bang, conditions cooled
enough for these protons and neutrons to form hydrogen
nuclei followed by Helium. This is called the era of
nucleosynthesis

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But after about 20 minutes, nucleosynthesis ended and no further
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nuclei could form.

After the big bang, no neutral atoms are formed.
Reason out.
 Electrons couldn’t stay in orbit around any atomic
nucleus because of the immense heat and radiation
still flooding the universe.
 Shortlyafter any neutral atoms would form, they
were knocked apart again by energetic radiation.

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What is recombination?

 After 380,000 years or so, the

universe had again expanded and
cooled enough for conditions to
favour electrons staying in orbit
around atomic nuclei.
 This is when recombination occurred
(figure 1) — neutral hydrogen (and
helium) finally appeared because they
could “recombine with” (hold on to)
electrons.
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 STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the creation (nucleosynthesis) of
chemical elements by nuclear fusion reactions within stars.
 It explains why the observed abundances of elements change
over time and why some elements and their isotopes are much
more abundant than others.
 The theory was initially proposed by Fred Hoyle in 1946, who
later refined it in 1954.
 Later Margaret et al team proposed the nucleosynthesis by
neutron capture of the elements heavier than iron. (1957 B2FH
paper)
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Stellar evolution: Birth of star
 Stellar evolution is the process by which a star
changes over the course of time.
 Depending on the mass of the star, its lifetime can
range from a few million years for the most massive
to trillions of years for the least massive.

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 What is the lifeline for a star?
 Nuclear fusion reactions happening in a star is the lifeline of
the star.
 Oncethe nuclear fuel is over, the gravity force will dominate
and will lead to core collapse (death of a star).
 Nuclearfusion reactions happen due to the thermal pressure
generated by high gravity.

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 What is hydrostatic equilibrium?

 In any given layer of a star, there is a balance between the

thermal pressure (pushing outward) and the weight of the
material above pressing downward due to gravity (pulling
inward). This balance is called hydrostatic equilibrium.
 Ifthese forces were not equal, the star would be collapsing
inward (when gravity is higher) or expanding outward
(when thermal pressure is higher).

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 What happens in a low mass star?
 Low mass stars have less hydrogens and these hydrogens undergo
fusion reactions to form helium.
 Once all the hydrogens are burnt, the star will have helium core and
hydrogen atmosphere.
 Next helium undergoes nuclear fusion reactions to produce carbon or
oxygen core with helium and hydrogen atmosphere.
 Then further nuclear reactions not possible and gravity overtakes
nuclear energy resulting in white dwarf (carbon or oxygen core) and
planetary nebula (hydrogen and helium atmosphere).

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What is a white dwarf?
A white dwarf is a small, very dense, hot star that is made
mostly of carbon. These faint stars are what remain after a
red giant star loses its outer layers (Planetary nebula).
 They are about the size of the Earth and will eventually
lose their heat to become a cold, dark black dwarf.
 Thesun (low mass star) will eventually turn into a white
dwarf and then a black dwarf.

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 What is Planetary nebula?
A planetary nebula is a huge shell of gas and dust ejected
during the last stage (red giant) of the life of a medium
star.
 Elements such as helium, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, neon
and smaller amounts of heavier elements are present.
 The remains of the carbon core of a red giant evolve into a
white dwarf star.

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What happens in a high mass star?
 High mass stars have more hydrogens and these hydrogens undergo
fusion reactions to form helium.
 Once all the hydrogens are burnt, the star will have helium core and
hydrogen atmosphere.
 Next helium undergoes nuclear fusion reactions to produce carbon or
oxygen core with helium and hydrogen atmosphere.
 This continues until the core is either nickel or iron and the
atmosphere is lower atomic mass elements like hydrogen, helium,
oxygen, carbon, neon, silicon, etc.
 Then further nuclear reactions not possible and gravity overtakes
PSP nuclear energy resulting in supernova due to core collapse.
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 What is supernova?
 The supernova is the final stage in the life of massive stars.
 Stars burn the fuel in their cores and produce heat. This heat produces
pressure that pushes outward against the forces of gravity that pull
inward on the star.
 For most of the life of a star, inward gravity and outward pressure are
in balance and the star is stable.
 But as a star burns through its fuel and begins to cool, the outward
forces of pressure drop. When the pressure drops low enough in a
massive star, gravity suddenly takes over and the star collapses in just
seconds. This collapse produces the explosion we call a supernova.
This is type II supernova.
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 What is type Ia supernova?
A Type Ia supernova (read: "type one-A") is a type
of supernova that occurs in binary
systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of
the stars is a white dwarf. The other star can be anything
from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.
 Ifthe stars in one of these binary systems collide, or if one
of the white dwarfs absorbs enough matter from the other
star, the white dwarf can become a supernova.

