indo-Pakistan W¡t of 197t and Lberation ol

disobedience Bangladesh
9 Khan.) movernent against the highhanded policy of
The military
CHAP"ER
oppression. On the other government
hand Mujab Pakistan resortedPresident
of Yahya
to policy
INDO-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971 AND LIBERATION
freedom)This resulted in a sort of civilformed
number bf Bengali war in Mukti
East Bahini to achieve
of

economy. refugees fled to India,

This naturally Bengal anda large
OF BANGLADESH other hand Pakistan causing greater
strained India's relations strain on its
and actively openly accused India of witi Pakistan. On the
helping them against instigating the East
Bengalis
charges. Pakistan. ndia, hoeiz, denied these
In fact in
Ever since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 the relations between ir March 1971 when the East Behgalis
government, India
India and Pakistan have been far from cordial. In fact the two countries government due to the formedto an interi
refrained from according 1 cognition
were involved in three major wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971. Of these Despite all this Pakistan fear that this may provoke
an attack onvOke
the inrerim
Pakistan into a war
three wars the war of 1971 had far reaching impact on the power India acted promptiy andmounted
gave a befitting replyIndia in Western
structure and politics of the sub-continent. It not only led to the decided to accord recognition to sectot.
bifurcation of Pakistan but also saw the emergence of an independent on 6 December, 1971. to the interim Pakistanrindia
government of
also
Bangladesh. On 10 Bangladesh
theDecember,
1971 India
Background. The genesis of the problem can be traced back to whereby two
agreed ser up a joint
to concluded a treaty ith Bangladesh
1947 when India was partitioned on tlhe basis of religion and the state of under an Indian general the objective lndia-Mukti
eastern and Pakistan military regime. with of liberatingBahini commnand
Pakistan was created. Pakistan comprised of two wings It was agreed tha Bangladesh rom
western which were separated from each other by about 1200 miles of Bangadesh as soon as normalcy Was eakndianarmy would leave
Indian territoryAs Prof. Dutt has observed "Psychologically, emotionally Part, India pledged to protecr the teished in the codnrrófon its
and even physically East Bengal's participatipn in the Muslim League's extend economic assistance fort h a integrity of Bangladesh and
concepts politics even before partition_ nd in the emergence of also worked out details construction of the new state.
regarding return of Bangladeshi
the They
of Pakistan was mainty their country
Pakistan was minimal."(The demand forTeationBombay)!t is noteworthy
refugees to
Pradesh and IF the
India with mneanwhile
supported by the Muslims of Uttar China came to the support of
majority of the population of Pakistan was concentrated an
ultimatum. Even USA extended Pakistan and served
that though the ordered its Seventh Fleet to move towards support
was largely controlled by the to Pakistan and
in East Pakistan, the politics of the country In view of the different Soviet Union warned third parties the Bay of Bengal.
leaders from West Pakistan, specially Punjab, to refraËn from However,
languages and cultures the people of East Bengal never felt emotionally continent. On 9 August 19 interference in the sub
West Pakistan., In fact the people of East Benga! and Cooperation with Sodet Union d forsgned ATeaty of Arace Friendship
one with the people of bureaucratic-military rulers of Pakistan. who of its kind which India signed after 20 years This was the first
treatry
were unhappy with the
hailed from West Pakistan and tried to keep the people of East critics regarded this treaty as independence
contrary tó the
with any country Some
mainly naturally resented by East Pakistan. India. However, it cannot be denied hon-aligned chartcter of
Pakistan under their control. This was In so far as it acted as that the Treaty proved quite hepul
Immediate Gause of Conflict.Pakistan The immedite cause of conflict war.
Sa deterrent against US and
to VP Dutt The Treaty lent a new Chinese intervention in
Yahya Khan of in conmivance with ZA. According
that President
was that
People Party, denied Sheikh Majibur Rehman, ationship wherein Soviet backing came to dimension
Soviet.relations to the Indo
be crucial for warding
Bhutto, leader of Pakistan to form government in Pakistan even off the most serious threat to India's integrity and
socio-economic polity.
the Awami League Leader, the right seats in the National The War of 1971. On 4 December, 1971
160 of the 300 Pakistan made a
though his party had secured in the Provincial Asembly in the declaration of war against India. Even before the dectaration
Assembly and an absolute najority
1970.Majibur Rehaman launched a civil against India, on 3 December 1971 the Pakistan of war
amy started aggression
elections held in December, in the western sector. They attacked several Indian posts on this
side of
loypiveta fseivete
68
 232 india and China
India and the World
23
continued to plea for a seat for PRC in the United Nations. On the other In May 1962 China concluded an
hand China also _upported Indian case on Goa and openly condemned
the
powers hostile to Indiajoined hahds. agreement with Pakistan. Thus two
All this indicated that China was
US-sponsored resolution on Kashmir in the Security Council in preparing for armed action against India. On the
leadership was not willing to accept the assessmentother
January 1957, even though it was not a member of UN as yet.
hand
the Indian
of the military about
Boundary Dispute rdra mp n9s4 the possibility of an imminent attack from
In 1957 a boundary dispute arose the Chinese seized an Indian police post in China. Actually in July 1962
between India and China, which took several Indian jawans in captivity. Though Gulban Vally of Ladakh and
tended to strain relations between the twO India lodged strong
countries. In fact the
differences regarding boundary between two countries protests, China did not pay any heed to
1954 when the maps published in China showed a first appeared in China had already prepared itself for an these protests. In fact by this time
attack against India.
territories as Chinese. When India brought this thelarge part of Indian
Chinese Invasion
authorities they argued that these maps were thetocopiesnotice of Chinese
of old maps and On 8 September 1962 the Chinese
would be revised in due course. In the
continued to make intrusions into Indianmeanwhile
the Chinese troops Eastern sector and launched a large-scalecrossed the McMahon Line in the
attack both in the Western and
and Chinese put forth claims to more territory from 1954 onwards in the Eastern sectôrs of the border
intrusions Nehru addressed a letter toIndian territory. Against these ts. ne sudden massive attack hy overwh
pos h c ne Indian frontier
Chinese Prime Minister in
December 1958 to which the Chinese Prime Minister Indian forces were routed in NEFA. As ,surprised all and the
replied that the prepared and equipped to meet such a massive the Indian troops were not
SIno-Indian bouhdary has never been formally delimited': This left no threat, within three weeks
doubt about the intentions of China. In August 1959 a China was able to move Qver all mountain passes
detachment crossed into indian territory south o(Migyitunstrong ChingsekBt Assam. India and threaten the plains
on the NEFA immediately
on 21 November 1962, China sought help form friendly nations. However
border and_firedon the Indian forward picke. They afrested theentire announced a unilateral ceasfire and decided
to withdraw 20
Apicket comprising of 12 nmembiars, even thouglh eight of them managed to between India kilometres behind the line of actual control
and China on 7 November 1959. existing
wtSomehow escape- Tthereafter the Chinese detachment tried to overpower
the outpost at Longju located well within the Indian Impact of
however claimed territory. China Sino-Indian Border War
at Longju was undisputably Chinese territory and the
Indian troops had set up outpost there in grave violation The Chinese invasion gave a serious set back to
China's
territorial integrity. In September 1959 Prime Minister. Chou En-lai relations as well as the Sino-Indian
formally laid claim to 50,000 square miles of territory. In October 1959 greatly undermined in prestige of India. The
the eyes of Asian andposition of India was
Chineseetroops ambusheda party of 19 Indians African
encouraged Pakistan to think of forcing a military solution ofnations. It
in Ladakh
them. This evoked strong public protest in India and a and killed l6 of on India. It gave á Kashmir
in certain quarters that diplomatic relations with Chinademand was made because the country serious setback to the Indian development
was forced to divert extra plans
be snapped. the country. Above all, the w¡r made funds for the defence of
In ApriB1960 the Prime Ministers of India and India more security
the differences, but in view of mounting pressure ofChina iet to resolve and united the people against a
common cause of defending consciOus
could not be done. However, the two leaders agreed thatIndian public much country. T. N. Kaul
brought out the
the
two Governments should meet and examine the the officials of the lessons of our dealings with China was impact of 1962 war thus, "The
that asa Non-aligned country
cound& af talks were held between the relevant documents. Three we had to depend on
ourselves and make the most
half of 1960 but the situation did not officialsOnof two countries in latter We had to become self-reliant of our resources.
in the
period also China continued to intrudeimprove. the contrary during this fields to the maximum extent possibleeconomic, defence and potiticat
in the minimum possible
its hold over the already into Indian territory and consolidate We had to look for reliable time.
occupied All this convinced the Indian friends who had a mutuality of interests
leadership that the Security of bordory. with China must be strengthened
with us and on whom we could rely in times of difficulty. The
and it proceeded with the building of new outposts in its territory. These
invasion of 1962 was the first serious threat to our policy ofChinese
alignment. But it increased our faith in Non
moves of India were highly resented by China and the situation this policy as it helped us to
be heading for a direct confrontation between seemed to forge better and more enduring
the two. in later years. friendship that stood us in good stead

