B.

TECH 5th AIML

R Programming Lab Manual

Sr. No. Name of Experiment Date of Date of Remark

Exp. Submission
1 Importing and cleaning data :
In this experiment, students will learn how to
import data from a variety of sources, such as CSV
files, Excel files, and databases. They will also
learn how to clean data by removing missing
values, outliers, and duplicate rows.
2 Data wrangling
In this experiment, students will learn how to
transform data by changing the data types,
merging data sets, and creating new variables.
They will also learn how to explore data by using
statistical methods such as descriptive statistics
and hypothesis testing.
3 Data visualization
In this experiment, students will learn how to
create effective data visualizations using R. They
will learn how to choose the right type of plot for
the data, how to customize plots, and how to save
plots.
4 Statistical analysis
In this experiment, students will learn how to
conduct descriptive and inferential statistical
analysis using R. They will learn how to calculate
descriptive statistics, such as mean, median, and
standard deviation. They will also learn how to
conduct hypothesis testing to determine if there is
a statistically significant difference between two
groups.
5 Machine learning
In this experiment, students will learn how to
apply machine learning algorithms to solve real-
world problems. They will learn how to train and
evaluate machine learning models, and how to use
machine learning models to make predictions.
6 Design an experiment to determine the effect of
different types of fertilizer on plant growth. This
experiment allows students to explore the factors
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that affect plant growth.

7 This experiment allows students to explore the
relationship between food and energy.
8 Design an experiment to determine the effect of
different types of light on the growth of plants.
This experiment allows students to explore the role
of light in plant growth.
9 Design an experiment to determine the effect of
different types of soil on the growth of plants. This
experiment allows students to explore the role of
soil in plant growth.

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Experiment 1:

Importing and cleaning data

In this experiment, students will learn how to import data from a variety of sources, such
as CSV files, Excel files, and databases. They will also learn how to clean data by removing
missing values, outliers, and duplicate rows.

Importing Data from CSV Files

CSV files are commonly used for storing data, and they can be easily imported into R using the
read.csv() function.

Importing the 'readr' library for CSV import

library(readr)

Importing a CSV file

data_csv <- read_csv("path_to_file.csv")

Displaying the first few rows of the dataset

head(data_csv)

Alternatively, you can use the base R function read.csv():

data_csv <- read.csv("path_to_file.csv")

Display the first few rows of the dataset

head(data_csv)

Importing Data from Excel Files

To import Excel files in R, you will need the readxl or openxlsx package.

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Importing the 'readxl' library

library(readxl)

Importing an Excel file

data_excel <- read_excel("path_to_file.xlsx", sheet = 1)

Displaying the first few rows of the dataset

head(data_excel)

you can use the openxlsx package for more advanced Excel file manipulation

library(openxlsx)

Importing data from an Excel file

data_excel <- read.xlsx("path_to_file.xlsx", sheet = 1)

Displaying the first few rows of the dataset

head(data_excel)

Importing Data from a Database (e.g., MySQL, SQLite)

To import data from a database, you can use the DBI and RMySQL (or RSQLite for SQLite
databases) packages.

Installing and loading necessary libraries

install.packages("DBI")

install.packages("RMySQL")

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library(DBI)

library(RMySQL)

Connecting to a MySQL database

con <- dbConnect(RMySQL::MySQL(), dbname = "your_database_name", host = "localhost",

user = "your_username", password = "your_password")

Querying data from a table

data_db <- dbGetQuery(con, "SELECT * FROM your_table_name")

Display the first few rows of the dataset

head(data_db)

Close the connection

dbDisconnect(con)

Cleaning the Data

Handling Missing Values

Handling missing values is crucial to ensure that the analysis is not biased or incomplete. There
are various strategies for dealing with missing values, such as removing or imputing them.

