THERMAL MEASUREMENTS

Heat Capacity, C & Specific Heat Capacity, c

𝑬𝑯
𝑪=
𝜟𝑻

𝑬𝑯 = 𝑪𝜟𝑻
Where: EH = Heat Energy in J

C = Heat Capacity in JK-1

T = Temperature in K

𝑬𝑯
𝒄=
𝒎𝜟𝑻

𝑬𝑯 = 𝒎𝒄𝜟𝑻
Where: EH = Heat Energy in Joules, J

c = Specific Heat Capacity in Joules per kilogram per

Kelvin, Jkg-1K-1

T = Temperature in Kelvin, K

Examples

Calculate the heat capacity, C, of water if 210 000 J of heat energy is required to raise the temperature from 50°C to 60°C?
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Calculate the specific heat capacity, c, of water if 210 000 J of heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 5.0 kg of
water from a temperature of 25°C to 35°C?
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Heat capacity = mass × Specific heat capacity

𝑪 = 𝒎𝒄
Exercises

Refer to the printed sheet

 DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A SOLID CONDUCTOR

A. MIXTURE METHOD
B. ELECTRICAL METHOD

MIXTURE METHOD:

Materials: Bunsen burner, beaker, metal block, thermometer, tripod. string, water& Styrofoam cup.
Procedure
o The mass, m1 of the Styrofoam is measured and recorded.
o Water is was added to the Styrofoam cup and the mass of cup + water is measured and recorded as m2
o The mass of water, mw in the Styrofoam cup is determined by:
mw = m2 - m1

mw = mass of water
m2 = mass of cup and water
m1 = mass of cup

o The mass mm of the metal was measured and recorded.

o The temperature T1 of the water in the cup was measured and recorded.
o The metal was heated in boiling water for a few minutes and the temperature T3 of the boiling water and metal is
measured and recorded.
o The metal was removed, shaken, then quickly transferred to the cool water in the cup.
o The highest temperature T2 reached by the mixture of metal and water in the cup is measured and recorded.

Assumption:

o Total thermal energy lost by the metal = total thermal energy gained by the water

𝒎𝒎 𝒄𝒎 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) = 𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Precautions
o The metal was quickly shaken to remove water from its surface
o The mixture was stirred with the thermometer to ensure that the temperature read is the mean temperature.

Limitation

o Thermal energy was lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation as the mixture was being stirred.
 ELECTRICAL METHOD

1. The mass, m, of the block has been measured and recorded.

2. The experiment is set up as shown above.
3. The heater is switched on and allowed to warm up.
4. After a short while the initial temperature, T1 is measured while simultaneously starting a stop clock.
5. The current, I, and voltage, V, are measured and recorded.
6. When the temperature has risen about 20 oC the new temperature, T2 is measured. After this, the heater is
switched off.

Assumption:

All the supplied electrical energy has been transformed into the thermal energy gained by the block

Calculation

𝑰𝑽𝒕 = 𝒎𝒄 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Precautions

o The rheostat was constantly adjusted to keep the current constant.

Sources of Error

o Some thermal energy was lost by conduction to the oil

o Some thermal energy was lost by conduction to the table through the insulating material.
o Some thermal energy was lost by radiation to the surrounding.
 DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID BY

A. MIXTURE METHOD
B. ELECTRICAL METHOD

MIXTURE METHOD:

o The experiment is performed using the same method employed for determining the s.h.c of a solid conductor by
mixture method.
o The mass of water in the beaker is determined by:
mw = mb+w - mb

mw = mass of water

mb+w = mass of beaker + water

mb = mass of beaker

o The temperature of the water in the beaker is measured and recorded.

o The mass of water in the Styrofoam cup is determined by:
mw = mc+w - mc

mw = mass of water

mc+w = mass of cup and water

mc = mass of cup

o The temperature of the water in the Styrofoam cup is measured and recorded.
o The two liquids are mixed and the highest temperature reached is recorded

𝒎𝒄 (∆𝑻) = 𝒎𝒄 (∆𝑻)

o Precautions and sources of error remain the same as for solids.

Limitation
o Thermal energy was lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation as the mixture was being stirred.

