sustainability

Article
Impact of Photovoltaic Penetration on Medium Voltage
Distribution Network
Mohammad Reza Maghami 1, * , Jagadeesh Pasupuleti 2, * and Chee Mei Ling 1

1 UNITEN R&D Sdn. Bhd, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
2 Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan Ikram-Uniten,
Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.R.M.); [email protected] (J.P.)

Abstract: Nowadays, large-scale solar penetration into the grid and the intermittent nature of PV
systems are affecting the operation of distribution networks. This paper aims to investigate the effect
of PV penetration on a typical medium-voltage distribution network in Malaysia. The main objectives
of this study are to investigate voltage stability, power loss, and short circuit under two conditions:
peak load and no load. The network is evaluated using two methods: static and dynamic analysis,
utilizing the Digsilent Power Factory software. The network comprises two 33/11 kV parallel
transformers connected to the 11 kV busbar and consists of 13 feeders and 38 loads. PV penetration of
500 kW per node is added, and the maximum potential PV penetration that is acceptable to connect to
the grid is evaluated. The findings indicate that during peak load conditions, some nodes experience
violations, but by increasing the PV penetration, the lower violations move up to the acceptable range.
The highest power loss is 191 kW, occurring during peak load conditions at 0% PV penetration level.
On the other hand, dynamic simulations were carried out with specific load time characteristics, and
the results were compared under different PV penetration levels. The dynamic simulation results
show that during contingency conditions, there are violations in peak load, and the maximum PV
penetration for this study was determined to be 2MW. It is observed that the nodes 27, 28, and
29 violate lower voltage limits even at 100% PV penetrations.

Citation: Maghami, M.R.; Pasupuleti, Keywords: PV penetration; static simulation; dynamic simulation; voltage violations; power loss
J.; Ling, C.M. Impact of Photovoltaic
Penetration on Medium Voltage
Distribution Network. Sustainability
2023, 15, 5613. https://doi.org/ 1. Introduction
10.3390/su15075613
Solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation has significantly increased globally in recent
Academic Editors: Kumaran years [1]. Solar PV distributed generation is a popular form of renewable energy. By
Kadirgama, Talal Yusaf and Hasan growing the solar cell efficiency in the market, the global installed capacity of solar PV is
Sh Majdi projected to reach 8519 GW by 2050 [2,3]. In Malaysia, plans are in place to install 200 MW
of solar power in Peninsula Malaysia and 50 MW in Sabah [4]. As PV systems can operate at
Received: 13 February 2023
various capacities, from kW to MW, they have been widely promoted and developed due to
Revised: 3 March 2023
their adaptability and flexibility [5]. However, with the rise in distributed power generation,
Accepted: 8 March 2023
Published: 23 March 2023
the distribution network is evolving from a passive radial network (traditional) to an active
network with small- and medium-sized power sources that generate power, increasing
the system’s efficiency. High PV penetration of distributed power supplies can result in
significant power flow in the opposite direction, creating challenges for managing voltage
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. and protecting equipment in the distribution network. Extensive research is required to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. predict possible problems with PV grid integration [6–8].
This article is an open access article According to Wang et al. [9], large-scale PV systems can cause voltage changes, net-
distributed under the terms and work losses, and short circuit currents in the distribution network under various operational
conditions of the Creative Commons conditions, including steady-state and dynamic states. Sreekumar et al. [10] focus on the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
voltage drop and network losses caused by grid-connected distributed PV systems and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
discuss their impacts on the distribution network. Coelho et al. [11] explore how the
4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15075613 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 2 of 13

location of distributed generation affects the voltage profile and power loss in a radial
distribution grid. In another study, Ding [12] examines several factors that can influence
voltage fluctuation levels when solar PV systems are connected to the grid. Prusty et al. [13]
propose considering the uncertainties in a distribution network and using probabilistic
load flow analysis to measure the voltage levels of buses inside a distribution network.
Solar units have a stochastic nature, making their output uncontrollable due to the
unpredictable system [14]. This unpredictability can cause overvoltage issues in MV distri-
bution networks due to variations in PV power output and load demands [15]. Additionally,
when there is low demand and high PV generation, surplus power flows back to the sub-
station, creating reverse power flows that can disrupt network performance and cause a
rise in voltage levels. The intensity of these consequences depends on factors such as the
network’s topology, location, system size, and weather conditions. Figure 1, shows the solar
PV penetration model and voltage calculation based on Kirchhoff’s theory. Furthermore,
the high penetration of solar PVs in the system, in conjunction with increasing active power
losses in the distribution network, might also affect operational efficiency [16]. Recent
research explored potential technical challenges associated with high PV penetration in
distribution networks, with some findings published in recent years [17]. In the past,
deterministic and probabilistic methods were mainly used to study and measure the effects
of solar PV [18].