Checking for missing values in the dataset

sum(is.na(data_csv))

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Option 1: Remove rows with any missing values

data_no_missing <- na.omit(data_csv)

Option 2: Impute missing values (e.g., using the mean or median)

data_imputed <- data_csv

data_imputed$column_name[is.na(data_imputed$column_name)] <-
mean(data_imputed$column_name, na.rm = TRUE)

Alternatively, for median imputation:

data_imputed$column_name[is.na(data_imputed$column_name)] <-
median(data_imputed$column_name, na.rm = TRUE)

Removing Duplicate Rows :

Checking for duplicate rows

duplicates <- duplicated(data_csv)

sum(duplicates) This will show the number of duplicated rows

Removing duplicate rows

data_no_duplicates <- data_csv[!duplicated(data_csv),

Detecting and Handling Outliers :

Calculating the IQR

Q1 <- quantile(data_csv$column_name, 0.25)

Q3 <- quantile(data_csv$column_name, 0.75)

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IQR <- Q3 - Q1

Defining the lower and upper bounds for outliers

lower_bound <- Q1 - 1.5 * IQR

upper_bound <- Q3 + 1.5 * IQR

Identifying outliers

outliers <- data_csv$column_name < lower_bound | data_csv$column_name > upper_bound

sum(outliers) Number of outliers

Removing outliers

data_no_outliers <- data_csv[!outliers, ]

Saving the Cleaned Data :

Saving the cleaned data to a CSV file

write.csv(data_no_duplicates, "cleaned_data.csv", row.names = FALSE)

Saving the cleaned data to an Excel file

library(openxlsx)

write.xlsx(data_no_duplicates, "cleaned_data.xlsx")

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Experiment 2:

Data wrangling
In this experiment, students will learn how to transform data by changing the data types,
merging data sets, and creating new variables. They will also learn how to explore data by
using statistical methods such as descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing.

Data Transformation

1. Changing Data Types

Sometimes, the data types of your variables might need to be changed for effective analysis. In
R, you can use functions like as.numeric(), as.character(), and as.factor() to change data types.

Example dataset

data <- data.frame(

ID = c(1, 2, 3, 4),

Date = c('2024-01-01', '2024-02-01', '2024-03-01', '2024-04-01'),

Score = c('85', '90', '87', '88')

Changing 'Score' from character to numeric

data$Score <- as.numeric(data$Score)

Changing 'Date' from character to Date type

data$Date <- as.Date(data$Date)

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Changing 'ID' to factor

data$ID <- as.factor(data$ID)

Viewing the data types

str(data)

2. Merging Datasets :

Example dataframes to merge

df1 <- data.frame(ID = c(1, 2, 3, 4), Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David"))

df2 <- data.frame(ID = c(1, 2, 3, 5), Score = c(85, 90, 87, 88))

Merging data on the 'ID' column (inner join by default)

merged_data <- merge(df1, df2, by = "ID", all = FALSE) all = FALSE means inner join

Viewing the merged data

print(merged_data)

3. Creating New Variables :

Creating a new variable 'TotalScore' by adding two columns

data$TotalScore <- data$Score + 10 Adding 10 to each Score

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Creating a new categorical variable based on conditions

data$Performance <- ifelse(data$Score > 90, "High", "Low")

Viewing the updated dataset

head(data)

Data Exploration with Statistical Methods :

1. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics help summarize the main characteristics of a dataset. In R, you can use
functions like summary(), mean(), median(), sd(), and table() to explore data.

Summary of the data

summary(data)

Calculating mean and standard deviation of 'Score'

mean_score <- mean(data$Score)

sd_score <- sd(data$Score)

Median of 'Score'

median_score <- median(data$Score)

Frequency table of 'Performance'

table(data$Performance)

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2. Visualizing Data (Descriptive Exploration) :

Basic histogram of 'Score'

hist(data$Score, main = "Histogram of Scores", xlab = "Score", col = "lightblue", border =

"black")

Boxplot of 'Score' to detect outliers

boxplot(data$Score, main = "Boxplot of Scores", ylab = "Score", col = "lightgreen")

Bar plot for 'Performance' category

barplot(table(data$Performance), main = "Performance Distribution", col = c("blue", "red"))

If you are using the ggplot2 package for visualization:

Install and load ggplot2 package

install.packages("ggplot2")

library(ggplot2)

Scatter plot of Score vs TotalScore

ggplot(data, aes(x = Score, y = TotalScore)) +

geom_point() +

ggtitle("Score vs TotalScore") +

xlab("Score") +

ylab("Total Score")

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Experiment 3:

Data visualization
In this experiment, students will learn how to create effective data visualizations using R.
They will learn how to choose the right type of plot for the data, how to customize plots,
and how to save plots.

