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Signal Processing - Fundamentals - version 0.3

The document outlines the fundamentals of signal processing, including the mathematical representation of signals, both continuous and discrete, and key operations such as addition, multiplication, and time shifting. It discusses the Fourier Transform and its properties, which decompose signals into frequency components, and introduces concepts like Power Spectral Density and convolution. Additionally, it covers filtering, the Z-Transform, the Sampling Theorem, and correlation techniques for analyzing signals.

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Marcus Green
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13 views3 pages

Signal Processing - Fundamentals - version 0.3

The document outlines the fundamentals of signal processing, including the mathematical representation of signals, both continuous and discrete, and key operations such as addition, multiplication, and time shifting. It discusses the Fourier Transform and its properties, which decompose signals into frequency components, and introduces concepts like Power Spectral Density and convolution. Additionally, it covers filtering, the Z-Transform, the Sampling Theorem, and correlation techniques for analyzing signals.

Uploaded by

Marcus Green
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL PROCESSING

1. Signals: Mathematical Representation


• Formal Definition: A signal x(t) is a function of an independent variable t (typically
time for 1D signals). For multidimensional signals (like images), we might have
x(t, s) or x(x, y).
• Continuous-Time Signals: Represented by functions defined over a continuous
range of t. Examples:
o Sinusoidal Signal: x(t) = Acos(2πf₀t + φ), where A is amplitude, f₀ is
frequency, and φ is phase.
o Exponential Signal: x(t) = Ae^(αt), where A is amplitude and α is a
complex exponent.
• Discrete-Time Signals: Represented by sequences x[n], where n is an integer
representing the sample index. They are obtained by sampling continuous-time
signals: x[n] = x(nT), where T is the sampling period.
• Key Mathematical Operations on Signals:
o Addition: z(t) = x(t) + y(t)
o Multiplication: z(t) = x(t)y(t)
o Scaling: z(t) = ax(t), where a is a scalar.
o Time Shifting: z(t) = x(t - τ), where τ is the time shift.
o Time Scaling: z(t) = x(at), where a is a scaling factor.
2. Spectra: The Fourier Transform and Frequency Domain
• Fourier Transform (FT): A powerful mathematical tool that decomposes a signal
into its constituent frequencies.
o Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT):
§ X(f) = ∫₋∞⁺∞ x(t)e^(-j2πft) dt
§ x(t) = ∫₋∞⁺∞ X(f)e^(j2πft) df (Inverse CTFT) Where j is the imaginary
unit, and f represents frequency.
o Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT):
§ X(ω) = Σₙ₋∞⁺∞ x[n]e^(-jωn)
§ x[n] = (1/2π)∫₋π⁺π X(ω)e^(jωn) dω (Inverse DTFT) Where ω is the
angular frequency.
o Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT): Used for digital signals of finite length.
It transforms a sequence of N complex numbers x[0], x[1], ..., x[N-1] into a
sequence of N complex numbers X[0], X[1], ..., X[N-1]:
§ X[k] = Σₙ₀ᴺ⁻¹ x[n]e^(-j2πkn/N)
• Properties of the Fourier Transform:
o Linearity: The FT of a linear combination of signals is the linear
combination of their FTs.
o Time Shifting: A time shift in the time domain corresponds to a phase
shift in the frequency domain.
o Time Scaling: Time scaling in the time domain corresponds to inverse
scaling in the frequency domain.
o Convolution Theorem: Convolution in the time domain corresponds to
multiplication in the frequency domain, and vice-versa.
• Power Spectral Density (PSD): Describes how the power of a signal is
distributed over different frequencies. For a signal x(t) with Fourier Transform
X(f), the PSD is often defined as Sₓₓ(f) = |X(f)|².
3. Signal Processing: Mathematical Operations and Algorithms
• Convolution:
o Continuous-Time: (x * y)(t) = ∫₋∞⁺∞ x(τ)y(t - τ) dτ
o Discrete-Time: (x * y)[n] = Σₖ₋∞⁺∞ x[k]y[n - k]
• Filtering: Implemented using convolution or multiplication in the frequency
domain. Filter design involves determining the appropriate filter coefficients or
frequency response.
• Z-Transform: A generalization of the DTFT that is useful for analyzing and
designing discrete-time systems.
• Sampling Theorem (Nyquist-Shannon): States that a bandlimited signal (a signal
with no frequency components above a certain frequency B) can be perfectly
reconstructed from its samples if the sampling rate fₛ is greater than twice the
highest frequency component (fₛ > 2B).
• Digital Filtering: Implemented using difference equations or convolution with a
finite impulse response (FIR) filter or an infinite impulse response (IIR) filter.
• Correlation: Measures the similarity between two signals.
o Cross-correlation: Rₓᵧ(τ) = ∫₋∞⁺∞ x(t)y(t - τ) dt
o Autocorrelation: Rₓₓ(τ) = ∫₋∞⁺∞ x(t)x(t - τ) dt

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