Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

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Composites Part C: Open Access

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/composites-part-c-open-access

Design and optimisation of a tipping silo semi-trailer by using

innovative materials
Luigi Solazzi *, Nicola Danzi
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research reports the results of implementation of composite materials and the complete redesign of a tipping
Lightweight silo semi-trailer. The conventional semi-trailer, used for comparison, was designed based on a Feldbinder
Composite material commercial model, while the innovative one has the same overall dimensions but a new geometry, while
Analytical design
maintaining the same performance in terms of deflection and safety factor. The research involves sizing and
FEM analysis
Vehicle
verification of the results obtained using finite element software (Solidworks Simulation®) with different loading
Trailer conditions. The main result is that the optimised solution has the lowest weight, with a reduction of about 28 %
considering the same equipment and accessories mounted on the two solutions. The last part of the research
concerns an estimate of economic investment containing the return on the initial investment and the reduction in
fuel consumption by comparing the two solutions. Considering that the vehicle always carries the maximum
(payload = 27,500 kg) and the overall weight reduction of about 1800 kg, there is a reduction in fuel con­
sumption for the proposed solution. The return on investment for the new solution occurs between three/four
years depending on the number of kilometres driven annually. Finally, the purpose of this paper is to create an
example of a procedure for reducing the carbon footprint and the fuel consumption of vehicles by replace and
redesign entire mechanical components, in this case industrial vehicles, that would be useful to follow and
replicate for any specific case study and increase the eco-sustainability of industrial manufacturers.

1. Introduction engine efficiency, driving conditions, and vehicle weight. Since the
weight of the empty vehicle contributes significantly to the overall
In recent decades, the lightweighting of mechanical and structural weight of the vehicle, it contributes to fuel consumption and CO2
components has been studied in many fields where composite and emissions. Therefore, the use of lightweight materials and structural
plastic materials are used as sustainable materials due to awareness of optimisation in design should be explored in order to identify ways to
the advantages of replacing metal alloys with composite materials [1]. reduce both carbon footprint of the road freight industry as whole [10]
This trend has spread across many sectors, including aerospace, and CO2 emissions due to the fuel consumption [11]. Furthermore, as
high-performance automotive [2], earth-moving machinery [3,4] and stated in [12], a methodology that significantly reduces the environ­
transporting goods [5,6]. In the case of the transport sector, the same mental impact of vehicles, which should be lighter, consume less ma­
safety conditions of the vehicle are guaranteed thanks to the high per­ terial in their useful life stage. In fact, a saving of 10 % of the vehicle
formance of these implemented substitute materials, which have weight represents the possibility of travelling 5 % further with a given
particular sandwich and honeycomb structures [7]. In addition, truck volume of fuel. So, through a structured design methodology, it is
trailers and semi-trailers used for transporting goods by road play a possible to search a more efficient use of material and a consequent
crucial role in logistics and society [8] and the new frontier is to reduce reduction of CO2 emissions per year both in terms of lightweighting and
the emissions of these vehicles in order to respect the environment and reducing the carbon footprint of the final component.
limit CO2 emissions [9]. Reducing fuel consumption is a very important This is the background for the present research work which, starting
aspect to take into account when designing an industrial vehicle, espe­ from a commercial semi-trailer, aims to carry out a feasibility study of a
cially because of the numerous economic and environmental benefits. new semi-trailer, optimised in the choice of materials. The optimised
The fuel consumption is obviously determined by many factors, such as solution proposes a two-beam frame, made from an elliptical hollow

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Solazzi).