Figure 1. Two-bus system, and voltage calculation model.

Digsilent Power Factory currently provides quasi-dynamic simulation for medium- to

long-term electrical research [19]. This software uses consumer time-step sizes to perform
multiple load-flow computations, which makes the simulation technique faster, since it
doesn’t involve solving all the calculations. Numerous research studies [20] have shown
that the quasi-dynamic approach is more accurate than other approaches, such as the
quasi-static approach [21]. Because of this, quasi-dynamic simulations are utilized in a
wide range of fields, including physics, geoscience, and electronics. Gomes et al. [22],
used a quasi-dynamic approach to examine the behavior of two transmission grids serving
industrial clients following an Economic Dispatch Optimization. This study examined a
distribution system with different kinds of consumers to assess behavior and changes when
DG systems are present at certain nodes [23]. With the rise of grid-connected solar PV, new
distribution network challenges have emerged. To achieve high PV penetration into the
grid, it is important to identify and understand these problems before they occur. Although
all of these techniques have been applied to single-point PV systems, they have not been
applied to large-scale systems with multiple PV units dispersed throughout a large area.
Several studies have been conducted regarding the integration of high penetration PV
systems into distribution networks, but few of them have been focused on how to plan for
distribution networks when PV systems are widely deployed. Several references deal with
PVs and loads as PQ nodes without considering the time-varying nature of these variables.
However, it is important to note that actual power consumption by a load largely depends
on the voltage level of the bus bar it is connected to, so the calculation results do not fully
represent actual consumption.
Our primary objective in this research is to examine the impacts of solar PV pen-
etration in the MV distribution system and identify technical barriers associated with
high-penetration PV scenarios to assist utilities in better managing PV integration. The
Digsilent Power Factory was used to simulate the MV model, and the reference network
for 33/11 kV voltage transmission is shown in Figure 2. The impact of PV penetration on
the network was examined using load flow analysis and dynamic simulation based on two
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 3 of 13

scenarios: no-load and peak load conditions. The following objectives were determined for
this study:
1. To analyze power flow under different scenarios;
2. To investigate short-circuit current and power loss of the network among different scenarios;
3. To analyze dynamic simulations under different scenarios;
4. To identify sensitive nodes and determine the maximum PV capacity.

Figure 2. Network topology for current study. There are 38 nodes across 13 feeders (F1 to F13)
connected to 11 kV bus bar through two 33/11 kV, with 30 MVA transformers connected in parallel.

2. Methodology
This section presents, in detail, the methodology employed to achieve the proposed
research objectives. Furthermore, it illustrates all the tools and systems that were used to
conduct the study, including the mathematical model, simulations, and strategies used
for analysis. The methodology for this research is divided into two main parts: network
data description and network evaluation strategies. The network data include transformer
ratings, line information, bus information, solar irradiations, etc. Power flow analysis
strategies include static analysis and dynamic analysis. Digsilent Power Factory version
2021 was used to investigate the effect of PV penetration in the typical network. The steps
are described in detail below:
• Collecting grid and solar data, including the single-line schematic, load demand
information, and PV generation data;
• Using a time-series framework to calculate power flow: a power flow calculation
was made every minute, and the results displayed using Digsilent Power Factory to
produce accurate results;
• Assessing overvoltage limits: in cases where the overvoltage limit is exceeded, this
indicates that the maximum penetration of PV has already been achieved;
• Identifying the node with the highest voltage: nodes and buses with the highest
voltage are reported when an overvoltage violation is detected;
• Running dynamic simulation under different scenarios.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 4 of 13

2.1. PV Penetration Modeling

In general, based on Kirchhoff’s theory, the voltage equation at the beginning and end
points of the two-bus system depicted in Figure 1 is demonstrated in Equations (1)–(3).
VPCC represents the voltage at the point of connection, VG represents the voltage at the
transformer, RL + jXL denotes the line impedance, I represents the line current, S represents
the apparent power from the grid to the bus, SPV denotes the apparent power from the
PV system, and SLD represents the load consumption. When the PV power generation is
greater than the consumption load at the PCC point, the excess power will be supplied to
the grid. Conversely, when the PV power generation is less than the consumption load at
the PCC point, the grid will supply power to the load.

