Reviewer

cellular network

- is a wireless telecommunications network distributed over land areas called cells, each served
by a fixed-location transceiver. These cells provide coverage for voice, data, and other content.
They use different frequencies to avoid interference and ensure service quality.
- The term “cellular” originated from the network’s structure, which divides a sizeable
geographical area across America into multiple small units or “cells.” Each cell is served by a
dedicated base station or cell tower, facilitating communication within that cell.
- Base transceiver station (BTS)
- mobile switching center (MSC)
- public switched telephone network (PSTN)

history of cellular networks

1G

- late 1970s and early 1980s with the advent of the first-generation (1G) cellular networks.
These analog systems, typified by the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the
United States, were a groundbreaking shift from landline telephony.
- The G stands for generation, with the number indicating the generation of the technology.
- The truth is there never was a 1G; the name is something that came well after the technology.
1G was basically a network with voice call capabilities.
- Nippon Telegraph and Telephone launched it in 1979 to the citizens of Tokyo and available
nationwide in Japan by 1984.

2G

- introduction of second-generation (2G) networks in the early 1990s marked a significant

leap forward. 2G networks, such as GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), transitioned from analog to digital. This
shift allowed for improved voice quality, enhanced security, and the introduction of text
messaging (SMS).

- It was 1991 before the network got an upgrade. The upgrade occurred when the Global
System for Mobile Communication launched that year in Finland. It was 1992 when 2G
was introduced to the US.
3G

- Third-generation (3G) networks, launched in the early 2000s, were designed to support
more extensive data transmission, enabling mobile internet access. Technologies like
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and EV-DO (Evolution-Data
Optimized) provided faster data rates, making mobile browsing, video calling, and
streaming possible.
 - It was NTTDoCoMo that launched 3G in Japan in 2001. The focus was on standardizing the
vendor’s network protocol which would result in the ability of data users to access data from
anywhere or, as it became known, data roaming.
- 3G opened the door to browsing the web, streaming music, emailing, and video streaming on a
mobile phone.
- The real difference between 2G and 3G wasn’t so much the technology. 2G had many of the
capabilities that 3G offered; the difference was the speed.

4G

- Fourth-generation (4G) networks, introduced in the late 2000s.

- LTE (Long-Term Evolution) became the standard for 4G, offering download speeds up to
100 Mbps and beyond.
- At the end of 2009, 4G was commercially introduced in Norway. It represented a significant
upgrade on 3G with a minimum download speed of 12.5Mbps.
- the transition to 4G wasn’t quite this simple. When it was launched, it did not, in fact, have the
capabilities to support the 12.5Mbps minimum download speed.

- The major downfall with 4G was that unlike the transition from 2G to 3G, which required
a SIM card switch, 4G required a mobile device specifically designed to support 4G.
5G

- The deployment of fifth-generation (5G) networks, which began around 2019, has been
heralded as a new era of hyperconnectivity.

- In March 2019, South Korea became the first country to introduce 5G. The speed difference
between 4G and 5G is variable; depending on the country, it can be between 20 and 200
times faster.
- April 2019, the US had started its 5G roll out in Chicago and Minneapolis. At the end of
2020, there were 15.8 million 5G users in the US. This is expected to increase by 161%
over 2021, resulting in 41.3 million users.
- Increased upload and download speeds on the 5G network are largely because of the decreased
latency. Increased upload and download speeds on the 5G network are largely because of the
decreased latency.
- 5G offers a bandwidth of between 30GHz and 300 GHz, meaning it can support more
technologies.

Cellular architecture
- is a type of computer architecture prominent in parallel computing.
- Cellular architecture takes multi-core architecture design to its logical conclusion, by
giving the programmer the ability to run large numbers of concurrent threads within a
single processor.
- Each 'cell' is a compute node containing thread units, memory, and communication.
Frequency reuse
- is the technique of using the same radio frequencies across several cell sites in a cellular
network.
- is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a coverage region is
done.
- Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or Frequency sub-bands
to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape of the cell is
Hexagonal.
Formula:
S = kN
S = Total number of duplex channels available to use
k = Channels allocated to each cell (k<S)
N = Total number of cells

N = I^2 + I*J + J^2

C = MkN = MS
D = R * (3 * N)^1/2

R = Radius of a cell
N = Number of cells in a given cluster

Radio Access Technology (RAT)

- A radio access technology (RAT) is the underlying physical connection method for a radio
communication network. Many modern mobile phones support several RATs in one device
such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GSM, UMTS, LTE or 5G NR.
- The term RAT was traditionally used in mobile communication network interoperability.