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

tube section of composite material, and a glass fibre tank. Considering from the general specifications given in the vehicle specifications
the current trends in vehicle design, the main goal of this new chassis (Table 1), and based on the limits imposed by the “Codice della Strada”
concept is weight reduction. In fact, the main challenges for the auto­ [14], the 3D model of chassis, tank and main equipment of the vehicle
motive industry today are: to reduce pollutant emissions for public were created after careful dimensioning (Fig. 2), both for the traditional
health, reduce CO2 emissions (responsible for the greenhouse effect) for and optimised solution. Once the main structure was designed, the same
the environmental protection, and improve fuel economy [7]. The mass equipment was chosen for the two configurations, taking into account
of a vehicle influences directly the power requirements for the longi­ the actual forces acting on the structure itself. In this way, hydraulic
tudinal dynamic of the vehicle itself, like acceleration or rolling resis­ cylinder (MFC_B3 187/5/9185 – Binotto [15] – 588 kg), axles (three
tance. Therefore, a weight reduction causes an abatement of the power axles BPW Airlight II with air suspensions [16] – 1350 kg), kingpin
requirement and is considered a key element in the design strategies. For (50S15 – Saf Holland Group [17] – 15 kg), rear bumber (VGB – EUT_180 –
this reason, all the manufacturers go in the direction of lighter vehicles VBG Coupling Systems [18] – 90 kg), tires and rims (6 × 385/65 R22.5
even through substitution. [19] – 570 kg), landing gear (211,201 S2000 plus – Haacon [20] – 90 kg)
The research is divided into different phases. After the study of a and supporting legs at the rear of chassis (211,631 – Haacon [21] – 90
commercial semi-trailer based on the Feldbinder model [13], different kg) were added. In the case of the optimised semi-trailer the rear bumper
materials and geometries were studied and designed to be used instead was reinforced by adding steel mounting plates to ensure compliance
of the traditional aluminium chassis and tank with which the with the limits imposed by regulation N.58 UN/ECE [22] and the ADR
semi-trailer was designed in its original configuration. regulation [23] (+40 kg). Moreover, assuming that the towing vehicle
Subsequently, different load conditions, imposed both by regulations has a mass of 8000 kg and the maximum transportable load is 27,500 kg
and by main load conditions, are evaluated. This made it possible to (see Table 1), the total mass of the traditional vehicle is equal to 42,000
verify the behaviour of the entire structure and its mechanical strength. kg (mass of the fully loaded semi-trailer (27,500 kg + 6500 kg) + mass
This evaluation is made by means of numerical analyses carried out of the towing vehicle (8000 kg)), while the total mass of the optimised
using the finite element method (made with Solidworks®) and a com­ vehicle is equal to 40,182 kg (27,500 kg + 4682 kg + 8000 kg); Thanks
parison of the different solutions was made. Finally, the economic in­
vestment of the traditional solution and the optimised solution can be
Table 1
evaluated to estimate the economic investment of both solutions. In this
Tipping silo semi-trailer KIP 60.3 specifications [13].
way, it was possible to observe what the return of investment was, in
Tank Self-supporting pressure vessel made of aluminium
terms of years. For example, assuming that the vehicle has a life cycle of
Compartments 1
10 years driving 120,000 km/year, the benefit due to mass reduction in Volume Approx. 60 m3
mass translates into a reduction in fuel consumption. The latter Manholes 5 x DN 450
consideration was useful in estimating the time required to cover the Operating Test pressure: 3 bar
initial investment and the total savings at the end of the component’s parameter Operating pressure: 2 bar
Operating temperature: − 40 ◦ C/ +80 ◦ C
life. The purpose of this paper is to create an example of a procedure for Discharge Pneumatic, with special discharge bowl DN 800 made of
reducing the carbon footprint and the fuel consumption of vehicles by electro-polished stainless steel
replace and redesign entire mechanical components, in this case in­ Tipping Hydraulic ram in front of tank and two mechanical safety
dustrial vehicles, that would be useful to follow and replicate for any equipment supporting legs at rear of chassis
Chassis Special aluminium alloy chassis, welded and bolted
specific case study and increase the eco-sustainability of industrial
Catwalk Aluminium catwalk, 400 mm wide, handrail and ladder made
manufacturers. Fig. 1 of electro-polished stainless steel
Running gear 3 × 9-ton disc brake axle assembly on aluminium hanger
2. Design and materials brackets, low maintenance axles and air suspension
Tires 6 × 385/65 R 22.5
Brakes ABS/EBS brake system in accordance with EU regulations
The tipping silo semi-trailer, used for the transport of powdery and
General 2 × 12-ton landing gear, lighting and underrun bumper in
granulated materials, object of design and 3D modelling is based on the information accordance with EU regulations
model KIP 60.3 of Feldbinder Spezialfahreugwerke GmbH [13]. This Weights Total weight: 34,000 kg
vehicle (chassis and tank) was available for study and particularly for Tare weight: approx. 6500 kg
Payload: approx. 27,500 kg
geometric relief of the structure in its original configuration. Starting

Fig. 1. Main dimensions of the tipping silo semi-trailer KIP 60.3 [13] (values in [mm]).

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

Fig. 2. Block diagram of the design approach.

to these results also the limits relating to the masses involved are 2.2. Traditional tank
respected (Art. 62 [14]). Subsequently, these models were used to carry
out finite element simulations with the aim of determining the behav­ The tank is also made of aluminium and the central body of the vessel
iour of the support structure, the chassis, and tank under different load has a cylindrical section with a thickness of 5 mm, as well as that of the
conditions. two warheads. It is made of the same aluminium used to design the
traditional chassis. In the front area of the tank there are two re­
2.1. Traditional chassis inforcements that allow the mounting of the brackets of the hydraulic
cylinder on the head. It was decided to make them in S460N steel [25]
The chassis design created is the so-called ladder frame and it con­ and bolt them to the tank.
sists of two symmetrical “I” beams (Fig. 3), with different heights be­ Holes for mounting the five manhole covers (diameter = 450 mm)
tween the front and the rear, running the length of the vehicle, have been made on the top of the tank, while another opening bigger has
connected by several transverse cross-members, made up of tubular el­ been made on the rear head, which ends with a conical section, for
ements with a constant square or rectangular section. The side members mounting the discharge bowl (diameter = 800 mm).
and cross-members are equipped with special brackets and supports for
mounting the suspension and for fixing the various equipment that make
2.3. Optimised chassis
up the vehicle itself, and all these elements are obviously connected to
each other by welding and bolted joints. The material chosen is the
The innovative chassis was obtained after an iterative process and is
aluminium alloy EN-AW 5083 [24].
composed mainly of two elliptical carbon fibre tubulars with a thickness
of 15 mm (Fig. 3), which form the supporting structure of the frame
(obtained with the pultrusion process [26]). Iterative process aims to

Fig. 3. Traditional and optimised chassis and main dimensions in [mm].