Step 1: Installing and Loading Required Libraries

To get started with data visualization in R, we’ll use two primary libraries:

 Base R plotting functions (e.g., plot(), hist(), boxplot())

 ggplot2: A powerful and flexible package for creating visually appealing plots.

Install ggplot2 if not already installed

install.packages("ggplot2")

Load ggplot2 library

library(ggplot2)

Creating Basic Plots in R

1. Histogram (for Distribution of a Single Variable)

Creating a histogram using Base R

data <- c(85, 90, 87, 88, 92, 95, 91, 89, 88, 86)

Basic histogram in Base R

hist(data, main = "Histogram of Scores", xlab = "Scores", col = "lightblue", border = "black")

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Histogram with ggplot2

ggplot(data = data.frame(Scores = data), aes(x = Scores)) +

geom_histogram(binwidth = 2, fill = "lightblue", color = "black", alpha = 0.7) +

ggtitle("Histogram of Scores") +

xlab("Scores") +

ylab("Frequency")

Box Plot (for Distribution and Outliers) :

Creating a box plot using Base R

boxplot(data, main = "Boxplot of Scores", ylab = "Scores", col = "lightgreen")

Box plot using ggplot2

ggplot(data = data.frame(Scores = data), aes(y = Scores)) +

geom_boxplot(fill = "lightgreen", color = "black") +

ggtitle("Boxplot of Scores") +

ylab("Scores")

Customizing Plots :

1. Customizing Base R Plots

Customizing a histogram

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hist(data, main = "Customized Histogram of Scores", xlab = "Scores", col = "lightblue",

border = "black", breaks = 5)

Adding gridlines and titles

plot(x, y, main = "Customized Scatter Plot", xlab = "X Values", ylab = "Y Values", pch = 19,
col = "blue")

grid()

Saving Plots :

a file in various formats such as PNG, JPEG, or PDF using the ggsave() function or base R
functions like png(), jpeg(), or pdf().

Saving as PNG

png("scatter_plot.png")

plot(x, y, main = "Scatter Plot", xlab = "X", ylab = "Y", pch = 19, col = "blue")

dev.off() Don't forget to turn off the device

Saving as PDF

pdf("line_plot.pdf")

plot(time, value, type = "o", main = "Line Plot Example", xlab = "Time", ylab = "Value", col =
"blue")

dev.off()

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Experiment 4:

Statistical analysis
In this experiment, students will learn how to conduct descriptive and inferential statistical
analysis using R. They will learn how to calculate descriptive statistics, such as mean,
median, and standard deviation. They will also learn how to conduct hypothesis testing to
determine if there is a statistically significant difference between two groups.

Calculating Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency (mean, median), dispersion (standard
deviation, variance), and shape (skewness, kurtosis).

Example data

data <- c(23, 45, 56, 67, 45, 23, 56, 78, 90, 34, 56, 45)

Mean

mean_data <- mean(data)

cat("Mean:", mean_data, "\n")

Median

median_data <- median(data)

cat("Median:", median_data, "\n")

Standard Deviation

sd_data <- sd(data)

cat("Standard Deviation:", sd_data, "\n")

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Variance

variance_data <- var(data)

cat("Variance:", variance_data, "\n")

Minimum and Maximum values

min_data <- min(data)

max_data <- max(data)

cat("Min:", min_data, "Max:", max_data, "\n")

Summary (gives min, 1st quartile, median, mean, 3rd quartile, max)

summary_data <- summary(data)

cat("Summary:", summary_data, "\n")

Output:

Inferential Statistics :

One-Sample t-Test

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A one-sample t-test is used to determine if the sample mean is significantly different from a
known value (typically the population mean).

One-sample t-test to test if the mean is different from 50

t_test_one_sample <- t.test(data, mu = 50)

cat("One-Sample t-Test Results:\n")

print(t_test_one_sample)

Chi-Square Test for Independence

A chi-square test is used to determine whether there is an association between two categorical
variables.

Contingency table for gender and smoking status

smoking_data <- data.frame(

Gender = c("Male", "Female"),

Non_Smoker = c(40, 60),

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Smoker = c(10, 20)

Perform the Chi-Square test

chisq_test <- chisq.test(smoking_data[, -1])

cat("Chi-Square Test Results:\n")

print(chisq_test)

Output:

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Experiment 5

In this experiment, students will learn how to apply machine learning algorithms to solve
real-world problems. They will learn how to train and evaluate machine learning models,
and how to use machine learning models to make predictions.