Scanned with CamScanner

 188 India and the Wortd
Kashmir Question in Indian Foreign Policy ) 189
was regarded by Tndia as an unfriendly act. lt asserted that Pikistan had
no right to concede Indian territory, o China which was under unlawful accepted by Pakistan in Kashmir which was strategically more favourable
to India. According to the new cease-fire India
occupation of Pakistan. Secondly, Pakistan continued to exern pressure on acquired control over
United States, Sovier Union and China tÍ_ pressurise Inda-to-eeneede_its certain highly strategic positions like Hajipur, Tithwal, Uri Poonch. Bulge
demand on Kashmir Thirdly, tension built up berween India and Pakistan ahd Kargil.
over the utilisation of Ganga waters and construction of Farakka barriage.
Kashmir Issüe in Post Simla Agreement Period
In August 1968 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi made an offer of no
war pact to Pakistan which was turned down. In 1969 Mrs. Gandhi In the post Simla Agreement period also
pronosed setting up of a joint machinery for examination of all disputes Pakistan eontinued to harp
on the rightt of self-determination of the people of
with Pakistan. However, before any headway could be made in this Kashmir issue at various international foras includingKashmir. it also raised
direction a crisis arose in Bast Pakistan. which soon developed into a civil Meetings, Commonwealth NAM Summis, UN
support of China on KashmirMeetings
war. Though the crisis was essentially an internal matter of Pakistan, it and SAARC Summit etc. To secure
had vital consequences for the Indo-Pak relations. Due to growing issue, Pakistan concluded certain agreements
with China with regard to
Pakistan signed a protocolterritory
of Kashmir under its
pressure
of refugees from East Pakistan, India got involved in the issue
and the two countries were involved in a war in 1971. it is regarding occupation/Thus
opening of Khunjerab Pass with
that during the 1971 war the Kashmir issue did not come to noteworthy
China and opened the Karakoram Highway.
the forefront. Pakistan made China an interested party Through these agreements
Pakistan leaders used Kashmir issue only to secure popular support and to support on the Kashmir issue. Pakistan aiso Kashmir and secured its
enhance legitimacy of their action in East Pakistan. the Sjachen Glacier In tried to establish conrrol over
Pakistan's Ladakh. However, India sucçessfully foiled
attempts to
through negotiations. occupy Siachen and tried to resolve the problem
Simla Agreement
After the 1971 war the leaders of the two
countries realised that the In the meanwhile
differences between two countries could be best resolved only Pakistan adopted the policy of
mutual discussions. After emissary level talks at Murree in Aprilthrough
in the internal
affairs of India and provided arms, help active interference
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President ZA. Bhutto 1972,
agréed to hold a
secessionists, militants and extremists in Kashmir. It evenandsent support to the
Irained infiltrators to armed and
meeting at Simla in June 1972. After negotiations lasting of India. Pakistan triedJammu and
to project Kashmir
to pressurise the
they signed Simla Agreement on 3rd July 1972. The Simlafor five days the Kashmir issue as a government
asserted "The Government of India and the Government Agreement problemn and sought to Hindu-Muslim
Ito put an end to the
of Pakistan have However, India continuedsecure the support of the Muslim countries.
conflict and
confrontation that have
hitherto persist with its
Kashmir had finally acceeded to India and well knawn stand that
marred their relations and work for promnotion of a friendly
harmonious relationship and the establishment of durable peace in and secularism. It argued that the only issue was symbo! of Indion
subcontinent so that both countries may henceforth devote their the secure the liberation of involved in Kash1nir was to
resources and energies to the pressing task of advancing the though under the SimlaPakistan Occupied Kashmir. It is noteworthy that
their people." welfare of settle their Agteement, the two countries had agreed to
It may be observed that at the Simla continued toodifferences through
raise the Kashmir issuebilateral negotiations, Pàkistan has
at the various
President Bhutto did raise the Káshmir questionConference the Pakistan has repeatedly asserted that no international faras. t
manner. However, the final Simla Agreement but only ain a superficial possible unless the Ka_hmir issue improvement in
is resolved.Indo-Pak relations can be
which provided that in Jammu and contained sub-clause 1X followed policy of confrontation and
In
shortPakistan has
from the cease-fire of December 17, Kashmir, the line of control resulting negotiations
simultaneously
1971 shall be respected by both sides
without prejudice to the recogmtsed positionof either side. Neither side
Comprehenslve
ndia's
Review of Bi-Lateral Relations
was to seek to alter the line of control relations with
unilaterally,
mutual differences and legal interpretations. Both the irrespective of the quarter of 1999, when thePakistan showed some
leaders of two improvement in the frst
refrain from threat or the use of sides were to comprehensive review of bilateral countries agrecd to 1ake
noteworthy that as a result of Simla
force, in violation of this line. Itis Prime relations.In February 1990 Indi.na
Minister AB. Vajpayce along with
Agrement a new cease-fire line was ndertook a bus journey to 22 members of
signed three documents viz. Lahore. During this visit the eminent gluup
two countries
Lahore Declaration,
Joint Statement and
 186 India and tne VVoNu
(186) Ge7)
developments the six rounds of tatks bet ween India and Pakistan failed to
Minister Feroze Khan Noon demanded the induction of UN force int
Kashmir. India however, strongly defended Kashmir's accesstion to India, produce any effeçtiye results.
its ratification by the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir, and In 1964)the issue of Kashmir was once again raised by Pak1stan at
the provisions contained in Article ll of the State's Constitution. the Security Council, which after fruitless debate. passed a resolution
proposing that Kashmir dispute should be solved through mutual
5 Jqming Mission negotiations between the two countries. Commenting on the Security
in 1957 Security Council asked its President Gunnar Jarring of Council debates on Kashmir, Charles Heimsath observed "The debates
Sweden, to hold discussions with India and Pakistan regarding Kashmir provided both ndia and Pakistani government with opportunities to
issue. keeping in view the previous resolutions of the UN. In his report publicise their uncompromising positions, to test the responses of the
submitted in April 1957 Gunnar Jarring observed that if a Plebiscite were great powers and to dramatise to their own peopies their skill and
to be held, grave problems might arise. He favoured status quo and persistence in furthering national interest. Nothing more was expected or
accomplished."
Suggested that the matter be resolved through arbitration. India however
overruled arbitration. This marked the end of Jarring Mission. Indo-Pak War, 1965 (g.Sp we
In September 1957 the Security Council once again asked Erank P, After having failed to accomplish anything through the Security
Grahaîyo hold discussions with the Governments of India and Pakistan,.
action for Council, Pakistan sought to accomplish its objective through use of
and make recommendations to the parties to take appropriate military power. Pakistan was encouraged to take this stand due to the
on Kashmir. However, Graham
the implementation of the UN ResolutionIndia feeling that Indian leadership after Nehru was very weak. The growing
after holding necessary discussions with and Pakistan recommended friendship of Pakistan with China and latter's assurance of help against
Prime Ministerial level be held India: also encouraged Pakistan in its venture.In 1965 Pakistan launched
in March 1958 that talks on Kashmir at the
between the rwo countries(He also recommended stationing of UN troops a military-probing operation in Rann of Kutchand sent arned Pakistan1
recommendations of infiltrators into Kashmir to create/trouble in the Indian side of Kashmir
on the Pakistani side of Kashmir borders The
Graham were accepted by Pakistan but rejected by India through sabotage. This led to war between India and Pakistan in August
two countries disçdssed'the
Between 1958 and 1960 the leaders ofsettlement. September 1965.
In (1962) Pakistan The war continued till 23 September 1965 when on the basis of a
Kashmir issue, but could not arrive at any proposed a
Security Council which Security Council resolution the two countries agreed to a cease-fire.
once again took the issue to the talks betweeh Tndia and Despite this ceasefire the relations between India and Pakistan
remained
resolution calling for resumption of bilateral was vetoed by Soviet surcharged with emotions and tensions. Ar this juncture the Sovie
Pakistan over Kashmir. However, the resolution
Premter Kosygin offered his good offices and proposed a meeting rbetween
Union.
Lndian and Pakistani leaders at Tashkent for peaceful settlement
of their

