UNIT-III

STATIC SHUNT COMPENSATORS

The main objective of shunt compensation is to increase the steady state power transfer
capability to maintain constant voltage profile throughout the transmission system along with injection of
current into the transmission system. These characteristics can be improved by using conventional methods
such as fixed capacitor or reactor in the transmission system.

The major drawback of these conventional methods is the reactance values are fixed in nature and
independent of reactive power control. To overcome this drawback power electronic based converters are
used to control the reactive power in the transmission system. The main advantages of power electronic
based converters are control characteristics are dynamic in nature.

Static Shunt Compensators enhance the steady-state transmittable power and the voltage profile
along the line can be controlled by appropriate reactive shunt compensation. The steady-state transmission
characteristics as well as the stability of the system are improved. Var compensation is thus used for
voltage regulation at the midpoint (or some intermediate) to segment the transmission line and at the end of
the (radial) line to prevent voltage instability, as well as for dynamic voltage control to increase transient
stability and "damp power oscillations.

I. Objectives of Shunt compensation are:

 Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation
 End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent
 Voltage Instability
 Improvement of Transient Stability
 Power Oscillation Damping
1. Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation:
Consider the simple two-machine (two-bus) transmission model in which an ideal VAR
compensator is shunt connected at the midpoint of the transmission line, as shown in Figure.

Figure: a) Two machine power system with ideal midpoint shunt compensator
 Figure: b) Phasor diagram Figure: c) Power angle curves
For simplicity, the line is represented by the series line inductance. The compensator is represented by a
sinusoidal ac voltage source (of the fundamental frequency), in-phase with the midpoint voltage, Vm and
with an amplitude identical to that of the sending-end and receiving-end voltages (Vm = Vs = Vm = V). the
midpoint compensator in effect segments the transmission line into two independent parts: the first
segment, with an impedance of X/2, carries power from the sending end to the midpoint, and the second
segment, also with an impedance of X12, carries power from the midpoint to the receiving end. The
relationship between voltages, Vs, Vr and Vm, (together with Vsm, Vrm), and line segment currents Ism and
Imr, is shown by the phasor diagram in Figure b.

similarly
Note that the midpoint VAR compensator exchanges only reactive power with the transmission line in this
process. For the lossless system assumed, the real power is the same at each terminal (sending end,
midpoint, and receiving end) of the line, and it can be derived readily from the phasor diagram of Fig. With
The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q, and angle 𝛿 for the case of ideal shunt
compensation is shown plotted in Figure.
It is also evident that for the single-line system of Figure .1 the midpoint of the transmission line is
the best location for the compensator. This is because the voltage sag along the uncompensated
transmission line is the largest at the midpoint. The concept of transmission line segmentation can be
expanded to the use of multiple compensators, located at equal segments of the transmission line, as
illustrated for four line segments in Figure. Theoretically, the transmittable power would double with each
doubling of the segments for the same overall line length. With the increase of the number of segments, the
voltage variation along the line would rapidly decrease, approaching the ideal case of constant voltage
profile.
 Figure: d) Multiple compensators Figure: e) Phasor diagram

2. End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage Instability:

A simple radial system with feeder line reactance X and load impedance Z is shown. In order to prevent
the voltage instability in a transmission system, Let us consider a two machine model transmission system
with and without compensators as shown in figure. In without compensator power angle curves we can
observe that voltage profile will varies for different power factors i.e in the range of 0.9 leading to 0.8
lagging. In order to overcome these drawback a shunt compensator is connected at load side as shown in
the figure b. The purpose of this compensator is to maintain constant voltage profile irrespective of power
factor and loading conditions. In this manner we can prevent voltage instability by using shunt
compensator.

Figure: a) Uncompensated system

Figure: b) Compensated system

 Note:

1. For a radial line , the end of the line, where the largest voltage variation is
experienced, is the best location for the compensator.