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obtain the same flexural stiffness of a classic ladder chassis by using Table 3
different materials, where the orientation of the fibre and the stacking Mechanical properties of unidirectional orthotropic plate made of M60J carbon
sequence of themselves is very important. To do this we obtain after fibre and SX_10 epoxy resin, E7-Jushi glass fibre and SX_10 epoxy resin.
several iterations the proposed design. In fact, the mechanical behaviour Property Carbon fibre Glass fibre
of the new frame solution (geometry and materials) should be similar to Fibre percentage - Vf 60 % 54 %
that of the original configuration. Particularly in terms of stiffness Resin percentage - Vm 40 % 46 %
(vertical, horizontal and torsional) and safety factor. With these limi­ Density - ρm 1600 kg/m3 1910 kg/
tations, an elliptical tubular cross-section was designed and the different m3
Young modulus in X - Ex 354,120 49,578
iterations were performed by gradually increasing the tube thickness
MPa MPa
until the above objectives were achieved. The chassis was assembled by Young modulus in Y - Ey 8181 MPa 6875 MPa
means of seven reinforced magnesium alloy (Mg-CNT1) [27] transverse Young modulus in Z - Ez 8181 MPa 6875 MPa
brackets distributed along the entire length of the frame. This material Shear modulus - Gxy – 4100 MPa*
was chosen to maximise the weight reduction of the optimised solution, Poisson ratio in XY- υxy 0.30 0.31
Poisson ratio in XZ - υxz 0.30 0.31
even though the cost is considerable. Each of these brackets is divided
Poisson ratio in YZ - υyz 0.34 0.34
into three parts and joined by bolts, which allow the two main tubulars Tensile strength (fibres-dominate direction) - Xt 2292 MPa 2376 MPa
to be secured by preventing their movement (irrotational joint). In Compressive strength (fibres-dominated direction) - 790 MPa * 850 MPa*
addition, the brackets have openings to ensure the passage of electrical Xc
cables and pipes mounted on the semi-trailer. In the rear part there are Tensile strength (matrix-dominate direction) - Yt 25.2 MPa 25.1 MPa
Compressive strength (matrix-dominated direction) - 99.2 MPa 97.5 MPa
two side members and three cross members, made of 8090-T651 Yc
aluminium alloy [28], suitable for mounting the suspension, rear tank Shear stress - S 55 MPa * 51 MPa*
supports and various equipment. As for the traditional semi-trailer
NOTE: X direction is the one along which the fibres are aligned.
model, two fixed tank supports, also made of aluminium alloy
* Value according to the M60J [29]/E7-Jushi UD1200 [31] datasheet.
(8090-T651), are located one in the front and one in the middle area,
while the rotating one is located in the rear. All these elements are joined
traditional tank, but the optimised one is made of fibreglass obtained by
together with bolted connections. The elliptical section was chosen in
filament winding [33]. This fabrication technique is mainly used for
relation to the production process selected (pultrusion process).
manufacturing open (cylinders) or close end structures (pressure vessels
To determine the mechanical properties of the two elliptical tubu­
or tank) thanks to the possibility to align fibres in the direction of
lars, it was decided to use a high modulus carbon fibre, M60J [29], while
principal stresses. In any case, in addition to controlling the deposition
SX_10 epoxy resin [30] was chosen as the matrix (Table 2).
speed of the reinforcement, it is also possible to control the winding
The calculation of the properties shown in Table 3 was performed
angles and the placements of the reinforcements. To determine the
assuming the study of a unidirectional orthotropic plate model in a plane
mechanical properties of the new tank, it was decided to choose a E7
stress state (these results will then be useful to characterise the material
glass fibre [34], while the material used for the matrix is the same as the
during finite element analysis). Starting from the information contained
optimised chassis, SX_10 epoxy resin [30], both shown in Table 2.
in the technical datasheets (Table 2), and assuming that the fibres are
Table 3 shows the mechanical properties of the unidirectional ortho­
aligned along the main longitudinal direction, the following formulae
tropic plate made from these composite materials, obtained following
deriving from the theory of micromechanics of orthotropic plates [32]
the same procedure as the chassis. In this way, significantly higher
were used:
mechanical performance is achieved, which allows the wall thickness to
ρ = ρf Vf ⋅ρm Vm ; υxy (= υxz ) = υf Vf ⋅υm Vm ; Ex = Ef Vf ⋅Em Vm ; Ey (= Ez ) be reduced up to 3 mm within the limits imposed by ADR regulations
Ef Vf [23]. As regards the characterisation of the tank material, it was decided
= (1) to implement the Layer Stacking Sequence (LSS) of (+45◦ /− 45◦ ) s. Also,
Vm Ef + Vf Em
in this case, the rear part of the tank is supported by two elements
[ ( )]
Ey ( ) ( √̅̅̅̅̅ ) Em necessary to guarantee tipping during unloading. The two rear supports
Xt = σft Vf Yt = σ mt 1 − Vf 1/3 Yc = σ mc 1 + Vf − Vf 1 − have been designed with a similar shape to that of the traditional model,
Em Ef
(2) so that they can best adhere to the outer surface of the tank. The two
supports are made of 8090-T651 aluminium alloy, and also in this case,
in the lower part, each of them has a hole inside which a pin is inserted
2.4. Optimised tank to constrain them to the four plates mounted on the rear mounting
bracket of the frame.
The innovative tank has the same geometry and holes as the
3. FEM analyses
Table 2
Mechanical properties of M60J carbon fibre, E7 Jushi glass fibre and SX_10 Once the frame and tank were developed and designed, their
epoxy resin. behaviour was verified under different transport conditions by a series of
Carbon fibre Glass fibre Epoxy resin Finite Element Analyses (FEA) conducted on sub-models to obtain better
results and reduce simulation time, with SolidWorks Simulation. As
Property Symbol Value Symbol Value Symbol Value
shown in Fig. 4, simulations for typical transport conditions were carried
Density ρf 1930 kg/ ρf 2600 ρm 1100 out for both the chassis and the tank with conventional and innovative
m3 kg/m3
material. Subsequently, further analysis was carried out to verify the
Young Ef 588,000 Ef 89,000 Em 3300
modulus MPa MPa MPa resistance and behaviour of the traditional and optimised solution ac­
Tensile σft 3820 σft 4400 σmt 65 cording to Directive 2014/47/EU [35] and the ADR regulation [23],
strength MPa MPa MPa respectively.
Compressive σfc – σfc σmc 120 All the analyses performed are static, each characterised by different
strength MPa
Strain at εf 0.007 εf εm 0.03
loading and constraint conditions (Fig. 5). The mesh made for both the
failure frame and the tank is characterised by the properties shown in Table 4.
Poisson ratio υf 0.28 υf 0.28 υm 0.34 In addition, it was decided to select the global bonded interaction to

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

Fig. 4. Typical transport conditions of the semi-trailer: a) coupled to the tractor, in straight line motion at constant speed with fully loaded tank; b) coupled to the
tractor, cornering with fully loaded tank; c) resting on landing gear with fully loaded tank; d) coupled to the tractor, during unloading operation.