Sino-Inian War and Kashmir differences. Both India and Pakistan accepted the offer and a meeting was
During the Sino-Indian War of 1962 the
Kashmir issue again came to held between Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and President Ayub
protracted
on the
openly supported China, and support Khan_ at Tashkent from 4 to 10 January 1966. After
the fore. On the one hand Pakistan U.S.A. and England extended negotiations the two leaders signed ashkent Declaration on 10 Januar
other hand Pakistan's close friends midst of
In the Pakistan would start direcr alks and
This was a peculiar development. Harriman,
to India against China.)Duncan the
(1960 It was agreed that India and
after signing of the Tashkent
Sandy and AveralI their problems bilaterally. Soon
these developments prevailed upon the Declaration Prime Minister Shashtri died, which gave a seriaus set back to
represetatives of USA and Britain, tosuccessfully ministeria! level talks in governments refused to implement the
governments of India and Pakistan hold the Tashkent spirit.) In fact the two of the Tashkent Declaration In
India and Pakistani startd at that military provisions,
November 1962. The actual talks between provisions, other
However, these talks suffered a Declaration failed to bring about any change in the
Rawalpindi on 27 December 1962. short the Tashkent Pakistan on the Kashmir issue. In fact tension between 7
announcement that it had made adjustments stands of India and sagned
setback following Pakistan's the Sino-Pak due to several factors.IFirst Pakistan
Sinkiang. India strongly rejectedbeen
of border with China on aleged signed to the two countries increased open road linking Gilgit and Sinkiang, whucth
Border Agreement and Pakistan's that the agreement had
view of these an agreement with China to Bey'a
stand on Kashmir. In
secure Chinese support for
Az4t
 India and the Wortd

eed to take steps for preventing hostile propaganda against each

tuer and eechange such information which would promote the cause of CHAPTER 10
friendly retations between the two. Both the countries agreed to withdraw
their forces to thcir respective sides of internatiopal border. This
withdrawal was to be completed within 30 days. With egard to Jammu INDIAN PEACE KEEPING FORCE (IPKF)
and Kashinir the two countries agreed to respect the line of actual control
as it existed at the time of declaration of cease-fire on 17 December 1971. IN SRI LANKA
Boththe parties agreed not to change this line of robunilaterally or
by force. For further normalisation of their relations the two countries
agreed to resume communications, promote travel, co-operate in l she period India tried to develop cordial
economic and allied matters, and have exchanges in the cultural and
scienrific fields
India's Role in Emergence of Bangladesh. It is admitted at all
post-indepee
relations with Sri Lanka. rwo countriesnot only cooperated in the
economic field but also shared identical views on various
international
stant irritant in their
hands that India played a vital role in the emergence of Bangladesh as an problems. However, one factor which proved a e in Sri Lanka.
in S
independent state. srole continued to undergo change according to relations was the problem of the people of Indian origin
aftèr its independence in 1949, Sri Lanka disowned the people of
Soon
the changing conditions. During the initial stages India decided to follow
In Aorigin sertled in Sri Lanka which rendered large nunber of ese
the policy of non-intervention in the affairs of Pakistan and maintained Deople sateless. The situation some-what eased when the hdian
complete neutrality. However, in the wake of atrocities committed by e government permitted these citizens to come deided to lndia. Howeyer, a
General Tikka Khan, the Pakistan General, on men, women and children sizeable number of Indians settied in Srt Lank to stay on in Sri
of East Bengal, India expressed concern over violation of human rights. Lanka. Protracted negotietions took place berween the governments of
Late large number of East Bengal refugees took shelter in Indian origin in
te dia and Sri Lanka to resolve the problem o pe
,dcerious strain on the economy of the country, India
India and
india
Sri Lanka to resoBve the problem of people of Indian
that the two counries
in Sri Lanka
exerted pressure on Pakistan to normalise conditions in East Bengal to but without much success. It was onty in 1986
facilitate the return of refugees to their homes, India even tried to built on 85.000
reached an agreernent whereby India conferred citizenship prior to 30
up international pressure on Pakistan to take back these refugees. Prime of Indian origin who had applied for citizenship
Minister Indira Gandhi and Indian External Afairs Minister (Swaran October 1981, while Sri Lanka agreed to confer citizenship on renaining
Singh) undertook tours to several countries to secure support for a stateless Tamils, of Indian origin.
political settlement of East Bengal Crisis, so that the return of refugees to out in Sri Lanka
In 1984 serious internal ethnic conflicts broke in the Tamil
their homes was facilitated. However, as these efforts failed to produce foliowing government's decision to settle armed Sinhalese
the desired result, India decided to intervene effectively to resolve the area. This was greatiy resented by the Tamils and their guerrilla
crisis. India not only provided necessary help to the refugees but also majority Eelam (LTTE) biew up banks,
joined hands with the mukti-Bahni to secure their rights. This involved organisation Liberation Tigers of of Tamil
telecommunication lines. The Sri
tndia in a war with Pakistan in December 1971. Indian army formed a *mined army vehicles and cut rail and down several Tamil dominated
joint command with Mukti Bahini and inflicted a defeat on Pakistan army Lankan arny also retaliated and inburnt death of many innocent Tamils,
towns and villages. This resulted the
This paved the way for the liberation of independent Bangladesh. India of them crossed over to India, to escape oppression.
was one of the first countries to accord recognitrion to Bangladesh. Soon and large number and a demand for Indian
of refugees
other countries also granted recognition to Bangladesh and thus This created a serious problem the Government of India ruled out
completed the process of liberation of Bangladesh. For the attainment of intervention grew very loud. However,political solution of the problem. India
this goal India made unparalleled sacrifices both in men and material. any such action and insistedtoonSria Lanka in March 1985 to defuse the
This was naturally acknowledged by the leaders of East Bengal and they sent its Foreign Secretary emerged. Thereafter the situation
tried to cultivate most intimate relations with India. situation. However, nothing concrete
73