2. Reactive shunt compensation is often used too regulate voltage support for the load when
capacity of sending –end system becomes impaired

3. Improvement of Transient Stability:

Figure a) Uncompensated system Figure b) Compensated system

In order to analyze the transient stability of a two machine modeling system generally equal area
criteria is proffered. Let us consider simple two machine modeling system with and without compensation
and corresponding power angle curves as shown in figure a and figure b. from these we can observe that
power transfer capability is high in case of compensated system as compared to the uncompensated system.
4. Improvement of Power Damping Oscillations :

Figure: a) Generator angle b) Transmitted power c) VAR output of shunt compensator

In a power system oscillations will generally occurs due to sudden changes in the load conditions
for better power transfer capability we need to damp this oscillations within the short duration
period of occurring this can be achieved with the help of accelerating and decelerating of the
machines are given as follows.
 𝑑
1. When the rotationally oscillating generators accelerates and load angle increases i.e > 0 then
𝑑𝑡

electrical power transmitted power must be increased to compensate for the excess amount of
mechanical input.
𝑑
2. When the rotationally oscillating generators accelerates and load angle decreases i.e 𝑑𝑡 < 0 then

electrical power transmitted power must be decreased to balance the insufficient mechanical input.
II. Methods of controllable VAR generators:
In conventional manner the fixed capacitors or reactors are used to generate reactive power(VAR), where
drawback of these conventional methods are reactance values are fixed and independent of reactive power
control but for a normal transmission system requires changing reactance values to control dynamic
changes in the reactive power control. This can achieved with the help of power electronic converters as
they are classified as follows:
Types of VAR Generators:
There are two basic types of VAR generator as they listed as follows
1. Variable impedance type VAR generators
Examples: TCR, TSR, TSC, FC- TCR and SVC
2. Variable voltage or current source type VAR generators
Examples: STATCOM
1. TCR( Thyristor controlled reactor):

Figure: a) Basic thyristor controlled reactor b) firing angle delay control c) operating waveforms
Description: An elementary single phase thyristor controlled reactors as shown figure, it consists of fixed
(usually air cored) reactor of inductance L and bidirectional valve or switch SW. Currently available
thyristors block voltage up to 4000volts to 9000volts and conduct current up to 3000ampers to 6000
amperes. In practical valve many thyristors, usually 10 to 20 thyristors are connected in series to meet the
required voltage blocking voltage levels at a given power rating.
Operation:
A thyristors valve can be brought into conduction by simultaneous application of a gate pulse to
all thyristors of the same polarity. The valve will automatically block immediately after the A.C current
crosses zero, unless the gate signal is reapplied.

The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (thyristor valve dosed) to zero (thyristor
valve open) by the method of firing delay angle control. That is, the closure of the thyristors valve is
delayed w.r.t the peak of the applied voltage in each half cycle. and thus the duration of the current
conduction intervals is controlled.

The method of current control is illustrated separately fur the positive and negative current half
cycles in fig. (b). Where applied voltage u and the reactor current iL() at zero delay angle and at arbitrary
a delay angle are shown.

 When =0, the valve closes at the crest of the applied voltage and evidently the resulting
current in the reactor will be the same as that obtained in steady state with a permanently
closed switch.
 When the gating of the valve is delayed by an angle (0≤≤900) with respect to the crest
of the voltage, The current in the reactor can be expressed with u(t)= V cos t as follows:

It is evident that the magnitude of current in the reactor can be varied continuously by the method of delay
angle control from maximum (α=0) to zero (α=90).

In practice, the maximum magnitude of the applied voltage and that of the corresponding current will be
limited by the rating s of the power components(reactor and thyristor valve)used. Thus, a practical TCR
can be operated anywhere in a defined V-I area ,the boundaries of which are determined by its maximum
attainable admittance, voltage and current ratings are shown in fig.