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What is a neutron star?
 Stars with a mass between 1.5 and 3 times the mass of the sun will
end up as neutron stars.
 A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star that is composed
mostly of tightly packed neutrons.
 A rapidly spinning neutron star is known as a pulsar.

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 What is a black hole?
 Blackholes are all that remain after stars with masses over
3 times that of the sun supernova.
A black hole is a massive object (or region) in space that is
so dense that, its gravitational field does not let anything
escape from it – not even light.

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What are the elements formed before
supernova?
 In sufficiently massive stars, the nucleosynthesis by fusion of lighter
elements into heavier ones occurs during sequential hydrostatic
burning processes called helium burning, carbon burning, oxygen
burning, and silicon burning.
 The byproducts of one nuclear fuel become, after compressional
heating, the fuel for the subsequent burning stage.
 The heavier elements appearing closer to the core and lighter elements
occupy the surface and arranged based on their atomic mass.
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What are the elements formed before
supernova?
 Elements with atomic mass less
than that of iron and nickel are
formed before supernova and
they are arranged in descending
from the core to the periphery,
looking onion like arrangement.

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Why elements with atomic mass more than iron or not
formed in stars?
 When the stellar core becomes dominated by iron, the fusion into
heavier elements does not lead to the release of energy. Rather
requires absorption of energy.
 Therefore, the core lacks an energy source and is unable to support
itself against gravity anymore leading to a collapse of the star.

Note – frequently asked question

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How heavier nucleus beyond iron are formed?

 In the supernova explosion, nuclei are bombarded with

neutrons and heavier elements are formed all the way up
to uranium within seconds.
 All these heavier elements are then spread throughout the
galaxy by the immense force of the supernova.

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 What is rp process?
 The rp-process (rapid proton capture process)
consists of consecutive proton captures onto seed
nuclei to produce heavier elements.
 Itis a nucleosynthesis process and, along with the s-
process and the r-process, may be responsible for
the generation of many of the heavy elements
present in the universe.

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 Stability of nucleus

 Stable nucleus – non-radioactive

 Unstable nucleus – radioactive
 Also-- less stable means more radioactive and more stable means less
radioactive.
Protons Neutrons Stability

Odd Odd Least stable

Odd Even More stable
Even Odd Even more
stable
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Even Even Most stable
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Predict which one would you expect to be radioactive in each of
the following pairs: a) O-16 or O-17 b) Cl-35 or Cl-36 c) Ne-20 or
Ne-17 d) Ca-40 or Ca-45
Answers:
 (a) The 16O8 contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons (even-even) and the 17O
8

contains 8 protons and 9 neutrons (even-odd). Therefore, 17O8 is

radioactive.
 (b) The 35Cl17 has 17 protons and 18 neutrons (odd-even) and the 36Cl17
has 17 protons and 19 neutrons (odd-odd). Hence, 36Cl17 is radioactive.
 (c) The 20Ne10 contains 10 protons and 10 neutrons (even-even) and the
17Ne
10 contains 10 protons and 7 neutrons (even-odd). Therefore,
17Ne
10

is radioactive.
 (d) The 40Ca20 has even-even situation and 45Ca
20 has even-odd
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What are the two processes involved in producing heavier
nucleus?
 Neutron capture and β-decay

What is r and s process?

 If the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the
relevant β decays, s- process.
 On the other hand, if the rate of neutron capture is
faster than the relevant β- decays, highly neutron-rich
PSP nuclei will be formed. The process is called r-process.
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Types of Beta Decay

 There are two beta decay types: beta minus (β–) and beta plus (β+).
 Beta-Minus Decay
In beta minus, a neutron is transformed to yield a proton, causing an
increase in the atom’s atomic number. The neutron is neutral, but the
proton is positive.
To maintain the conservation of charge, the nucleus in the process also
produces an electron and an antineutrino.
Antineutrino is the antimatter counterpart of neutrino. Both of these are
neutral particles with negligible mass. They interact with matter very
weakly and can even pass through the entire earth without being
disturbed.
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Beta-Plus Decay
 In beta plus decay, the proton disintegrates to yield a
neutron causing a decrease in the atomic number of
the radioactive sample. The nucleus experiences a
loss of proton but gains a neutron.
 Again, conservation of charge is important. The beta
plus decay in order to obey the conservation law also
yields a positron and a neutrino.
 A positron is the antimatter equivalent of an electron;
the same in all aspects except that a positron has a
positive charge.
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Electron Capture

 Electron capture is concurrent to beta plus

decay. Instead of converting a proton into a
neutron with a beta particle that emitted
with a neutrino, the proton absorbs an
electron from the K shell

 X + e- --> z-1Y + ve.