Scanned with CamScanner

 Kashmr Question in Ind1an Foreign Policy 183

talks were held in Novemnber and Decernber 1947 to resolve the Kashmir
issue through negotiations. However, by the end of Decembernr 1947 India
was convinced that the matter could not be resolved through negotiations.
CHAPTER 13
India Refers Kashmir Question to Security Council (1948) DuC -
India decided to refer the Kashmir question to the Security Counci!
KASHMIR QUESTION IN INDIAN of the United Nations on ] January 1948. It requested Security Council to
FOREIGN POLICY ask Pakistan Government (i) to prevent its personnelmilitary as well as
civil from participating in or assisting the invasion of Jarmmu and Kashmir
state; (ii) to call upon its nations to desist from taking part in the fighting
in the state of Jammu and Kashmir; and (ii) to deny to the invaders
Background: Indian Foreign Policy has been constantly influenced access to and use of its territory for operations against Kashmir; to stop
by
by the Kashmir Question. The State of Jammu and Kashmir, populated military and other supplies and all other kinds of aid which may prolong
predominantly Muslims was being ruled by Maharaja Harn Singh at the the present struggle. Pakistan not only denied all these allegations but
Independence Act 1947, the
time of independence. Under the Indian the
also alleged that Kashmir's accession to India was illegal.
Maharaia of Jammu and Kashmir, like other state rulers, was given tOr
or to acceed to
In the course of debates in the UN, India justified Kashmir's
option either to becomne an independent state accession to India and asserted that for a final setlement it was essential
Pas However, the Maharaja of Kashmir pending final decision that Pakistar withdraws all invaders from Kashmir. It agreed to reduce
dod a standstill agreement with Pak1stan. Indian forces in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistan.. It offered to
to India the
As this temporary arrangement was not acceptable On the other hold a plebiscite under the control of the popular government of the state
Maharaja was planning to declare his state as independent. and supervision of UN representatives. after the normalisation of
Maharaja to acceed to
hand Pakistan also stepped up pressure toonKashmir and even built up conditions.
Pakistan. It stopped food and fuel supplies
Kashmir to Pakistan. It even UN Commission on India and Pakistan (UNCIP) Tmn
military pressure to secure accession of 1947 nearly 5000
engineered a tribal invasion of Kashmir. On 15Ocou Pakistan After due deliberation the Security Council passed a resolution and
raiders besieged Fort Owen inside Kashmir. A
within
later
five days the raiders
appointed The United Nations Comnission on India and Pakistan
launched attacks in several sectors, and (UNCIP). The Commission started its work in June 1948 and after holding
reached Bararnula, barely 25 miles away from Srinagar. talks with Indian and Pakistan governments submitted a report on 3
August 1948. The report was accepted by India but rejected by Pakistan.
Maharaja Signs Instrument of Accession started fresh negotiations and came out witth
Therefore the Commission sta
decided to
Alamed by the above development Maharaja Hari Singh
India, on 26 October, 1947.
new proposals on l1 December 1949. These proposals were accepted by
asign the Instrument of Accession in favour of fndia as well as Pakistan, and a cease-fire was affected w.e.f. 1 January
sE1Thereafter India assumed direct responsibility for the defence of Kashmir. 1949. ptd bb bot ty
also went in
Indian troops were flown to Kashmir and the Indian army out the In terms fthe proposals of UNCIP (1) Pakistan was to withdraw its
yaioh. As a result India succeeded in saving Srinagar and pushing
Instruments of troops from Kashmir and try to secure the withdrawal of tribals and
invaders. It may be observed that while accepting the restored in Pakistani nationals who were not normal residents of Jammu and
Accession, "India has assured that as soon as law and order is of state to Kashmir:
Kashmir and the soil is cleared of the invaders, the accession to India (ii) Pending final solution the territory vacated by Pakistani troops
Kashmir
India would be ratified by the people." This accession of fraud perpetrated would be administered by the local authorities under the
-was not acceptable to Pakistan which described it as "a
to the supervision of the UN Commission.
on the people of Idia." Therefore, Pakistan decided to step up help (iii) After the completion of the first step the Commission shall
invàders, without directly involving itself in the conflict.Two rounds of notify the Government of India and the latter would grdually
withdraw bulk of its troops from Kashmir.
182
234 India and the Worid India and China 235