Fig. 5. Block diagram of all the analyses conducted in this research.

3.1. Traditional chassis (TC) analyses

Table 4
Mesh details of both traditional and optimised chassis and tank used for the
3.1.1. TC1 analysis: straight line motion at constant speed with fully loaded
analyses.
tank
Traditional Traditional Optimised Optimised To replicate the coupling between the kingpin and the fifth-wheel, a
chassis tank chassis tank
surface was obtained at the contact area between these two elements
Mesh type Solid mesh Solid mesh Solid and Solid mesh and constrained using a remote displacement, taking into account the
shell mesh
real position of the kingpin with respect to the chassis. In this way, the
Mesher Curvature- Curvature- Curvature- Curvature-
used based mesh based mesh based mesh based mesh contact area can only rotate around this point. In addition, to simulate
Jacobian 16 points 16 points 16 points 16 points the behaviour of the suspensions acting on the rear of the chassis, elastic
points supports (whose normal stiffness was set at 6750 kN/m) were provided
Total 1,372,391 274,894 2,156,417 246,393 and applied in the areas where the suspensions are mounted.
nodes
Total 786,507 142,864 1,126,313 127,723
As load, the weight of the fully loaded tank and the several equip­
elements ment mounted on it, totalling 290,000 N, was applied to the chassis by
means of the tank supports welded on the chassis: half on the middle
support and half divided between the other two.
control the behaviour of the components during the simulations.
Furthermore, the own weight of the components was taken into account 3.1.2. TC2 analysis: curvilinear motion with fully loaded tank
by applying the acceleration of gravity in each analysis. The behaviour of the chassis is studied assuming that the vehicle
follows a trajectory with a radius of curvature of 100 m at a speed of 80

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

km/h. The setting of simulation constraints is similar to that of the and magnitude of the remote forces).
previous analysis, but, due to the curvilinear trajectory, it was necessary To study the behaviour of the chassis during deceleration, a force of
to constrain the chassis in the transverse direction as well, replicating 0.8 times the weight of the fully loaded tank (0.8•290,000 N = 232,000
the contact of the tires with the ground. For this purpose, the areas N) was applied in the direction of travel, in accordance with [35].
where the suspensions are mounted were also constrained with a remote Instead, to study the acceleration phase, the force, equal to 0.5 times the
displacement, as shown in Fig. 6. In this way, the surfaces on which the weight of the fully loaded tank (0.5•290,000 = 145,500 N), was also
constraints are applied can only rotate around the points located in the applied in the opposite direction. In both cases this force, acting in the
outermost area of each tire. The loads positioned at the tank supports are centre of gravity of the tank, was distributed equally over the tank
the same as in the TC1 analysis. supports (the area where the tank is welded to the frame).
In addition, another load due to the effect of centrifugal acceleration
must be applied. Assuming that the vehicle follows a trajectory with a 3.2. Traditional tank (TT) analyses
radius of curvature of 100 m at a speed of 80 km/h (worst case), cen­
tripetal acceleration is taken into account. As a result of this accelera­ In the tank model used for these simulations, the tank openings were
tion, a tangential force is generated on the centre of gravity of the tank, closed to simulate the presence of the manhole covers and the rear
which was distributed on the support areas using a remote load, discharge bowl. In addition to the tank, the model developed for the
considering a fully loaded tank with a load of 290,000 N (Fig. 7). The simulation also includes the frame components on which it rests. Again,
results are shown in (3). the own weight of the tank was taken into account by applying the ac­
celeration of gravity.
v2 (80/3.6)2 /
at = = = 4.94m s2 Ft = at ⋅mtank = 4.94⋅29, 000 ≅ 145 kN
r 100 3.2.1. TT1 analysis: test pressure at 3 bar
(3) The objective is to verify the resistance of the tank when a pressure of
3 bar (0.3 MPa) is applied inside it and the tank was constrained with a
3.1.3. TC3 analysis: support on the landing gear with fully loaded tank fixed supports on the three support zones (Fig. 8).
This third simulation is also similar to TC1, both in terms of con­
straints and loads. The only difference is that the chassis is not coupled 3.2.2. TT2 analysis: unloading operation
to the tractor, but is supported by the front landing gear. In this case, the Compared with the TT1 analysis, the front and middle supports were
areas where the two legs are mounted were constrained by remote excluded from the analysis, while the reinforcements that allows the
displacement, taking as a reference the contact points between the mounting of the hydraulic cylinder brackets were added.
landing gear feet and the ground. To best reproduce the real situation, The front part of the tank, where the hydraulic cylinder is mounted,
only rotation around the pivot point of the landing gear feet is allowed. has been constrained with a remote displacement imposing that each
point of the selected surfaces, where the two-cylinder brackets are
3.1.4. TC4 analysis: unloading operation mounted, can only rotate around the point located in the middle of the
Since the semi-trailer is coupled to the tractor, the constraints are the top pin of the cylinder. At the rear of the structure, where two pins that
same as in the TC1 analysis, but, in addition to these, the use of the two allow the tank to be overturned are mounted, two bearing fixtures have
rear supports to stabilise the vehicle while lifting the tanker was also been applied, one for each support.
considered. The definition of these constraints is identical to that The load due to the total weight of the transportable material,
described for the landing gear in TC3 analysis, but in the rear of the 275,000 N, was applied in the centre of gravity and equally distributed
chassis. over the inner surfaces of the tank.
The main difference from previous analyses is that the load due to the In this particular load condition, it was also decided to study the
total weight of the tank is applied to the surfaces on which the hydraulic instability of the tank. To do this, a buckling analysis was performed
cylinder is mounted (at the front) and in the area where the two pins that maintaining the same restraints conditions previously described in this
allow the overturning are located (at the rear). Since these two areas are analysis.
approximately symmetrical with respect to the centre of gravity of the The area with a higher risk of instability is where the hydraulic
tank, the total load weight of 290,000 N was distributed equally: half in cylinder is mounted. However, the results show that to achieve this
the front area and half in the rear. condition, the mass of the cargo transported must be around 650 tons
(647 tons for the first mode shape and 649 tons for the second one). This
3.1.5. TC5 and TC6 analysis: deceleration and acceleration along driving value is decisively high compared to the design one, for this reason it can
direction be confirmed that the buckling verification is also satisfied.
The latter two simulations are used to verify the resistance of the
chassis during deceleration (TC5 analysis) and acceleration (TC6 anal­
ysis) of the vehicle. Regarding loads and constraints, the situation is the
same as described in the TC2 analysis (obviously changing the direction