S = V I∗ (1)
→ P − jQ
I = →∗ (2)
V PCC
→ → →
V G = V PCC + I ( R L + jX L ) (3)
 
* * PR L + QX L R Q − PX
V PCC = VG −  → ∗ − j L →∗ L
(4)
V PCC V PCC
PCC is point of common coupling. By comparing the active and reactive power, it is
possible to represent this power flow as Equation (5).
 
→ → ( P − P ) R + ( Q − Q ) X
V PCC = V G −  LD PV L
→∗
LD PV L
(5)
V PCC

2.2. Network Topology Description

A typical Malaysian MV distribution network integrated with solar PV topology in
the single-line diagram can be seen in Figure 2. The network is connected to 11 kV bus
bar through two 33/11 kV, with 30 MVA transformers connected in parallel. The 11 kV
bus serves 38 nodes using 13 feeders. In addition, the network was divided into left and
right zones using a bus section circuit-breaker. For ease of analysis, seven feeders on the
left-hand side are called ‘Left-hand side feeders’, while the other six on the right are called
‘Right-hand side feeders’. The total loads for all the 13 feeders were tabulated as shown in
Table 1. The total load connected to the 11 kV bus bar equals 31.227 MVA with 20.818 MW
of active load and 10.409 MVAR of reactive load. During the simulation, two scenarios were
set up to determine how PV penetration would affect a typical network. Testing a network
in bad conditions is important because it allows us to identify potential weaknesses or
limitations in the network’s performance. In real-world scenarios, network conditions
can be unpredictable and can degrade due to various factors such as high traffic, network
congestion, signal interference, or hardware failures. Here, we decided to evaluate the PV
grid connection in two bad conditions as follows:
• The first scenario is a no-load condition, which is the state of the network when all the
loads have been disconnected to see how much the PV penetration would affect the
voltage profile in the grid;
• The second scenario is a peak load condition, which is the state of the network when
all the loads have been connected to see how much the PV penetration would affect
the voltage profile in the grid.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 5 of 13

Table 1. Load specification among feeders.

Feeder P (MW) Q (MVAR) Nodes

1 0.085 0.043 1
2 2.929 1.465 2, 3, 4, 5
3 1.158 0.579 6, 7, 8,9
4 0.902 0.451 10, 11
5 3.249 1.624 12, 13, 14
6 2.169 1.085 15, 16, 17, 18, 19
7 0.485 0.243 20, 21
8 2.026 1.013 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
9 2.502 1.251 27, 28, 29
10 1.939 0.969 30, 31, 32
11 0.148 0.074 33
12 1.740 0.870 34, 35, 36
13 0.716 0.358 37, 38
Total 20.818 10.409

2.3. PV Penetration Level

PV penetration refers to the total connected PV capacity as a ratio of the maximum
permitted PV capacity. PV penetration levels are usually measured in percentage terms
relative to the highest possible individual output of PV generations. In this study, the entire
network model of the MV distribution network shown in Figure 1 was built using Digsilent
Power Factory simulation software, starting from the substation down to individual nodes.
The distribution network was tested at various solar PV penetration levels, ranging from
0 kW (0%) to 500 kW (100%), under both no-load and peak load conditions to identify
voltage violations resulting from high solar PV penetration in the distribution network.
According to the Malaysian electric utility, Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) standards and
planning criteria for MV distribution networks, the statutory tolerance limits for voltage
variation should be between +5% and −5%. PV penetration levels were evaluated based
on sustainable grid voltage limits. Additionally, the maximum PV penetration level was
investigated to analyze the potential PV generation.

2.4. Network Evaluation Strategies

Three main case studies are evaluated for the network considered at both no-load
and peak load conditions. Case 1 is when the bus section circuit-breaker is closed, where
two 33/11 kV transformers are working in parallel. Case 2 is when the bus section circuit
breaker is opened, where two 33/11 kV transformers are working in isolation. Case 3
is when the bus section circuit-breaker is closed, and one of the 33/11 kV transformers
is on outage known as contingency condition. For contingency simulation, transformer
B was considered out of service, and all the loads were supplied through transformer
A. Figure 3 shows the network evaluation strategies, divided into two main parts: static
and dynamic power flow analysis. This study’s main contribution is investigating the
effect of PV penetration for different scenarios and case studies. Typical electrical power
system data such as network topology, information regarding transformers, bus bars, lines,
and generation and load profiles were collected from the local distribution company for
modeling the network.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 6 of 13

Figure 3. Network evaluation strategies including static and dynamic power flow analysis for three
case studies in both no-load and peak load conditions.