India-China Relations After 1962 was genuinely interested in improving its relations with India as part of
For about a decade after 1962, India-China relations continued to be its general desire for mutually beneficial conracts with ali the three
rense and hostile, and there was hardly any contact berween the two. countries of the sub-continent. Despite the professions of the leaders of
The diplomatic relations between the two countries were down graded to two countries to improve relations. no positive steps were taken for
Charged' Affairs level. China tried to isolate India by conciuding border normalisation of relations. The eelt, any. was confined ro
agreements with other small countries, primarily with a view to give a participation in the official level increase in exchange of non
projection that it was more reasonable and compromising. It also stepped official private visits, and exchange of greetings on the occasions of their
up propaganda against India and charged india of imperialist
more
designs
intimate
National days, etc. In fact during the years 1974 and 1975 the relations
suffered a set back on account of Chinese criticism of India following
towards Sikkim and Bhutan. China also tried to develop
relations with Pakistan and provided economic and military aid to India's Peaceful Nuclear Explosion in 1974, and Sikim's accession to india
Pakistan. It even signed a border agreement with Pakistan with regard to in 1975. In short. during this period though desire was expressed by the
territory which formed part of Pakistan occupied Kashmir. During the leaders of two countries to improve relations and develop friendly co
political, operation, but no concrete steps were taken to realise the same.
Indo-Pak War of 1965 also China extended full moral,
psychological and even military support to Pakistan. China tried to help India made a serious bid to improve relations with China in 1975
borders. In short China and
Pakistan by increasing tension on India-China and decided to restore full diplomatic relations with China. K. R
support to
Pakistan formed a sort of anti-India axis. China even extended Narayanan was sent as India's ambassador to China: This was a boid
anti-india elements like Nagas, Mizos, Naxalites present in the country. As gesture on the part of India to which China also reciprocated. Thus full
generated in the indo-China diplomatic relations were restoredbetween
India and.IChina which greatiy
a result of all this lot of tension was
relations. helped the cause of normalisation of relations berween the twO cOuntries.
India tried to cultivate The restoration of diplomatic relations paved the way for greater trade
In the midst of all these developments India and Soviet Union and cultural co-operation. However the dispute over boundary berween
In 1971
intimate relations with Soviet Union. Cooperation. which was nof liked the two countries continued to be a cause of irritation. Though both the
signed Treaty of Peace. Friendship and
Indo-Soviet collusion against
treaty as countries were willing to settle the boundary question through
by China which looked upon thiseven more critical of India and extended negotiations but the big gap in their respective positions made it difficuk
China. As a result China became
every possible way. During the Indo
poss to achieve any success in this regard.
support to Pakistan against India in India's roie in Bångladesh crisis
critisised
Pak War of 1971, China bitterly question of Kashmir also
Normalisation of Sino-Indian Relations Under
to Pakistan. On the
and extended full support the relations Janata Government
China openly supported the Pakistan stand. In short
were quite rense Janata Government (1977-79) during its rule tried to normalise
during the period 1962-1971
between India and Chína relations with China and promoted closer trade links between the two
and hostile. countries. In April 1972 the two countries signed a trade agreement
Relations Between 1971 and 1977 involving a total value of Rs. 13.2 crores. There were also frequent
of affairs and was ready
India was not happy with the existing state past
exchange of sports and cultural teams betwecn the two countries. The
ignoring the developments. The leaders of rwo countries also indicated desire to develop closer co
to improve relations with China best summed up by india's Foreign operation in the field of Science and Technology In 1978 4Sieen
views of India in this regard are neighbours of this great member Chinese trade delegarion visited India to explore the possibilities
Minister. He said, "Geography has placed us as away of greater trade between two countries. Likewise Indian trade missions
more than China can wish
country, we cannot wish away China any also visited China. In March 1978 a Chinese goodwill missin
from us. Border problems have existed between many countries Fozeignpaid Ministe
a visit
As such we see no to India and held meeting with India's
throughout the ages and were settled peacefully. to do the same." China (A. B. Vajpayee). An invitation was extended to Vajpavee to visit China.
reason why India and China should not be able and held
also indicated in 1973 that it was keen
C e n twih
to have which he accepted. In February 1979 Vajpavee visited Chinain an optnrstie
Minister convevedto a former US talks with the Chinese leaders. Though the talks started
Chinese Foreign
naia. The to India. during his visit to China in June 1973, that China
Ind
Ambassador
manner, but in view of Chinese aggression against Vietnam. the lndian
 70 nda añg tne wong
Indo-Pak istan War of 1971 and Liberation of
Bangiadesh 71
the cease in Kashmir. The Pakistan Air Force also resorted to heavy country during the 1971 war, they showed
bombardment of several indian air force stations in Northern India In the Bhutto. This made it easy for willingness tO Suppurt Z.A