Fig. 6. Constraints of the contact of the tires with the ground for analysis TC2.

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Fig. 7. External load for the analysis TC2.

Fig. 8. Analysis TT1 of: a) fixed restraints of the tank; b) internal pressure (0.3 MPa) of the tank.

3.2.3. TT3, TT4 and TT5 analyses: deceleration and acceleration with fully absorb, under the maximum permissible load, different static forces
loaded tank separately applied.
In these last three analyses, as already studied for the chassis, the To define the material properties of the two carbon fibre tubes, a 15-
objective is to verify the resistance of the tank in the three situations mm composite shell of thickness was defined using the properties shown
indicated by [35], when the following forces resulting from accelera­ in Table 3, where the fibre alignment was set along the longitudinal axis
tions or decelerations of the vehicle are applied: (angle 0◦ ). Using the pultrusion process, this type of LSS was easily
achieved with better properties than other processes [36]. First of all, in
- In driving direction: 0.8 times the weight of the cargo (0.8•275,000 order to simplify the model and reduce the computational weight of the
N = 222,000 N) applied to the front head (TT3 analysis). simulation, it was decided to delete all holes and bolts.
- Against driving direction: 0.5 times the weight of the cargo The simulation settings for the first four analyses (OC1, OC2, OC3,
(0.5•275,000 N = 137,500 N) applied to the rear head (TT4 OC4) are the same as those described for the traditional chassis, so only
analysis). the results of these simulations are given for comparison with those of
- In lateral direction: 0.5 times the weight of the cargo (0.5•275,000 the traditional chassis.
N) applied to the lateral surface (TT5 analysis).
3.3.1. OC5, OC6, OC7, OC8 and OC9 analyses from ADR regulation
Regarding constraints, the situation is the same as described in the With regard to the constraints, the situation is identical to that
TT1 analysis (see Fig. 8a), while, in addition to these forces, the described in the TT5 and TT6 analyses. For the external loads, according
contribution due to the static weight of the transported load (275,000 N) to the regulation [23], in addition to the load due to the weight of the
was added. tank (290,000 N), a force acting in the centre of gravity of the tank was
equally distributed on the tank supports, obviously changing direction
and magnitude of the applied distributed load. The different static
3.3. Optimised chassis (OC) analyses forces, applied separately, are:

This paragraph describes the process followed to analyse the - A force equal to twice the total mass of the semi-trailer multiplied by
behaviour of the new chassis, through a series of finite element simu­ the acceleration of gravity (2•325,500 N) was applied along the
lations, under the same transport conditions studied for the traditional driving direction (OC5 analysis) and in the opposite direction (OC6
chassis. In addition to these, as indicated by the ADR regulation [23], analysis).
other analyses were performed to verify that the structure is able to