Figure: Operating V-I characteristics of TCR

 2. Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR):
Note: If Thyristor Controlled Reactor(TCR) switching is restricted to a fixed delay angle, usually α=0,
then it becomes a thyristors – switched reactor (TSR). The TSR provides a fixed inductive admittance.
Thus, when connected to the a.c. system, the reacti ve current in it will be proportional to the applied
voltage as shown in fig.

Figure: Operating V-I characteristics of TSR

TSRs can provide at α=0, the resultant steady-state current will be sinusoidal.

3. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):

A 1-Ф Thyristor Switched Capacitor is shown in figure

Figure: a) Basic thyristor switched capacitor b) associated waveforms

It consists of a capacitor, a bi-directional thyristors valve, and a relatively small surge

current limiting reactor. This reactor is needed primarily a) To limit the surge current in the
thyristors valve under abnormal operating conditions b) To avoid resonances with the A.C.
system impedance at particular frequencies Under steady state conditions, when the thyristor
valve is closed and the TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal A.C. voltage source,

υ=V sin ωt, the current in the branch is given by

 Where

The amplitude of voltage across capacitor is given as

The TSC branch can be disconnected (“switched out”) at any current zero by prior removal of
the gate drive to the thyristor valve. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage is at its peak
valve. The disconnected capacitor stays charged to this voltage, and consequently the voltage across
the non-conducting thyristors valve varied between zero and the peak-to-peak value of the applied A.C.
voltage as shown in fig.(b).

The TSC branch represents a single capacitive admittance which is either connected to or
disconnected from A.C system The current in the TSC branch varies linearly with the applied voltage
according to the admittance of the capacitor as illustrate d by the V-I plot in the following fig.

Figure: Operating V-I characteristics of TSC

It is observed that , maximum applicable voltage and the corresponding current are limited by
the ratings of the TSC components(capacitor and thyristor valve).To approximate continuous current
variation, several TSC branches in parallel may b e employed, which would increase in a step-like
manner the capacitive admittance.

4. Fixed Capacitor- Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR): A basic VAR

generator arrangement using fixed capacitor with a thyristor controlled reactor is shown in
figure. The current in the reactor is varied by the method of firing angle delay control. The
fixed capacitor usually substituted in practice fully or partially by filter network that it has the
necessary capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate required reactive
power.
 Figure: a) Basic FC-TCR b) VAR demand versus VAR output characteristics

Figure: Operating V-I characteristics of FC-TCR

5. Static VAR Compensator (SVC):

Figure: Basic Structure of SVC

 Figure: Advanced Structure of SVC Figure: A Operating V-I characteristics of SVC

Static VAR generators: In general it is not possible to control or regulate real power in the
transmission system directly and hence we are preferring the control of reactive power by using the VAR
generators, There are basically two types of VAR generators such as 1. SVC 2. STATCOM
An SVC consists of mechanically switched reactor, TCR ,harmonic filter, mechanically switched
capacitors and n numbers of TSC’s. SVC is used in a power system to increase the power transmission
capacity with given network. In some of the applications such as 1. In transmission system to regulate the
voltage (Transmission SVC) 2. Connected near to the large industrial loads etc it is required to control the
both inductive reactances as well as capacitive reactances in such cases SVC is use.
Basic Operation
The static var compensator regulates the voltage by controlling the amount of reactive power
absorbed from or injected into the power system. For example, it generates reactive power by switching
capacitor banks when the system voltage is low or loads are inductive. Consequently, the reactive power
demand of the lagging load is supplied by the SVC – relieving the distributing lines from delivering it.
Thus, the voltage drop decreases and the voltage at the load terminals shall improve.
Likewise, the static var compensator absorbs reactive power when the system voltage is high or
loads are capacitive. In this case, the SVC uses the reactors to consume the VARs from the system, thereby
lowering the system voltage.
From the operating V-I characteristics of SVC we can say the with the operation of TCR we can
obtain controllable inductive reactances as represented in first quadrant, similarly with the operation
TSC we can obtain controllable capacitive reactances as represented in second quadrant