midsts of these developments indian army units based in Agarthala were
directed to march into East Pakistan. The Indian Air Force also organised cconomic and military neasuresBhutto to formulate and execuie
to get Pakistan out of mess. fadiçat
several air attacks on Pakistan airforce bases and inficted heavy damages
war paved the way for fourhly
Indo-Pak derente. Bhutto, quite conscious of the
new realities of the situation the
Even the indian navy played an effective role in the conduct of war. By 15 with India to ensure durable anddecided to enter into direct nezotiations
December, 1971 the Pakistani forces in East Bengal were surrounded by honourable peace in the
the Indlan troops. As there was no scope for any escape. I. Gen. Niazi. Indo-Pak Talks. Though India emerged victorious outsub-continent.
of 1971 war
the comander of the Pakistani troops in East Bengal, sent a message for with Pakistan, it showed no inclination to punish or humiliate
cease fire on 15 December, 197I but the offer was turned down by the fact son after the liberation of Pakistan. In
Pakistan. On 31 December, 1971 Mrs Bangladesh, India offered ceasefire to
Indian authonities. They asked Niazi to make an untonditional surrender. tndia announced that the existing Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of
After some hestitation the Pakistan forces agreed to make a surrender. On can be solved only throughdËrect problems between the two countries
16 December, 1971 LI. Gen. Niazi signed an Instrunent of Surrender As Bhutto was very keen to negotiarions between the two countries
which was accepted by L. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora GOC-in-Charge of secure
War at the earliest, and a number of
the release of the
Pakistan Prisoners of
Indian and Bangladesh Forces in the Eastern command on behalf of the recognition to the state of countries had already accorded
Indian armed forces. This surrender included all Pakistani land, air and Bangladesh, seemed that he had no other
it
naval forces as also all paramilitary forces and civil armed forces., These choice but to hold talks with India. After several weeks of
forces agreed to lay down their arms and surrender ai the place where negotiations Mrs Gandhi announced on 4 diplomatic
Pakistan werein direct touch. To pave the April 1972 that India and
they were currently located to the nearest regular troops in the command level talks were held at Murree in way for final talks
of Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora. On his part Lt. Gen.
Aurora gave a
was agreed that Mrs Indra GandhiApril 1972. As a result of theseemissary
talks it
solemn assurance that personnel who surrender shall be treated with and President Bhutto would
the June to discuss matters meet in
dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with two countries. pertaining to mutual relations between
the
provisions of the Geneva Convention and guaranteed the safety and Inwell
being of all Pakistan military and paramilitary forces who surrender. all Simla Conference. The proposed
Summit Conference was held
before the Indian between Prime Minister Indira G
about 91 thousand Pakistani troops made a surrender and brought to on 28 June 1972. The high levelGandhi and President Z.A. Bhutto at Simla
authorities. They were taken as Prisoners of War (POWs) delegates which
India. The wa formally came to an end on 16
December 1971 when leaders held extensive discussions on various accompanied these two
issues arising out of the war
from as well as on general
Pakistan accepted Indian decision to observe a cease-fire with effect bilateral issues. After prolonged negotiations lasting
for five days,.the wo leaders signed Simla
days
the nid-night of 16 Decenber. Thus the war lasted for only(13
and left à deep Simla Agreement on 3 July l972.
The Indo-Pak War of 1971 provedquite decisive
subcontinent. It led to of Agreement. The
agreement stated that both Governments
India and Pakistan have resolved
Wimpact on the power structure in South Asian and conflict which has
to put an end to the
confrontation
the
of Paki^tan and emergence of a new sovereign state ot characterised their relations and to establish
bËfurcation
Bangiedesh. The creation of Bangladesh gave a serious blow to the 'two
creation of state
durable peace in the sub-continent so that
to devote their energies to the
the two c
Dromtt tries mav be able
nation theory' which had led the partition of India and
to
people. The hOuntries
two a f f 8 need of welfare of their
of Pakistan on the basis of religien. J their faith in the principles and
brought certain vesof Charter and declared that they
The war, though quite disastrous for Pakistan, it made Pakistan thelr differences by peaceful means through bilater al would resolve all
(firstt place
Iurther agreed that pending final setlement of anynegotiations.
indirect advantages to Pakistan. In the It was
more ciose-knit.
geographiçally more Compact, and economically after a gap between them, neither side would unilateralty alter the
of the prooblems
Secondlyit led to restoration of civil government in Pakistanleadership to both the sides shall prevent and discourage all suchsituation and that
Thirdlythe war forced the new Pakistan acts as may be
of atmost 14 years. harp on the favourite tune detrimental to maintenance of peace and harmonious relations. The two
concentrate on the domestic affairs and not to Ountries agreed to respect the territorial integrity and
of threat from India. As the of Pakistan got thoroughiy '9ch other, They expressed their faith in the principle ofsoxereignty
of
losses suffered by the
disillusioned with the military leadership due to peaceful co
*xistence, and non-interference in each other's internal affairs, Both the
66
India and the Worid
Sino-indian Border War (1962)
captives. India strongly protested against this aggression but the protest remain
67