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

- A force equal to twice the total mass of the semi-trailer multiplied by In addition, the expression used to calculate the stresses in a generic
the acceleration of gravity (2•325,500 N) was applied vertically lamina becomes:
downwards (OC7 analysis). ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
σx Q11 Q12 Q16 εx
- A force equal to the total mass of the semi-trailer multiplied by the ⎣ σy ⎦ = ⎣ Q12 Q22 Q26 ⎦⎣ εy ⎦ (7)
acceleration of gravity (325,500 N) was applied vertically upwards τxy Q16 Q26 Q66 γxy
(OC8 analysis).
- A force equal to the total mass of the semi-trailer multiplied by the The number of laminas was set equal to 4 with a thickness of 0.75
acceleration of gravity (325,500 N) was applied vertically down­ mm for each of them, so the resultant total thickness was 3 mm, as
wards (OC9 analysis). previously described in the material section. The representation of the
thickness of the different layers that make up the entire laminate is
3.4. Optimised tank (OT) analyses shown in Fig. 9a with zi position of the layer.
To calculate the elastic membranal constants of the total laminate,
The behaviour of the optimised tank needs to be studied under the the A-matrix of the extensional stiffness is calculated as shown in (8).
same transport conditions analysed for the traditional tank (TT1 and The components A16 and A26 of the A-matrix, are zero, as the laminate is
TT2) and, in addition to these, as indicated by the ADR regulation [23], balanced and symmetrical. The symbol A′ notes the inverse of the A-
other analyses were performed to verify that the structure was able to matrix. Then, it was possible to calculate the equivalent membrane
absorb, under the maximum permissible load, different static forces, elastic constant of the entire laminate using the formulae (9); where h
applied separately. represents the total thickness of the laminate and the other terms are the
Unlike the simulations carried out on the optimised frame, the shell components of the A′ matrix.
function could not be used because it was necessary to apply loads and
N
∑
constraints to both the outer and inner surfaces of the tank. It was Aij =
( )
Qij k (zk − zk− 1 ) (8)
decided to define an equivalent isotropic materials from the properties k=1
of a single lamina, having the stacking sequence available ([+45/− 45]s)
and applying classical composites theory for two-dimensional laminates 1 1 1 − Aʹ12 − Aʹ12
EXm = ; EYm = ; GXYm = ; υXYm = ; υYXm =
[33,37]. By introducing a reference system with the first two axes on the Aʹ11 ⋅h Aʹ22 ⋅h Aʹ33 ⋅h Aʹ Aʹ22
11
lamina and neglecting the deformation ε3, which is orthogonal to the (9)
plane of the lamina, the deformations for a special orthotropic lamina
can be calculated using (4). The Sij components of the compliance ma­ The results of the elastic properties of the entire laminate are shown
trix, S, are calculated starting from the elastic constants of the lamina in Table 5 and, based on the results of the equivalent membrane stiff­
(Table 3): nesses obtained, an isotropic material was assumed as the tank material
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ (properties also shown in Table 5) since the membrane elastic constants
ε1 S11 S12 0 σ1 are equal in both longitudinal and transversal direction.
⎣ ε2 ⎦ = ⎣ S12 S22 0 ⎦⎣ σ 2 ⎦; S11 = 1 S12 = − υ12 = − υ21 S22
E1 E1 E2 For each analysis, a local reference system was defined to estimate
γ 12 0 0 S66 τ12
the strength of the structure at the point where the maximum defor­
1 1 mation values occur. The reference system in question is oriented so that
= S66 =
E2 G12 X axis coincides with the longitudinal direction of the vehicle, with
(4) respect to which the fibres are oriented +/- 45◦ , and defined so that XY
To calculate stresses from deformations it is necessary to use the plane is tangent to the surface of the tank (Fig. 9b).
stiffness matrix Q, which is the inverse of the compliance matrix. In In this way, at each point it was then possible to determine the
addition, these formulations can be used with laminas that have the normal and shear strain values, according to these local reference
reinforced fibres aligned with the direction of the main axis, but, if there
is a relative angle, it is necessary to use the rotation matrix T.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤ Table 5
σ1 Q11 Q12 0 ε1 c s2 2sc Equivalent elastic constant of the entire laminate of the tank [+45/− 45]s and
⎣ σ2 ⎦ = ⎣ Q12 Q22 0 ⎦⎣ ε2 T = s
⎦ ⎣ 2
c2
− 2sc ⎦ (5) equivalent isotropic properties.
τ12 0 0 Q66 γ 12 − sc sc c2 − s2
Composite EXm [MPa] EYm [MPa] GXYm [MPa] υXYm υYXm
2 2 2 2 12,950 12,950 13,225 0.579 0.579
where c = cos θ and s = sen θ, and furthermore: Isotropic E [MPa] G [MPa] υ
12,950 13,225 0.5
[S] = [T]T [S][T] and [Q] = [T]− 1 [Q][T]− T
(6)

Fig. 9. a) Representation of the layers that make up the entire laminate and their nomenclature; b) Reference system used to extrapolate deformations along its axes.

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

systems, assuming that the strain values are constant along the wall 4. Results
thickness.
Starting from the deformation values, obtained after the Solidworks To summarise what has been shown in the previous section, the re­
simulations, it was possible to use (10) to calculate the local stress along sults of each analysis are shown in Tables 6 and 7. Where it was possible,
+/- 45◦ directions for each lamina composing the entire laminate. the results obtained were compared with those obtained for the tradi­
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ tional semi-trailer. In fact, the design goal of the new semi-trailer was to
εx σx εx σ1 σx
achieve a mass reduction while maintaining the same performance, in
⎣ εy ⎦ → ⎣ σy ⎦ = [Q]⎣ εy ⎦ → ⎣ σ2 ⎦ = [T]⎣ σy ⎦ (10)
γ xy τxy γxy τxy terms of flexural stiffness, as the traditional vehicle. Fig. 10
τ12
The results of the tank displacement were not reported because the
Once the local stresses had been determined, both for +45◦ and − 45◦ maximum displacement was on the order of a few mm, thus negligible
orientations, the Factor of Safety (FOS) was estimated according to the compared to the size of the tank itself.
Tsai-Hill criterion (11), starting from the resistance values calculated in
Table 3: 5. Economic and environmental implications of the new
( 2) ( 2) ( ) ( 2 ) solution
σ1 σ2 σ 1 ⋅σ 2 τ 1
FI = + − + 12 and FOS = √̅̅̅̅̅ (11)
X 2 Y 2 X 2 S2 FI
This section is dedicated to the preliminary calculation of both
where X represents XT if σ1 > 0 or XC if σ1 < 0, while Y represents YT if σ2 economic and environmental benefits due to the mass reduction of the
> 0 or YC if σ2 < 0. new semi-trailer compared to the traditional solution. It is clear that the
The setting of the OT1 and OT2 analyses are the same described for use of innovative materials results in better performance and significant
the traditional tank (TT1 and TT2), therefore, only the results of these fuel savings, but the costs are higher than aluminium. For this reason, an
analyses have been reported in the relevant section. estimate of the cost difference between the two studied solutions was
In the load condition OT2, it was also decided to study the instability made to assess the time needed to repay the initial investment and
of the tank. To do this, a buckling analysis was performed maintaining quantify the overall savings.
the same restraints conditions previously described in this analysis. The
results show that to achieve the instability condition, the mass of the 5.1. Comparison between the mass of the two semi-trailer solutions
cargo transported must be around 540 tons. This value is lower than that
of the aluminium tank, however it is decisively high compared to the Using the information from the datasheets of the manufacturers, the
design one. For this reason, it can be confirmed that the buckling veri­ mass of the main equipment mounted on both semi-trailers was first
fication is also satisfied. determined; on the other hand, the weight of the chassis and the tank of
both semi-trailers was determined using information obtained from the
3.4.1. OT3, OT4, OT5, OT6, OT7 and OT8 analysis from ADR regulation 3D models made with Solidworks. As indicated in the product infor­
For all these simulations, the constraints are identical to that mation of the traditional model, the total mass of the semi-trailer is 6500
described in TT1. For the external loads, in addition to the weight of the kg (see Table 1).
tank load (275,000 N) and according to the regulation [23], a force Then, it was possible to estimate the weight of all the other equip­
which acts on the centre of gravity of the tank was equally distributed on ment that was not taken into account in the design phase, such as the
the internal surface of the tank, obviously changing direction and discharge bowl, the manholes, the catwalk, the side bumpers and other
magnitude of the applied load. The different static forces applied sepa­ accessories. In addition, a telescopic cylinder made of composite mate­
rately are: rials [4,38] was considered in the optimised solution to further save
weight (a weight of 220 kg was estimated).
- A force equal to twice the total mass multiplied by the acceleration of Instead of classical structural steel, thanks to the use of composite
gravity (2•325,500 N) was applied along the driving direction on the material made of carbon fibres and epoxy resin, it was possible to
front head (analysis OT3) and in the opposite direction on the rear demonstrate how the use of this innovative material, for the realisation
head (analysis OT4).
- A force equal to twice the total mass multiplied by the acceleration of Table 7
gravity (2•325,500 N) was applied vertically downwards (analysis Comparison of vertical displacement between the traditional and optimised
OT5). chassis.
- A force equal to the total mass multiplied by the acceleration of
Analysis Displacement Y min Displacement Y max
gravity (325,500 N) was applied vertically upwards (analysis OT6).
- A force equal to the total mass multiplied by the acceleration of TC1 - 48.42 mm 9.25 mm
OC1 - 35.77 mm 10.85 mm
gravity (325,500 N) was applied in the lateral direction (analysis TC2 - 2.58 mm 5.50 mm
OT7). OC2 - 4.79 mm 9.34 mm
- An external pressure of 0.05 bar (0.0005 MPa) is applied to the TC3 - 51.78 mm 0.86 mm
external surface of the tank (analysis OT8). OC3 - 36.12 mm 0.29 mm
TC4 - 17.55 mm 7.18 mm
OC4 - 9.96 mm 8.06 mm