Functional Control scheme of SVC: the main purpose of control structure of SVC is to determine the
no. of TSC’s are required to provide reactive power output. It will also determine the magnitude of
inductive current to compensate excess amount capacitive reactance. It will also controls the TSC’s
switches in a transient free manner
 Figure: Functional Control scheme of SVC

Applications and Benefits

Static VAR compensators are primarily used to mitigate voltage fluctuations, as well as the resulting flicker
since the 1970s. Nowadays, large industries, particularly the steel-making plants typically apply SVCs for
flicker compensation in electric arc furnace installations.
In addition, static var compensators are installed at suitable points in the electric power system to augment
its transfer capability by improving voltage stability, while keeping a smooth voltage profile under different
system conditions. SVCs can also mitigate active power oscillations through voltage amplitude modulation.
Moreover, as an automated impedance matching device, they have the added benefit of bringing the system
power factor close to unity.
Furthermore, other benefits of static var compensators include:
Maximized power compensation
Near-instantaneous response to system voltage variations
Increased customer’s economic benefits
Eliminate harmonics and reduce voltage distortion with appropriate shunt filters
Load balancing on three-phase systems

STATCOM: it stands for Static Synchronous Compensator or Static Synchronous

condenser(STATCON) It is basically regulating device use in A.C transmission system to control the
reactive and it is also a voltage converter. STATCOM is an example for switching converter type FACT
devices and it not a variable impedance type FACT device. The main function of STATCOM is to generate
3-Ф voltages with controllable magnitude and phase angles. In general STATCOM can be implemented
with the help of 6-pulse voltage source converter which consists of GTO’s. Based on the principle of
operation 3-Ф voltage source converter it will act as a both rectifier as well as inverter, if the generated
voltages at the 3-Ф converter will be more than the bus bar voltage then converter will operates in leading
conditions i.e it will acts as a TSC and corresponding V-I characteristics are represented in second quadrant
as represented in V-I characteristics as shown in figure during this period voltage is positive and current is
negative. Similarly if the generated voltages at the 3-Ф converter will be less than the bus bar voltage then
converter will operates in lagging conditions i.e it will acts as a TCR and corresponding V-I characteristics
are represented in first quadrant as represented in V-I characteristics as shown in figure during this period
both voltage and current is positive .