chosen bydemilitarised
and
the two countries.shouid
was ignored by China. In fact China had already made up its mind to be
In NEFA managed
by neutral persons be
launch aggression against India and had taken several preliminary steps. the line of actual control should be
Thus it had fully integrated Tiber in China; it had already suspended all accepted by both the countries and
activities on the Taiwan issue: it had conciuded an agreement with the middle sector the should be
as on 8 treated cease-fire line. In
as
maintained and
position
the final solution September 1962
Pakistan, an enemy of india; it had already occupied abour
miles of Indian territory. The illegal occupation of Indian territory by
25,000 s means. should be found throughshould be
peaceful
China and its hostile postures greatly disturbed India. This is evident frort The Colombo
the observation of Nehru who said on 9 December 1959 * The whole on certain Proposals were
conditions which were accepted by India, but
picture of the world is changing so far as India is concerned and india's insisted that it alone should not acceptable to India,China insisted
borders are concerned. Here is a historical change of greatest magnitude. zone and India shouid not have maintain civil posts in Western Thås China
For the First time, two major powers of Asia face each other on an armed eastern section the any right in the area. demilitarísed
border. For the first time, a world power or would-be-world powe sits view of these Indian troops should not move upto i.ikewise in the
differences the Colombo McMahon Line. In
near our borders and frontiers."
d chinese Invasion. In January 1962, the Chinese implemented. After some time President NasserPropposats
conference of the Colombo of Egypt
coutd not be
canme-out convened
crossed Longiu in Powers but second
NEFA. In June 1962 they captured the Chip-Chap and Spanggur areas of
Ladakh. On 8 September 1962 the Chinese crossed the McMahon line in
Impact of Sino-Indian Border nothing
a seriouS set War. The
of it.