1. Setting Up the Environment

Install necessary libraries:

install.packages(c("caret", "randomForest", "e1071", "ggplot2"))

library(caret)

library(randomForest)

library(e1071)

library(ggplot2)

2. Understanding the Data

Students will begin by loading a dataset and performing basic exploration.

Example: Using the `iris` dataset:

data(iris)

str(iris) Check the structure of the data

summary(iris) Summary statistics of the dataset

3. Data Preprocessing

Clean the data by checking for missing values and normalizing or scaling if necessary.

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sum(is.na(iris)) Check for missing values

4. Splitting the Data

Split the dataset into training and testing sets (typically 80% training and 20% testing).

set.seed(123)

trainIndex <- createDataPartition(iris$Species, p = 0.8, list = FALSE)

trainData <- iris[trainIndex, ]

testData <- iris[-trainIndex, ]

5. Training a Model

Example: Using the `randomForest` model to train the data.

model_rf <- randomForest(Species ~ ., data = trainData)

print(model_rf) Print model summary

6. Evaluating the Model

predictions <- predict(model_rf, newdata = testData)

confusionMatrix(predictions, testData$Species)

7. Making Predictions

new_data <- data.frame(Sepal.Length = 5.1, Sepal.Width = 3.5, Petal.Length = 1.4,

Petal.Width = 0.2)

prediction <- predict(model_rf, new_data)

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print(prediction)

8. Model Tuning (Optional)

tune_rf <- train(Species ~ ., data = trainData, method = "rf", trControl = trainControl(method

= "cv", number = 10))

print(tune_rf)

9. Visualizing the Results

varImpPlot(model_rf) Plot variable importance

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Experiment 6:

Design an experiment to determine the effect of different types of fertilizer on plant

growth. This experiment allows students to explore the factors that affect plant growth.

Step 1: Set up the Environment and Simulate Data

Load necessary libraries

library(ggplot2)
library(dplyr)

Set seed for reproducibility

set.seed(123)

Create a dataset for plant growth simulation (4 weeks of data)

weeks <- rep(1:4, times = 3) 4 weeks, repeated for 3 fertilizer types
fertilizer_type <- rep(c("Organic", "Inorganic", "Control"), each = 4) Fertilizer types
growth_data <- data.frame(Week = weeks,
Fertilizer = fertilizer_type,
Height = numeric(12),
Leaves = numeric(12))

Simulate plant height and leaf number based on fertilizer type

growth_data$Height <- ifelse(growth_data$Fertilizer == "Organic",
rnorm(12, mean = 20 + growth_data$Week * 5, sd = 2),
ifelse(growth_data$Fertilizer == "Inorganic",
rnorm(12, mean = 25 + growth_data$Week * 6, sd = 2),
rnorm(12, mean = 15 + growth_data$Week * 3, sd = 2)))

growth_data$Leaves <- ifelse(growth_data$Fertilizer == "Organic",

rnorm(12, mean = 10 + growth_data$Week * 3, sd = 1),
ifelse(growth_data$Fertilizer == "Inorganic",
rnorm(12, mean = 12 + growth_data$Week * 4, sd = 1),
rnorm(12, mean = 8 + growth_data$Week * 2, sd = 1)))

View simulated data

head(growth_data)

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Step 2: Visualize the Growth Data

ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Height, color = Fertilizer)) +

geom_line() +
geom_point() +
labs(title = "Plant Height Over Time by Fertilizer Type", x = "Week", y = "Plant Height (cm)")
+
theme_minimal()

Visualize number of leaves by fertilizer type over time

ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Leaves, color = Fertilizer)) +
geom_line() +
geom_point() +
labs(title = "Number of Leaves Over Time by Fertilizer Type", x = "Week", y = "Number of
Leaves") +
theme_minimal()

Step 3: Statistical Analysis (ANOVA Test)

ANOVA for Plant Height

anova_height <- aov(Height ~ Fertilizer + Week + Fertilizer:Week, data = growth_data)
summary(anova_height)

ANOVA for Number of Leaves

anova_leaves <- aov(Leaves ~ Fertilizer + Week + Fertilizer:Week, data = growth_data)
summary(anova_leaves)

Step 4: Post-Hoc Test (If ANOVA is significant)

Post-Hoc Test for Plant Height

tukey_height <- TukeyHSD(anova_height)
summary(tukey_height)

Post-Hoc Test for Number of Leaves

tukey_leaves <- TukeyHSD(anova_leaves)
summary(tukey_leaves)

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Experiment 7 :

This experiment allows students to explore the relationship between food and energy.