2.5. Static Power Flow Analysis

The static power flow analysis is performed to identify the magnitude and phase
values of the voltage at each node of the distribution network. Multiple simulations are
conducted for various scenarios and case studies. In a radial distribution network, the
voltage decreases along the line at the nodes away from the main bus bar. The voltage
constraints are Vmin < Vi < Vmax, where Vmin and Vmax are 0.95 p.u and 1.05 p.u,
respectively, as per the Malaysian distribution code.
The power loss is dependent on the current flow through the line and the line’s
resistance. Increasing solar PV penetration initially reduces the current in the line, resulting
in a decrease in network losses and the conventional generation’s current. However,
beyond a certain penetration level, high solar PV penetration can cause real power losses
to increase as the solar PV current starts to flow in the opposite direction into the system.
Short-circuit analysis is another term investigated in all case studies to analyze the system’s
behavior under short-circuit conditions. Power Factory, a powerful short-circuit calculation
tool, combines several methods, such as IEC 60909, VDE 0102/0103, IEEE 141/ANSI C37,
G74, and IEC 61363. This study considers the short circuit current limits prescribed in the
Malaysian distribution code, which are 25 kA at the 33 kV bus and 20 kA at the 11 kV
bus. The network is evaluated for different case studies to determine the short-circuit
current limits.

2.6. Dynamic Power Flow Analysis

The dynamic power flow analysis considers real-time variations in PV generation
and load profiles. Solar PV penetration impact has been investigated under no-load and
peak load scenarios for all three case studies. The voltage profiles at individual nodes of
the network are examined at different solar PV penetration levels to ensure compliance
with the grid code voltage statutory limits of ±5%. Low voltage conditions could result
in equipment malfunctions such as motor stalling or generating units tripping, while
high voltage conditions may damage major equipment, cause insulation failure, or trip
major transmission equipment. In this study, the distribution network was tested on differ-
ent solar PV penetration levels (0 kW—0%, 100 kW—20%, 200 kW—40%, 300 kW—60%,
400 kW—80%, and 500 kW—100%) at no-load and peak load conditions to assess the
findings of voltage violations upon integrating high solar PV penetration into the distribu-
tion network.

3. Results and Discussion

This section presents the results for all scenarios and case studies based on both static
and dynamic simulations, using both graphical and tabular formats. Graphs depict voltage
fluctuations at every solar PV penetration level. By examining voltage profile graphs for
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 7 of 13

each of the three case studies under no-load and peak load conditions, we could observe the
network’s voltage violations and tabulate the resulting feeders’ violations. These tabulated
results help identify the feeder that is most affected by all solar PV penetration levels
and scenarios.

3.1. Static Analysis

Figure 4 displays the voltage profile for case studies 1, 2, and 3 under no-load condi-
tions. It shows that no voltage violations exist up to a 100% (500 kW) solar penetration
level for all 38 nodes in all case studies, and that they are within the grid code voltage
statutory limits of ±5%. When the solar PV penetration level is increased beyond 100%, the
maximum PV penetration limit is determined to be 400% (2 MW) without any grid code
voltage violations.

Figure 4. Voltage profile under no-load conditions for three case studies. (a) Case 1, (b) case 2, and
(c) case 3.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 8 of 13

Figure 5 illustrates the voltage profile for case studies 1, 2, and 3 under peak load
conditions. The results show that no upper voltage violations exist up to a 100% (500 kW)
solar penetration level for all 38 nodes in all case studies and that they are within the grid
code voltage statutory limits of ±5%. However, for case 3 (contingency condition), the
voltage profile at nodes 28 and 29 hits the lower voltage limit in the network at 0% solar
PV penetration level. When the solar PV penetration level is increased beyond 100%, the
maximum PV penetration limit without any grid code voltage violations is observed to be
400% (2 MW). In summary, the results indicate that the distribution network can support
up to 400% solar PV penetration without exceeding the voltage limits set by the grid code,
except for nodes 28 and 29 under contingency conditions.