Table 6
Main results, in terms of FOS, of the analyses conducted.
Traditional Optimised

Chassis TC1 TC2 TC3 TC4 TC5 TC6 OC1 OC2 OC3 OC4 OC5 OC6 OC7 OC8
FOS 2.37 2.27 2.42 2.80 1.81 2.97 1.93 2.54 2.33 1.30 1.62 1.39 2.02 1.41

Traditional Optimised

Tank TT1 TT2 TT3 TT4 TT5 OT1 OT2 OT3 OT4 OT5 OT6 OT7 OT8
FOS 1.76 1.84 4.42 5.88 2.18 1.43 2.93 2.37 3.25 5.19 2.34 3.47 26.9

9
L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

Fig. 10. Visualisation and comparison of the vertical displacements of the two proposed chassis during the TC4/OC4 analysis.

of that component, can be extremely favourable for the overall weight

Table 9
reduction. The calculation of the total mass of both semi-trailer is shown
Calculation of the fuel consumption of a traditional and optimised semi-trailer;
in Table 8.
Reduction of CO2 emissions and economic savings (optimised semi-trailer).
The results show that, thanks to the design of an alternative geom­
Property Value
etry and the use of innovative materials, it was possible to obtain a mass
reduction of about 28 % compared to the traditional solution while Standard consumption 0.35 l/km
maintaining the same performance. Annual mileage 120,000 km/year
Fuel consumption (traditional semi-trailer) 42,000 l/year
Fuel consumption variation index for Internal Combustion 0.000025 l/(km kg)
5.2. Reduction in fuel consumption Engine Vehicles (ICEVs)
Mass decrease with respect to the standard solution 1818 kg
Optimised consumption 0.30455 l/km
In first place, an estimate of the annual fuel consumption was made
Fuel consumption (optimised semi-trailer) 36,546 l/year
for both traditional and optimised semi-trailer, with a decrease of about Fuel consumption decrease (with respect to the standard 5454 l/year
5400 l/year for the optimised solution (Table 9) [39–41]. This choice solution)
occurs considering that the material transported is always with the same CO2 emissions per kilogram of diesel 3.17 (kg CO2/kg
payload = 27,500 kg, the weight reduction of 1818 kg of the proposed diesel)
Density of diesel (at 15 ◦ C) 820 kg/m3
solution corresponds (both with payload and without) to the reduction CO2 emissions per litre of diesel 2.60 (kg CO2/l
in fuel consumption. diesel)
Starting from these results, it was possible to estimate how much the Reduction of CO2 emissions (with respect to the standard 14,180 (kg CO2/
reduction in fuel consumption can affect both the economic savings and solution) year)
Current diesel price 1.80 €/l
the reduction of CO2 emissions [42]. This calculation was carried out
Economic saving (with respect to the standard solution) 9817 €/year
considering the data and properties relating to diesel engines, which
represent the most adopted solution for industrial vehicles.
The economic saving was instead calculated considering the current material, but by adding the cost of the production process, a total price
fuel price of 1.8 €/l (average price in Italy considering the first 5 months of around 9000 € was estimated. Finally, it was assumed that the cost of
of the 2023). The overall results are shown in Table 9. the aluminium tank was equal to that of fibreglass.
In contrast, the calculation cost for the two frames was made taking
5.3. Estimate of economic investment into account the current price of the raw materials. Multiplying the mass
of the traditional frame (1165 kg) by the price of the EN-AW 5083
The use of innovative high-performance materials obviously involves aluminium alloy (5.1 €/kg), the cost is equal to about 8490 €. The
a greater economic investment than the traditional semi-trailer, which is calculation relating to the innovative frame is shown in Table 10. The
why a cost comparison of the various solutions is necessary. Regarding cost of manufacturing the two elliptical-section tubulars that make up
the fibreglass tank, a quote was requested from Izoplas, a company the supporting structure of the frame was estimated through interviews
specialising in the production of polyester and polyethylene tanks. Ac­ with possible suppliers.
cording to the supplier’s indications, the cost of constructing a 60 m3 Since the cost of the tanks was the same, they were eliminated from
horizontal fibreglass chemical tank with a diameter of 2500 mm is 9800 the total cost. The results obtained clearly demonstrate that the con­
$, corresponding to approximately 9035 € [43]. struction of the new semi-trailer requires a greater economic invest­
The cost of the traditional tank was calculated considering the cur­ ment. The difference in cost between the two solutions is in fact around
rent price of the EN-AW 5083 aluminium alloy which corresponds to 5.1 35,436 € (obtained by removing the cost of the traditional chassis to the
€/kg [44]. Multiplying this value by the mass of the tank (1395 kg), the
cost is equal to 7115 €. This value takes into account only the price of the
Table 10
Estimation cost of the optimised frame.
Table 8
Property Value
Calculation of traditional and optimised semi-trailer mass.
Cost of the two carbon fibre tubulars 29,000
Element Traditional Optimised Mass
€
[kg] [kg] reduction
Cost of 8090-T651 aluminium alloy components 11,788
Chassis (Fig. 3) 1665 950 43 % (Obtained by multiplying the current price of aluminium alloy 8090-T651 €
Tank 1395 620 56 % (28.2 €/kg ) by the total mass of the components (340 kg))
Main equipment (axles, tires, 2793 2465 12 % Cost of Mg-AZ91 + 1.2 % CNT alloy components 3140 €
hydraulic cylinder, …) (Obtained by multiplying the price of Mg-AZ91 + 1.2 % CNT (20.13 €/kg )
Other accessories (aluminium 647 647 – by the total mass of the components (156 kg))
walkway, brackets, …) Total 43,928
Total 6500 4682 28 % €