Step 1: Simulating Data for Food Types and Energy Levels

Load necessary libraries

library(ggplot2)
library(dplyr)

Set seed for reproducibility

set.seed(123)

Define food types and their caloric values per 100g (in kcal)
food_data <- data.frame(
Food = c('Carbohydrates', 'Proteins', 'Fats', 'Fruits'),
Calories = c(250, 200, 300, 100), Approximate calories for 100g portion
EnergyBefore = c(5, 6, 5, 7), Energy level before consumption (scale 1-10)
EnergyAfter = c(7, 7, 6, 8), Energy level after consumption (scale 1-10)
DurationEnergy = c(3, 2.5, 2, 3) Duration of energy in hours
)

View the simulated data

print(food_data)

Step 2: Visualizing Energy Levels Before and After Eating

Boxplot of energy before and after eating

ggplot(food_data, aes(x = Food, y = EnergyAfter, fill = Food)) +
geom_boxplot() +
labs(title = "Energy After Eating Different Foods", y = "Energy Level (1-10)", x = "Food
Type") +
theme_minimal()

Boxplot of energy duration (how long energy lasts)

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ggplot(food_data, aes(x = Food, y = DurationEnergy, fill = Food)) +

geom_boxplot() +
labs(title = "Duration of Energy After Eating Different Foods", y = "Duration of Energy
(hours)", x = "Food Type") +
theme_minimal()

Step 3: Statistical Analysis

ANOVA for Energy Levels After Eating

anova_energy <- aov(EnergyAfter ~ Food, data = food_data)
summary(anova_energy)

ANOVA for Duration of Energy

anova_duration <- aov(DurationEnergy ~ Food, data = food_data)
summary(anova_duration)

Step 4: Post-Hoc Analysis (Tukey's HSD)

Tukey's HSD test for post-hoc analysis

tukey_energy <- TukeyHSD(anova_energy)
summary(tukey_energy)

Tukey's HSD test for energy duration

tukey_duration <- TukeyHSD(anova_duration)
summary(tukey_duration)

Experiment 8:

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Design an experiment to determine the effect of different types of light on the growth of
plants. This experiment allows students to explore the role of light in plant growth.

Step 1: Set up the Environment and Simulate Data

Load necessary libraries

library(ggplot2)

library(dplyr)

Set seed for reproducibility

set.seed(123)

Define the light conditions and simulate plant growth data over 4 weeks

weeks <- rep(1:4, times = 3) 4 weeks repeated for each light condition

light_condition <- rep(c("Sunlight", "LED", "Fluorescent"), each = 4) Light conditions

Simulate plant growth data: height and number of leaves over time

growth_data <- data.frame(Week = weeks,

Light = light_condition,

Height = numeric(12), Plant height in cm

Leaves = numeric(12)) Number of leaves

Simulate plant height and leaf number based on light condition

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growth_data$Height <- ifelse(growth_data$Light == "Sunlight",

rnorm(12, mean = 10 + growth_data$Week * 2, sd = 1),

ifelse(growth_data$Light == "LED",

rnorm(12, mean = 9 + growth_data$Week * 1.8, sd = 1),

rnorm(12, mean = 8 + growth_data$Week * 1.5, sd = 1)))

growth_data$Leaves <- ifelse(growth_data$Light == "Sunlight",

rnorm(12, mean = 5 + growth_data$Week * 1, sd = 1),

ifelse(growth_data$Light == "LED",

rnorm(12, mean = 4 + growth_data$Week * 0.8, sd = 1),

rnorm(12, mean = 3 + growth_data$Week * 0.6, sd = 1)))

View simulated data

head(growth_data)

Step 2: Visualize the Data.