Figure 5. Voltage profile under peak load conditions for three case studies. (a) Case 1, (b) case 2, and
(c) case 3.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 9 of 13

3.2. Power Losses

Power losses were calculated for each case study under peak load conditions with
different solar PV penetration levels, and the results are tabulated in Table 2. The table
is divided into two parts separated by a line and gray color. The first part of the table
shows the power losses among different case studies from 0% to 100% (500 kW) solar
PV penetration levels. It is observed that the power losses decrease with an increase in
solar PV penetration. The second part of the table shows the power losses of the network
at 400% (2 MW), the maximum allowable solar PV penetration level without grid code
voltage limit violations. However, it is clear that increasing the solar PV penetration above
100% significantly increases the losses. Hence, it is not recommended to increase solar PV
penetration beyond 100%.

Table 2. Power losses among different case studies under peak load conditions.

Solar PV Penetration Power Losses (kW)

Solar PV
Solar PV (kW) Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3
Percentage
0 0% 178 180 191
100 20% 152 152 165
200 40% 136 137 145
300 60% 121 122 129
400 80% 108 109 110
500 100% 96 97 104
2000 400% 826 827 866

3.3. Evaluation of Network under Short-Circuit Conditions

A network designer typically performs a short-circuit test to ensure the network
operates reliably under emergency conditions. In this section, the short-circuit analysis
was carried out on two buses, 33 kV and 11.3 kV, using three case studies under peak
and no-load conditions. Table 3 displays the short-circuit currents at the 33 kV and 11 kV
busbars for different case studies. The results reveal that the highest short-circuit current at
the 33 kV busbar occurs at 100% penetration with 22,628 A, 22,628 A, and 22,640 A in cases
1, 2, and 3, respectively, under no-load conditions. However, in Table 4, under peak load
conditions, the highest current occurs in case 3 with 22,632 A at 100% PV penetration.

Table 3. Short-circuit condition under no-load condition.

Solar PV Penetration Short-Circuit Current (A)

Solar PV Solar PV Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3
(kW) Percentage
33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus 33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus 33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus
0 0% 22,500 10,494 22,500 12,461 22,500 12,461
100 20% 22,524 10,509 22,524 12,475 22,525 12,486
200 40% 22,550 10,527 22,550 12,490 22,553 12,519
300 60% 22,578 10,547 22,578 12,508 22,583 12,558
400 80% 22,604 10,567 22,604 12,523 22,612 12,598
500 100% 22,628 10,586 22,628 12,540 22,640 12,638
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 10 of 13

Table 4. Short circuit under the peak load condition.

Solar PV Penetration Short-Circuit Current (A)

Solar Solar PV Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3

PV (kW) Percentage 33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus 33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus 33 kV Bus 11 kV Bus
0 0% 22,479 12,461 22,479 12,461 22,479 12,413
100 20% 22,505 12,478 22,505 12,478 22,507 12,437
200 40% 22,533 12,499 22,533 12,499 22,538 12,468
300 60% 22,562 12,522 22,562 12,522 22,571 12,505
400 80% 22,589 12,547 22,590 12,547 22,603 12,544
500 100% 22,614 12,569 22,615 12,569 22,632 12,582

3.4. Dynamic Simulation under Peak Load Scenario

The network parameters, including line impedances and lengths, used in this study
were obtained from typical Malaysian MV distribution networks. Figure 6 displays the
normalized PV generation and load consumption profiles utilized in this analysis. The
solar PV characteristics are represented in blue, while the load profiles are indicated in red.
Based on these load characteristics, it can be observed that there is a high load demand
during the daytime.

Figure 6. Normalized solar PV generation and load consumption profile.

The study analyzed the dynamic simulations of solar PV at low, medium, and high
penetrations of 20%, 60%, and 100%, respectively, at each node under peak load conditions.
Figure 7 represents the results of dynamic simulations under peak load conditions for
the three case studies for all nodes. Comparing the three case studies, it is evident that
the voltage profile decreases as the PV penetration increases, and the voltage profiles are
within acceptable voltage limits for case 1 and case 2. However, for case 3, the voltage
profiles at 0% PV penetration have lower limit violations for nodes 5, 26, 27, 28, and 29.
By increasing the PV penetration level up to 60%, the lower limit violations at nodes 5
and 26 are overcome, but for nodes 27, 28, and 29, the lower limit violations still exist.
Furthermore, from Figure 6, it is observed that the lower voltage limit is violated, even
after 100% PV penetration, for nodes 27, 28, and 29, but only for a short period between
3 p.m. to 5 p.m. As case 3 is a contingency case, it may occur rarely for a short period, and
it is not a major concern.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 11 of 13

Figure 7. Voltage profiles of nodes under no-load Conditions. (a) Case 1, (b) case 2, and (c) case 3.