Types of cellular networks

G
- The first generation of cellular technology, G, stands for general packet radio service
(GPRS). It could transfer only up to 114 kilobits of cellular data per second.
2G
- 2G saw a significant improvement in mobile communication services, including the
introduction of digital encryption and SMS. However, 2G’s limitations include slow data
transfer speeds and low-quality calls. One of the most important cellular network types in
the history of mobile evolution.
EDGE
- Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE) was the first cellular data network that
provided faster internet speeds than a dial-up modem. EDGE has a maximum data transfer
speed of 217 kbit/s.
3G
- 3G was the first network that enabled high-speed internet browsing, video calling, and
mobile applications. 3G is capable of handling more data and providing faster internet
speeds.
H
- H refers to HSDPA, the high-speed downlink packet access that extends 3G voice and
broadband data capacity. H is responsible for faster download speeds and a better mobile
browsing experience.
H+
- H+ stands for evolved high-speed downlink packet access (HSPA+) and is an upgrade to
HSDPA. It provides higher internet speeds and faster cellular data transfers compared to
H.
4G
- 4G, also known as long-term evolution (LTE), offers ultra-fast internet speeds and
significantly improved call quality. 4G has a maximum data transfer rate of up to 1 GB/s.
5G
- 5G is the most advanced cellular network, providing faster internet and significant
advancements in mobile connectivity. It has low latency and the ability to connect several
devices simultaneously.

Practical Application and Operation

IoT connectivity
- is the means by which an IoT device, which can be anything from a simple sensor in a
factory to a self-driving vehicle and encompasses applications from streetlights to robots
SMS
- Short Message Service, commonly abbreviated as SMS, is a text messaging service
component of most telephone, Internet and mobile device systems. It uses standardized
communication protocols that let mobile phones exchange short text messages
Cell Towers
- These are the most visible part of a cellular network. Each tower is equipped with antennas
and transceivers that communicate with mobile devices within its range.
Base Stations
- Located at the base of each cell tower, these stations house the equipment needed to process
and route calls and data.
Mobile Switching Centre’s (MSCs)
- These are central hubs that manage the routing of calls and data between base stations
and other parts of the network.
Voice Services:

- One of the primary functions of a cellular network is to provide voice communication.

Data Services

- In addition to voice calls, cellular networks also support data services, enabling you to browse
the internet, send emails, and use various apps.

Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

- 3GPP is a partnership project bringing together national Standards Development Organizations

(SDOs) from around the globe initially to develop technical specifications for the 3rd generation
of mobile, cellular telecommunications, UMTS.
- The project was established in December 1998 with the goal of developing a
specification for a 3G mobile phone system based on the 2G GSM system.
The seven 3GPP Organizational Partners are from Asia, Europe and North America. Their aim is
to determine the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the following tasks:
- The approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scope;
- The maintenance of the Partnership Project Description;
- Take the decision to create or cease a Technical Specification Groups, and approve their
scope and terms of reference;
- The approval of Organizational Partner funding requirements;
 - The allocation of human and financial resources provided by the Organizational Partners
to the Project Co-ordination Group;
- Act as a body of appeal on procedural matters referred to them.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

- is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication

technologies (ICTs).
- ITU was initially aimed at helping connect telegraphic networks between countries, with
its mandate consistently broadening with the advent of new communications
technologies; it adopted its current name in 1932 to reflect its expanded responsibilities
over radio and the telephone.

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

- is an independent agency of the United States government that regulates communications
by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable across the United States.
- maintains jurisdiction over the areas of broadband access, fair competition, radio frequency
use, media responsibility, public safety, and homeland security.
- was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions
of the previous Federal Radio Commission.
- FCC's mission, specified in Section One of the Communications Act of 1934 and amended
by the Telecommunications Act of 1996 (amendment to 47 U.S.C. §151), is to "make
available so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, without discrimination
on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, rapid, efficient, nationwide, and
world-wide wire and radio communication services with adequate facilities at reasonable
charges."

Challenges:
Spectrum Scarcity
- To accommodate a large number of wireless devices and services that keep growing day
in day out, there has to be efficient management and allocation of spectrum.
Security and Privacy
- vital aspect of security lies in the fact that data is send and received in the notification that
wireless communication technologies are being utilized in most of the cases.
Interference and Signal Quality
- Signal quality in wireless communication systems can decline because of interference
coming from external sources, or other environmental factors.
- interference caused by the coexistence of multiple users, devices, and networks in the same
spectrum. Interference can degrade the quality and reliability of wireless signals, resulting
in poor performance and user satisfaction.
Infrastructure and Deployment Costs
- building of sophisticated wireless networks, especially 5G, needs a lot of money
Environmental and Health Concerns
- Network equipment’s carbon emissions are caused by how much electricity they need on
average therefore, manufacturers must look for ways to make them more energy efficient
Heterogeneity and compatibility
- the heterogeneity and compatibility of wireless devices, networks, and standards, which
are constantly evolving and diversifying.
Energy efficiency
- the energy consumption and environmental impact of wireless devices and infrastructure.

Future trends
Vision of 6G networks
- Various global research institutions have focused attention on the 6G networks as the 5G
networks have entered the commercial deployment phase. The 6G networks are aimed at
the enhancement of performance by the provision of peak data rates of about 1 Tbps and
ultra-low latency