ELECTRICAL METHOD:

o The experiment is set up as shown above

o The same steps were followed as for determination of s.h.c of a solid conductor by electrical method.
Precautions:

1. The liquid was stirred before measuring the temperature to ensure that the mean temperature was obtained.
2. The rheostat was adjusted to keep the current constant.
3. Employ Rumford’s cooling correction.
 RUMFORD’S COOLING CORRECTION
This is used to minimize heat loss to the atmosphere during the experiment which can lead to errors.

o The liquid is first cooled to about 10°C below room temperature.

o The heater is turned on until the temperature of the liquid rises to 10°C above room temperature.
o In the first part of the heating, the liquid gains heat from the atmosphere because it is at a lower
temperature than the atmosphere.
o In the second part of the heating, the liquid loses heat to the atmosphere because the liquid is hotter than
the atmosphere.
o In this way, the overall heat lost to and gained from the atmosphere in the experiment should be
approximately zero.
Calculation
𝑰𝑽𝒕 = 𝒎𝒄 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Source of Error

Some thermal energy was lost by conduction to the table and radiation to the surrounding.

Worked Examples

The following data were obtained in a direct electrical heating experiment to find the specific heat capacity, c for water.
Determine the value of c from the data.

Electric current, I = 1.5 A

Voltage across heater, V = 12 V

Time current switched on, t = 20 min 00 s

Mass of polystyrene container, m1 = 5.0 g

Mass of polystyrene container + Water = 260 g

Initial temperature of water (and container) θ1 = 15 oC

Final temperature of water (and container) θ2 = 35 oC

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Example 2

The following results were obtained in an experiment to find the specific heat capacity of a liquid. Determine c1 from the data.

Mass of polystyrene container, m1 = 10 g

Mass of polystyrene container + liquid = 465 g

Initial temperature of liquid θ1 = 25 oC

Final temperature of liquid θ2 = 33 oC

Specific heat capacity of liquid c1 =?

Mass of metal, m2 = 200 g

Initial temperature of metal, θ 3 = 100 OC

Final temperature of metal, θ 2 = 33 OC

Specific heat capacity of metal, c2 = 900 Jkg-1k-1

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Exercise

The following results were obtained in an experiment to find the specific heat capacity of a liquid. Determine c1 from the data.

Mass of polystyrene container, m1 = 10 g

Mass of polystyrene container + liquid = 465 g

Initial temperature of liquid θ1 = 25 oC

Final temperature of liquid θ2 = 33 oC

Specific heat capacity of liquid c1 =?

Mass of metal, m2 = 200 g

Initial temperature of metal, θ 3 = 100 OC

Final temperature of metal, θ 2 = 33 OC

Specific heat capacity of metal, c2 = 900 Jkg-1k-1

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 Specific Latent Heat

You should be able to:

1. Demonstrate that temperature remains constant during a phase change;

a. Perform cooling curve demonstration, for example, candle wax.
2. Apply the relationship EH = ml ;
a. Perform activity to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, using method of mixtures with a container of
negligible heat capacity.
3. Determine the specific latent heat of vaporization lv, and fusion, lf of water; Unit: Jkg-1
a. Use an electrical method
4. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
a. Use the Kinetic theory to explain evaporation and boiling.
b. Give examples of application of cooling effect of evaporation:
I. air conditioners
II. earthenware vessels
III. refrigerators
IV. perspiration.

PHASE CHANGE

Change of state: the change in the state of matter in which a substance exists. It usually occurs at melting and boiling points.

Features of Phase Change

1. Temperature remains constant.

2. Energy is being gained or lost by the substance depending on the type of change.

Latent heat of fusion, lf: The specific latent heat of fusion, lf of a solid is the quantity of heat required to change 1 kg
of the solid into liquid without a change of temperature.

Latent heat of vaporization, lv: The specific latent heat of vaporization, lv of a liquid is the quantity of heat required
to change 1 kg of the liquid to 1 kg of vapour without any change in temperature at
standard pressure.

𝑬
𝒍=
𝒎
-1
where l = Specific latent heat Jkg

E = heat energy that changed the solid into liquid without change in temperature, J

M = mass of of the solid, kg

Examples:
1. Calculate the energy required to change 250 g of liquid oxygen in to oxygen gas at the same temperat ure
(lv = 2.1 x 105 Jkg-1)
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2. Calculate the energy released when 4.5 kg of lead solidifies, without change in temperature.
(lv = 2.3 x 104 Jkg-1)
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Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion Ice by Mixture

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown above.