Figure: a) Conventional Representation of STATCOM b) GTO based STATCOM

Figure: Operating V-I characteristics of STATCOM

Note: As compared to SVC, STATCOM has better voltage profile and hence better power transfer
capability.
Design
A STATCOM is composed of the following components:
A. Voltage-Source Converter (VSC)
The voltage-source converter transforms the DC input voltage to an AC output voltage. Two of the most
common VSC types are described below.
1. Square-wave Inverters using Gate Turn-Off Thyristors
Generally, four three-level inverters are utilized to make a 48-step voltage waveform. Subsequently, it
controls reactive power flow by changing the DC capacitor input voltage, simply because the fundamental
component of the converter output voltage is proportional to the DC voltage.
In addition, special interconnection transformers are employed to neutralize harmonics contained in the
square waves produced by individual inverters.
2. PWM Inverters using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT)
It uses Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) technique to create a sinusoidal waveform from a DC voltage
source with a typical chopping frequency of a few kHz. In contrast to the GTO-based type, the IGBT-based
VSC utilizes a fixed DC voltage and varies its output AC voltage by changing the modulation index of the
PWM modulator.
Moreover, harmonic voltages are mitigated by installing shunt filters at the AC side of the VSC.
B. DC Capacitor
This component provides the DC voltage for the inverter.
C. Inductive Reactance (X)
It connects the inverter output to the power system. This is usually the leakage inductance of a coupling
transformer.
D.Harmonic Filters
Mitigate harmonics and other high frequency components due to the inverters.
STATCOM Operation
Basic Principle of Operation
In the case of two AC sources, which have the same frequency and are connected through a series
reactance, the power flows will be:
 Active or Real Power flows from the leading source to the lagging source.
 Reactive Power flows from the higher to the lower voltage magnitude source.
Consequently, the phase angle difference between the sources decides the active power flow, while the
voltage magnitude difference between the sources determines the reactive power flow. Based on this
principle, a STATCOM can be used to regulate the reactive power flow by changing the output voltage of
the voltage-source converter with respect to the system voltage.
Modes of Operation
The STATCOM can be operated in two different modes:
A. Voltage Regulation
The static synchronous compensator regulates voltage at its connection point by controlling the amount of
reactive power that is absorbed from or injected into the power system through a voltage-source converter.
In steady-state operation, the voltage V2 generated by the VSC through the DC capacitor is in phase with
the system voltage V1 (δ=0), so that only reactive power (Q) is flowing (P=0).
1. When system voltage is high, the STATCOM will absorb reactive power (inductive behavior)
2. When system voltage is low, the STATCOM will generate and inject reactive power into the system
(capacitive).
Subsequently, the amount of reactive power flow is given by the equation:
Q = [V1(V1-V2)] / X
B. Var Control
In this mode, the STATCOM reactive power output is kept constant independent of other system
parameter
Applications
STATCOMs are typically applied in long distance transmission systems, power substations and heavy
industries where voltage stability is the primary concern.
In addition, static synchronous compensators are installed in select points in the power system to perform
the following:
 Voltage support and control
 Voltage fluctuation and flicker mitigation
 Unsymmetrical load balancing
 Power factor correction
 Active harmonics cancellation
 Improve transient stability of the power system
STATCOM versus SVC
The STATCOM has the ability to provide more capacitive reactive power during faults, or when the
system voltage drops abnormally, compared to ordinary static var compensator. This is because the
maximum capacitive reactive power generated by a STATCOM decreases linearly with system voltage,
while that of the SVC is proportional to the square of the voltage. Also, the STATCOM has a faster
response as it has no time delay associated with thyristor firing. Nevertheless, these advantages come at a
higher price (about 20% more).
Comparison between SVC and STATCOM:
S.No SVC STATCOM
1. It act as a variable impedance type It act as a voltage source type VAR
VAR generator generator
2. Sensitive to transmission system Insensitive to transmission system
harmonic resonance harmonic resonance
3. Has a smaller dynamic voltage Has a larger dynamic range
4. Higher generation of harmonics Lower generation of harmonics
5. Somewhat slower response Faster response and better performance
during transients
6. Mostly capacitive region of operation Both inductive and capacitive regions of
operation is possible
7. Has difficulty operating with a very Can maintain a stable voltage even with a
weak A.C. system very weak A.C. system
8. Cost is moderate Cost is low

HYBRID VAR GENERATORS: Conventional VAR generators has max reactive power control for both
inductive and capacitive reactance and it also has equal control area or range for both the inductive and
capacitive reactances. In some applications it is required have a different control regions for both capacitive
and inductive elements these can be achieved with the help of Hybrid VAR generators. It is basically
realized with the help of following two configurations:
1. Combined converter based and fixed capacitor based VAR generator
2. Combined converter based and fixed inductor based VAR generator
1. Combined converter based and fixed capacitor based VAR generator:

Figure: a) Combined converter based and fixed capacitor based VAR generator b) operating V-I
characteristics
The basic function of this type of configuration is to generate more reactive power i.e greater than
rated value of the transmission system hence the operating points will shift from inductive region to
capacitive region or first quadrant to second quadrant as shown in figure.
2. Combined converter based and fixed inductor based VAR generator:
 The basic function of this type of configuration is to generate more reactive power i.e less than rated
value of the transmission system hence the operating points will shift from capacitive region to inductive
region or second t quadrant to firs quadrant as shown in figure.