A similar study conducted by Kerdoum et al. [24] found that high levels of PV pen-
etration can cause an increase in network voltage levels, with a maximum voltage rise
of up to 7% for 30% PV penetration. This can lead to overvoltage issues and potential
damage to electrical equipment. However, their study only evaluated the impact of PV
penetration at different locations in the network and did not consider the evaluation during
bad conditions. Furthermore, they did not discuss power losses or short-circuit current.
Another study by Behat et al. [25] investigated the integration of solar PV into the IEEE
39-BUS system and identified the maximum capacity at which the network can remain
stable. Although these techniques have been applied to single-point PV systems, they have
not been applied to large-scale systems with multiple dispersed PV units. It is important
to note that actual power consumption by loads is largely dependent on the voltage level
of the bus bar to which they are connected. Therefore, the calculation results do not fully
represent actual consumption.

4. Conclusions
This research article aims to investigate the effect of 500 kW of PV penetration on
Malaysia’s typical MV distribution network. To consider the effect of PV penetration on
different situations, three case studies were defined to investigate the system’s performance.
PV penetration levels at different levels (0%—no solar PV, 20%—100 kW, 40%—200 kW,
60%—300 kW, 80%—400 kW, and 100%—500 kW) were investigated, but in this article, only
PV penetration at low (20%), medium (60%), and high (100%) penetration was reported. It
is observed that no voltage violations exists up to 100% (500 kW) solar penetration level
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5613 12 of 13

for all 38 nodes in all case studies and are within grid code voltage statutory limits of
±5%. However, at peak load, the findings show that at nodes 28 and 29 at 0% solar PV
penetration level, the voltage profile hit the lower voltage limit in the network. The solar
PV penetration level is increased beyond 100% to determine the maximum penetration
limit and it is observed that the maximum PV penetration that could be achieved without
any grid code voltage violations is limited to 400% (2 MW).
Power loss is another term considered in load flow analysis. The finding from the
power loss shows that the highest amount of power loss during peak load conditions
happens at 0% PV penetration and they are equal to 178, 180, and 191 kW for cases 1, 2,
and 3, respectively. It is observed that the power losses decrease with an increase in solar
PV penetration. According to the results, the highest short-circuit currents occur at 100%
penetration with 22,640 and 22,632 A under no-load and peak load conditions, respectively.
In addition, the dynamic simulation was carried out for all case studies in a peak load
scenario. Solar irradiation characteristics and load characteristics were collected from a
local distribution company and inserted into the Digsilent power factory to examine the
network performance with different PV penetration levels every minute for the whole day.
It is clear that the voltage profile improved as PV penetration increased and the voltage
profiles are within the acceptable voltage limits for case 1 and case 2. However, for case 3,
the voltage profiles at nodes 27, 28, and 29 violate lower voltage limits even at 100% PV
penetrations. As case 3 is a contingency case, it may occur very rarely for a short period
of time, and it is not a major concern. Future work will focus on the mitigation methods
such as energy storage and demand response programs to mitigate voltage violations in
the distribution network and enhance solar PV penetration levels into the network.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R.M. and J.P.; methodology, M.R.M., C.M.L. and J.P.;
software, M.R.M.; validation, M.R.M. and J.P.; formal analysis, M.R.M.; investigation, MRM.; re-
sources, J.P.; data curation, J.P.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.M.; writing—review and
editing, M.R.M.; visualization, M.R.M. and C.M.L.; supervision, J.P.; project administration, J.P.;
funding acquisition, J.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research publication is funded by J510050002–IC-6 BOLDREFRESH2025-CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE from the iRMC of Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN). from the iRMC of Universiti
Tenaga Nasional.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB), Malaysia,
for supporting this research under a TNB R&D Seeding Fund (U-TD-RD-21-14) and UNITEN R&D
Sdn. Bhd. The APC is funded by J510050002–IC-6 BOLDREFRESH2025-CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE
from iRMC of Universiti Tenaga Nasional.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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