Line plot for plant height over time by light condition

ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Height, color = Light)) +

geom_line() +

geom_point() +

labs(title = "Plant Height Over Time by Light Condition", x = "Week", y = "Plant Height
(cm)") +

theme_minimal()

Line plot for number of leaves over time by light condition

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ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Leaves, color = Light)) +

geom_line() +

geom_point() +

labs(title = "Number of Leaves Over Time by Light Condition", x = "Week", y = "Number of

Leaves") +

theme_minimal()

Step 3: Statistical Analysis (ANOVA)

ANOVA for Plant Height

anova_height <- aov(Height ~ Light + Week + Light:Week, data = growth_data)

summary(anova_height)

ANOVA for Number of Leaves

anova_leaves <- aov(Leaves ~ Light + Week + Light:Week, data = growth_data)

summary(anova_leaves)

Step 4: Post-Hoc Test (If ANOVA is significant)

Post-Hoc Test for Plant Height

tukey_height <- TukeyHSD(anova_height)

summary(tukey_height)

Post-Hoc Test for Number of Leaves

tukey_leaves <- TukeyHSD(anova_leaves)

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summary(tukey_leaves)

Output:

ANOVA for Plant Height:

summary(anova_height)

Example:

Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Light 2 2.456 1.228 5.43 0.015

Week 3 3.872 1.290 6.17 0.004

Tukey's HSD test for Plant Height:

summary(tukey_height)

Example:

diff lwr upr p adj

Sunlight-LED 0.45 -0.21 1.11 0.32

Sunlight-Florescent 1.15 0.72 1.58 0.001 *

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Experiment 9 :
Design an experiment to determine the effect of different types of soil on the growth of
plants. This experiment allows students to explore the role of soil in plant growth.

Step 1: Set up the Environment and Simulate Data

Load necessary libraries

library(ggplot2)

library(dplyr)

Set seed for reproducibility

set.seed(123)

Define the soil types and simulate plant growth data over 4 weeks

weeks <- rep(1:4, times = 3) 4 weeks repeated for each soil condition

soil_type <- rep(c("Loamy", "Sandy", "Clay"), each = 4) Soil types

Simulate plant growth data: height and number of leaves over time

growth_data <- data.frame(Week = weeks,

Soil = soil_type,

Height = numeric(12), Plant height in cm

Leaves = numeric(12)) Number of leaves

Simulate plant height and leaf number based on soil type

growth_data$Height <- ifelse(growth_data$Soil == "Loamy",

rnorm(12, mean = 10 + growth_data$Week * 2, sd = 1),

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R Programming Lab Manual

ifelse(growth_data$Soil == "Sandy",

rnorm(12, mean = 8 + growth_data$Week * 1.5, sd = 1),

rnorm(12, mean = 7 + growth_data$Week * 1.2, sd = 1)))

growth_data$Leaves <- ifelse(growth_data$Soil == "Loamy",

rnorm(12, mean = 5 + growth_data$Week * 1, sd = 1),

ifelse(growth_data$Soil == "Sandy",

rnorm(12, mean = 4 + growth_data$Week * 0.8, sd = 1),

rnorm(12, mean = 3 + growth_data$Week * 0.6, sd = 1)))

View simulated data

head(growth_data)

Step 2: Visualize the Data

Line plot for plant height over time by soil type

ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Height, color = Soil)) +

geom_line() +

geom_point() +

labs(title = "Plant Height Over Time by Soil Type", x = "Week", y = "Plant Height (cm)") +

theme_minimal()

Line plot for number of leaves over time by soil type

ggplot(growth_data, aes(x = Week, y = Leaves, color = Soil)) +

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R Programming Lab Manual

geom_line() +

geom_point() +

labs(title = "Number of Leaves Over Time by Soil Type", x = "Week", y = "Number of

Leaves") +

theme_minimal()

Step 3: Statistical Analysis (ANOVA)

ANOVA for Plant Height

anova_height <- aov(Height ~ Soil + Week + Soil:Week, data = growth_data)

summary(anova_height)

ANOVA for Number of Leaves

anova_leaves <- aov(Leaves ~ Soil + Week + Soil:Week, data = growth_data)

summary(anova_leaves)

Step 4: Post-Hoc Test (If ANOVA is significant)

Post-Hoc Test for Plant Height

tukey_height <- TukeyHSD(anova_height)

summary(tukey_height)

Post-Hoc Test for Number of Leaves

tukey_leaves <- TukeyHSD(anova_leaves)

summary(tukey_leaves)

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R Programming Lab Manual

Output :

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