Figure: a) Combined converter based and fixed inductor based VAR generator b) operating V-I
characteristics
Transient Stability Enhancement (2 machine modeling system):
In general transient stability of transmission system indicates the capability of power system to
recover from the damage conditions (faulty conditions). For example let us consider the fully loaded
transmission system gets affected due to severe fault such a Line to Ground (LG) due to this fault electrical
power transmitted in the system gets decreases even though the generator will feeds the same amount of
mechanical input. The analysis of the drift between mechanical input and electrical output are done with the
concept called as transient stability. With the help of this concept it reduces drift between mechanical input
and electrical output by providing the compensation and hence power transfer capability gets increases.

Figure: Attainable enhancement of transient stability by the SVC and STATCOM

Increasing temporarily the (midpoint) transmission voltage.
 Implementation of transient stability enhancement:

Figure: Implementation of the transient stability enhancement concept by increasing

The reference voltage during the first swing of a major disturbance.
Implementation of Power Oscillation damping:

Figure:
Implementation of power oscillation damping by modulating the reference
Voltage according to frequency or power flow variations.
The figure shows the basic block diagram of implementation of power damping oscillations. In
general oscillations in the system will occurs due to change in the rotor angle(sudden applicable or sudden
removal of load) these changes in the rotor angle will also leads to changes in frequency and corresponding
changes in real power due to this there is chance of generating circulating currents in the transmission
system which leads to decreasing efficiency or decreasing electric power transmission and hence it is
necessary to minimize the power damping oscillations with in the short duration of occurrence these can be
achieved with the help of implantation diagram as shown in figure.
 In this implementation process the change in the voltage(Δv) is applied at the input terminals of a
transmission system due to this the corresponding changes in the power flow in the system. These changes
and frequency can be measured by using power flow or frequency variation circuit and it compared with the
reference values and generates new reference voltage(V*ref) for error detector it is compared with the actual
voltage(VT+ΔVT) and corresponding error signal sent to the PI controller to regulate the voltages. The
output of PI controller will acts as a reactive power reference based on the signal the VAR generator will
provides corresponding compensation to the transmission system to prevent the power damping oscillations
and hence to increase the power transfer capability.
V-I and V-Q Characteristics of SVC and STATCOM:

Figure: V-I characteristic of the STATCOM (a) and of the (SYC) (b).

Figure: V-Q characteristic of the STATCOM (a) and of the (SVC) (b).
PART-A

1. Comment on the physical size, response time and real power exchange of STATCOM in contrast to
the SVC.
2. What is the effect of system voltage on the compensating current and capacitive var output of
voltage source shunt controller compared to variable impedance type shunt controller?
3. What is meant by controllable VAR generation?
4. Define voltage stability.
5. How to compensate reactive power in a transmission line.
6. How to vary impedance of a transmission line using shunt controller.
7. Draw the diagram for two machine system with an ideal midpoint reactive compensator.
8. Draw the power angle curve for equal area criterion to illustrate the transient stability margin for a
system with midpoint compensation.
9. What are the objectives of shunt compensation?
10. What are hybrid VAR generators?
PART-B

1. With the aid of power angle curves, prove that the SVC can enhance the transient stability of a
power system.
2. (a) What are the objectives of shunt compensation?
(b) Explain the control scheme and characteristics of Static VAR generators, SVC and STATCOM,
for the control of terminal voltage in proportion to their line current.
3. (a) Explain the midpoint voltage regulation for line segmentation of shunt compensator.
(b) Explain the working principle and V-I characteristics of STATCOM.
4. With a neat sketch, explain working of STATCOM with its characteristics.
5. With a neat sketch, explain working of SVC with its characteristics.
6. (a) Explain how the shunt compensation is useful in prevention of voltage instability and
improvement of transient stability.
(b) Explain different types of Hybrid VAR generators with their characteristics.
7. (a) Explain the dynamic performance of the compensator using basic transfer function block
diagram.
(b) Draw and explain the V-I and V-Q characteristics of STATCOM and SVC.
8. (a) Discuss the comparison between STATCOM and SVC.
(b) Discuss in detail the various methods of controllable VAR generation.