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Belt of stability

 This is a diagram of what is sometimes called

the “belt of stability” or “line of stability”.
 The black jagged line is the most stable
region. The straight black line is where
proton numbers equal neutron numbers. For
the first 20 or so nuclides, the jagged line is
very close to the straight line.
 As nuclides get larger they need more
neutrons than protons to remain stable, so
the jagged line starts getting steeper than the
straight line.
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Belt of stability
 Nuclei above the belt of stability can
lower their ratio and move to the belt
of stability by negative beta decay,
which converts a neutron to a proton.
This increases the number of protons
and decreases neutrons and gets the
nuclide on the jagged line.
 Nuclei below the belt of stability can
increase their ratio and move to the
belt of stability by positive beta decay
or alpha decay, which converts
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Nuclear binding energy and mass defect

 The masses of nuclei combined are always less than those nucleons
(protons and neutrons are nucleons) individually.
 For example consider helium nucleus (4He2)
 Mass of 2 protons = 2(1.00728 amu)
 Mass of 2 neutrons = 2(1.00867 amu)
 Total mass = 4.03190 amu
 The actual mass of a Helium-4 nucleus is 4.00150 causing a mass
defect (apparent loss of mass) of 0.0304 amu (4.03190 – 4.00150).
 The origin of this mass defect is that some of the mass is converted to
binding energy, which binds the nucleons together in the nucleus.
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What are the two hydrogen burning
processes and what is the end
product?
 Hydrogen burns to produce helium as end product by two
different ways:
1. Proton-proton chain
2. CNO cycle

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When pp chain and CNO cycle
dominates?
 The proton-proton chain reaction: dominates in
stars with the size of the Sun or smaller
 Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle reaction
which dominates in stars that are more than 1.3
times as massive as the Sun.

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 The pp chain

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Note – frequently asked question
 Step 1: Smash two protons together to
make deuterium

positron: like an electron, but with positive charge

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 Step 2: A proton crashes into a
deuterium nucleus, making helium-3

gamma ray: very high energy photon

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 Step 3: Mash two helium-3 nuclei
together to make helium-4

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 Why the following reaction is called
bottle neck of pp chain?
 For this reaction to take place a proton (p) must be
converted into a neutron (n) through releasing a positron
(e+) and a neutrino ().
 Such a conversion can only proceed through the weak
interaction. Therefore, the rate of the reaction is very low,
which makes the reaction the bottleneck of the pp-chain.

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Complete the following reactions

….

….
….

Answers:
7Be
7Li
1p
1
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Note – frequently asked que
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 CNO cycle

Take away: C, N and O nuclei act as “catalysts”

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Note – frequently asked qu
 In this sequence the C, N, and O nuclei only act as
“catalysts‘ and the net reaction of the CNO-cycle is
given.
 For main-sequence stars lighter than about two
solar masses, the pp-chain dominates inhydrogen
burning, whereas the CNO-cycle is favored over the
pp-chain in stars that are morethan twice as
massive as the Sun.
 A prerequisite for CNO-cycles is, of course, the
existence of the elements C, N, O in the stellar
plasma
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Helium burning: nucleosynthesis of carbon
and oxygen
 The fusion of protons into helium continues until the star
has exhausted its hydrogen.
 When this happens, the star undergoes a gravitational
collapse and the temperature rises to about a few times 108
K in the core of the star, which makes the fusion of helium
into heavier nuclei possible

Further captures of helium nuclei 4 He by oxygen nuclei 16 O occur only to

a much lesser extent and therefore helium burning comes to an end after
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the creation of 12 C andO 16

What is the triple alpha process?
 Three alpha particles, helium nuclei, combine to
give carbon nucleus is called triple alpha
process. It is helium burning.

o 4He + 4He ------> 8Be + γ

o 4Be + 4He ------> 12C + γ

Note – frequently asked question

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Advanced burning stages-carbon burning

 In a massive star with more than 8 solar masses, the

next stage after helium burning is carbon burning.

5×108 K 109 K

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Oxygen burning
 Oxygen burning occurs when the temperature reaches 2×109 K,
the most important reaction being the one producing 28 Si

The final stage is reached at a temperature of 5×109 K, when silicon

burning begins

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 What are the two important reactions
that provide neutrons for the s-process?

Note – frequently asked question

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