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L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

optimised ones). depending on the type of material transported, contact with partic­
As shown in Fig. 11, considering the economic savings due to the ular chemical substances could cause deterioration phenomena. In
reduction in fuel consumption, the time necessary to cover the initial this case, an internal protective coating will also have to be designed
investment is approximately 4 years. Assuming that the vehicle is used in the future.
for 10 years travelling 120,000 km/year, the advantage due to the
reduction in mass can lead to overall savings of around 62,700 €. After the development of this study, it is possible to state that many
improvements can be made to existing part designs in order to optimise
6. Discussions and conclusions and take advantage of enhanced properties of newer materials. It is of
extreme importance that designers take more conscious and alternative
Based on the results obtained from the finite element analyses, the design decisions in order to favour factors such as weight reduction and
new semi-trailer showed a behaviour in general similar to the traditional ease of manufacturing. These factors aid directly in creating a cleaner
one, both in terms of resistance to the stress and in terms of de­ and more eco-friendly industry by reducing consumed energy and car­
formations. The values of the minimum safety factors are sufficient to bon footprint. For this reason, UHSS materials were not considerate in
demonstrate the verification of the resistance, both in normal conditions this research although they are good candidates, but only for overall
of transport and as regards the load tests of the ADR regulation. The weight reduction.
main results and considerations are as follows: With this in mind, is it possible to consider this case study as an
example of a procedure for reducing the carbon footprint and the fuel
- The design of the chassis and the tank through the use of innovative consumption of vehicles by replace and redesign entire mechanical
materials allows to obtain an important reduction in mass compared components, in this case industrial vehicles, that would be useful to
to the traditional vehicle, equal to about 28 %. Thanks to this, it is follow and replicate for any specific case study and increase the eco-
possible to obtain a considerable reduction in fuel consumption and sustainability of industrial manufacturers.
consequently an economic saving of around 9800 €/year. The
reduction in mass also makes it possible to have a lower environ­ Funding
mental impact thanks to an average reduction in CO2 emissions of
around 14,200 kg CO2/year. This work was supported/financed by the European Union - Next­
- Due to the high price of innovative high-performance materials, the GenerationEU (National Sustainable Mobility Center CN00000023,
cost of the new semi-trailer is higher than the traditional one: a price Italian Ministry of University and Research Decree n. 1033 - 17/06/
difference of about 35,435 € has been estimated, repayable thanks to 2022, Spoke 11 - Innovative Materials & Lightweighting). The opinions
fuel savings in about 4 years; Clearly this calculation is only a rough expressed are those of the authors only and should not be considered as
estimate because only the price of the materials is taken into account, representative of the European Union or the European Commission’s
leaving out the cost of the operating process and maintenance. official position. Neither the European Union nor the European Com­
- The model with the fibreglass tank was studied takes into account mission can be held responsible for them.
important simplifying assumptions. The fibreglass tank is something
well-known, so it was not the main focus of the research. Many nu­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
merical simulations were done on it, but only to get the final thick­
ness, which was necessary to define the weight of the tank itself. This Luigi Solazzi: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
has allowed to have a preliminary idea of the behaviour in the Validation, Software, Methodology, Conceptualization. Nicola Danzi:
various load conditions, however in the future it is important to Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization,
study this component in more detail through the use of specific Validation, Software, Methodology.
simulation software for the analysis of fibre-reinforced orthotropic
composite materials. Declaration of competing interest
- The composite materials with which it was decided to make the
frame and the tank could have problems of impact resistance The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
compared to traditional metallic materials. In addition to this, lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
degradation and aging phenomena due to atmospheric agents could Luigi Solazzi reports financial support was provided by European
also occur. For these reasons, in future developments it is necessary Union If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known
to study the possibility of using protective films and varnishes that competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
guarantee to solve these problems. As regards the fibreglass tank, appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Fig. 11. Cost savings with reduction of fuel thanks to the innovative semi-trailer.

11
L. Solazzi and N. Danzi Composites Part C: Open Access 14 (2024) 100469

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