2. The mass, m1, and temperature, t1, of the water in the Styrofoam cup is measured and recorded.
3. Melting ice is added.
4. When all the ice has melted, the final temperature, t2, is recorded.
5. The mass of water + melted ice, m2 is measured and recorded.
6. Mass of melted ice, m3, is determined by m 2 – m1

[𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟] = [𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒] + [𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒]

[𝑚1 × 𝑐 × (𝑇2 – 𝑇1 )] = [𝑚3 × 𝑙𝑓 ] + [ 𝑚3 × 𝑐 × 𝑇2 ]

Example:

The following results were obtained in an experiment to find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, lf, by the method of
mixtures. Find lf from the data.

Mass of polystyrene cup, m1 = 5.0 g

Mass of polystyrene cup + water, m2 = 335 g

Initial temperature of water, θ1 = 33°C

Final temperature of water, θ2 = 18°C

Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4.2 J k–1 g–1

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice, lf =? J g–1

Initial temperature of crushed melting ice, θ3 = 0.0°C

Final temperature of water formed from the melting ice, θ2 = 18°C

Mass of cup + water + melted ice, m3 = 390 g

Solution

[ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟] = [ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒] + [ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒]

[(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) × 𝑐 × (𝜃1 – 𝜃2 )] = [(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒) × 𝒍𝑓 )] + [(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑐𝑒) × 𝑐 × (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0°𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)]

(𝑚2 – 𝑚1 ) × 𝑐 × (𝜃1 – 𝜃2 ) = [(𝑚3 – 𝑚2 ) × 𝒍𝑓 ] + [(𝑚3 – 𝑚2 ) × 𝑐 × (𝜃2 – 𝜃3 )]

(335 – 5) × 4.2 × (33 – 18) = [(390 – 335) × 𝒍𝑓 ] + [(390 – 335) × 4.2 × 18]

𝒍𝑓 = 300 𝐽𝑔−1

Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water by Electrical Method

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown above

2. When the water starts boiling, the balance is read and a stop clock is started at the same time.
3. After a time, t, has elapsed, the balance is read again and the difference in readings on the balance gives the
mass (m) of water that was boiled off and converted to vapour.

𝑷𝒕
𝒍𝒗 =
𝒎
Example CSEC MAY 2016
(c) In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice using a container with negligible heat capacity, a
student obtained the following data:

Initial temperature of water = 30 °C

Final temperature of water + melted ice = 20 °C
Initial mass of water = 100 g
Final mass of water plus melted ice = 110 g

(i) Calculate the heat lost by the water.

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(ii) Calculate the heat gained by the melted ice.
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(iii) Assuming the heat lost by the water is equal to the heat gained by the ice, calculate
the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
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[Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg–1K–1]
 BOILING AND EVAPORATION
Evaporation: The change of liquid to vapour occuring at the surface of a liquid only.

Boiling: The change of liquid into vapour occuring withing the body of a liquid at its boiling point for a given pressure.

Evaporation Boiling

Occurs only at the surface of a liquid. Occurs throughout the body of the liquid.

Occurs at any temperature. Occurs only at one temperature (the boiling point).

Does not require any external heat source. Requires an external heat source.

Cooling Due to Evaporation

In a liquid the molecules are moving about at various speeds. Some of the faster moving particles have enough energy to break
loose through the surface of the liquid and escape as vapour. This result in a decrease in the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of the liquid. This shows as a drop on temperature

FACTORS THAT AFFECT EVAPORATION

1. Temperature: molecules move faster at higher temperature so more of the molecules will posses enough K.E to break
free as gas.
2. Humidity: When humidity is high escaping molecules crash into other molecules in the air and rebound into the
liquid
3. Wind : moving air removes evaporated molecules out of the way allowing other molecules to escape.
4. Surface area: the larger the surface area the greater the number of molecules that can escape per time.

Applications of Cooling Effect of Evaporation:

I. air conditioners
II. earthenware vessels
III. refrigerators
IV. perspiration.