The reverses back relations as well asChinese invasion gave

to
the Eastern sector. For the next few days there weree trequent exchange of Sino-Indian
fire between the Indian and the Chinese troops. Ultimately on 20 October. suffered
herposition n in the
by India at the hands of China the prestige of india.
eyes greatly undermined
1962 China launched a big offensive both in Western and Eastern sectors Pakistan to think in terms ofAsian of forcing a
and African
couaÁes. It
encouraged
of the border, overwhelming the lndian frontier pasts. The attack was so India. The border war military
aiso gave a serious set soiution of Kashmir on
sudden and massive that the Indians could not face it and were routed in
NEFA. As the Indian troops were not prepared and equipped to meet such
development. As the back to
the country, it was country had divert extra funds for the the Indian
a massive threat., within theree weeks China was able to move over all the all the war made forced to abandon several defence of
mountain passes and threaten the piains of Assam. in view of this seriou2 one person in defending more
Indians security development plans. Abave
threat from China, India decided to seek. help from friendly nations. impact of 1962 war thus The their country.conscious and the epeopBe rose
T.N. Kaul has brought out the
as
BefoYe this help could be procured, China announced unilateral ceasefîir asmosta non-aligned lesson of our
of our country we had to dependdealings with China
on ourselves and was that
on 21 November, 1962 and decided to withdraw 20 kilometres behind the resources. We had to
become self-reliant in the make the
line of actual control existing between India and China on 7 November. defence and
political fields to the
1959. It is noteworthy that the conflict between India and China cannot minimum possible time. We had to maximum extent possible econOmic,
be described as a war, because no formal declaration of war was made b, look in the
either side. Further, the two countries maintained diplomation
mutuality of interest with us and
on
for reliable friends who had a
and their diplomatic missions continued to relations y ehnese invasion of 1962 whom we could reBy in
was rhe frer times of
work, though only with But it increased our faithserious threat to our
skeiton staff. aelaughnent.
helped Us to forge better and in this nolicy 2s ir
Colombo Conference. Soon after the declaration of unilatera 800d stead in later years." more enduring friendship that stood us in
cease fire by China, the Sri Lankan Prime Minister
convened conferenc a
of the non-aligned countries at Colombo on 10 December, 1962. Thit
conference was attended by Sri Lanka, Burma, Indonesia, Egypt, Ghan
and Cambodia. The Conference expressed the view that the cease-fi
period should be utilised to seek peaceful solution of the Sino-lndiar
dispute. It suggested that China should withdraw its posts in the wester
sector by 10 kilometres; and India should maintain its existing militar
position in both the sectors. The area to be vacated by China shoule
 (iv) The government of India shall maintain minimu forces which Howeve, his
were essential for the maintenance of law and order in the areas a
mission also failed. On 15
Sepremikr 1950 Dixon subnitte
report which suggested
Alternatively he suggested holding
under its control at the time of cease-fire. of pleb1scite on
region by region basi:
that Kashmir be partitioned
() The future status of Jammu and Kashmir shall be deternined in
accordance with the wishes of the people of the state plebiscite. The proposal was rejected by India without holding
Pakistan. an aggressc- **ith Inlia. because it equate
On 5January 194,the Security Council passed a resolution which because it did not support tie sJing Pakistan also rejected the poposa
from of a
SuSzested the witharaval of Pakistan torces and other elements
The resolution affirmed the right of indian army to defend the
Therefore Dixon recommended that the dispute full plebiscite in Kashmit
be returned to the
tor negotiations. partie
state. It insisted on the holding of plebisciLe under the auspices of the
Governnent of Jammu and Kashmir. 3 Graham Mission act~t tur ycanl d t yohadi
The Security Council resolution could not be implemented because After Dixon
both India and Pakistan failed to comply with its condit+ons. Pakistan reported the failure of his
mission, the Security Counci!
decided to
appoint Frank P Graham, an
refused to withdraw its forces from Kashmir and thus rendered the American,
Through his persistent efforts lasting overas a mediator.
resolution inoperative. Further India insisted on demilitarisation of the succeeded in two years
Pakistan Occupied Kashrnir (POK) as a precondition for holding plebiscite reducing the areas of disagreement Graham
in the state Pakistan. However, his efforts also failed as no between. India and
reached between India and Pakistan on the agreement could be
As the UNCIP failed to resolved the tangle, it suggested that the retained on each side. Graham quantum of force to be
admitted his failure and suggested
differences be submitted to arbitration. Though Pakistan accepted this negotiations between the two counries.
proposal India refused to accept if. In December. 1949he Comunission Kashmir issue were suspended. Thereafter UN efforts to solvedirect
the
submitted its final report in which it accepted its failure and
recommended the appointment of a single mediator. Bilateral Negotiations 1155
( McNaughton Plan he Seewh cumlprsided Bilateral negotiations between India and
the Kashmir problem were first initiated at the Pakistan for the solution of
As per the recomnendations of the UNCIP the Security Council Coronation in June 1953. This was followed by time of Queen of
England's
appointed General McNaughton, the Security Council Presiden. as a Delhi in July and meetings at Karachand
mediator. He submitted a plan for thé solution of the Kashmir tangle. set back due to August 1953 respectively. However. the talks suitered a
charge of his detention Sheikh Abdullah on 9 August 1953
of
According 1o the plan both Pakistaniand Indian troops were to be anti-national
withdrawn from Kashmir to prepare grounds for a plebiscite. The plan Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir activities. ebruary 1954 the Constitonuent
In the
was rejected by India. Commenting on the Plan, B. N. Rao observed India. In 1954 Pakistan unanimously ratified state's accession to
"Today the position is that Pakistan, which throughout 1948 denied giving Military Alliance SEATO announced its decision to join the Western
aid either to the invader or to the Azad Kashmir forces, is now itself not
only an invader but in actual occupation of nearly half the area of the
gave rise to further (Southern-East
tension.
Asia Treaty
As a result of all Organisation). which
state without any lawful authority from any source. This is na ked agreement could be reached on Kashmir. these developments no
aggression of which no one can approve, but there is sign of disapprqval The period of bi-lateral
came to an end with the negotiations to resolve the
Kashmir issue.
in the McNaughton proposal. decision of Pakistan Prime
Mohammad Ali) to resume the case at the United Minister (Choudhari
T
India atso changed its stand and
The Dixon Proposal ydsi teh Crad testnee, rejected the demandNations.
By this time
ground that the Constituent Assembly for plebiscite on the
After the failure of McNaughton Plan, the Security
Council passed a of Jammu and
resolution of 24 February 195) which called on India and Pakistan to Kashmir accession to India. The Kashmir had ratificd
withdraw their troops fron Kashmir within five months to facilitate the Article that the state of
III Constitution of Kash1nir also
provided in
of the Union of India.
Jammu and Kashmir shall be an integral part
holding of plebiscite.
ln
Council 1957)Pakistan once again revived the Kashmir
The Council appointed Sir Owen Dixon, a judge of the High Court of
and called upon issue in the Security
Australia, to ensure compliance with the Security Council resolution. the 1948 and 1949 the Kashmir Council to direct India to
Security Council Resoiutions. Pakistan'simplement
Foreign
 Sno-lndian Border War (1962)
had existed there for long.Jn 1956 when
Lai visited India his attention was Chinese Prime Minister Chou En s
drawn to the fact that the Chinese máps
CHAPTER 8 still continue to show parts of Indian
territory as part of China. He
assured the Indian leaders that McMahon line was
and necessary corrections would be carried out ín theacceptable to China
maps.
SINO-INDIAN BORDER WAR (1962) In the meanwhile the Chinese troops
into Indian territory and put forth claims tocontinued
to make intrusions
more Indian territory. Nehru
addressed a letter to the Chinese Prime Minister against these
India's relations with China were quite cordial till the out-break of in December, 1958. However, the Chinese Prime intrusions
Minister replied
Sino-Indian boundary has never been formally delimited," andthatthetheso
armed hostilities between the two over boundary dispute towards the
close of 1950's. In fact India and China have a 2200 mile long border, called McMahon Line was the product of British policy of
which broadly speaking comprises of three areas: the border to the east of against Tibet region of China. ,It may be aggression
observed
the Chinese had built 110 mile long road
that
in the meanwhile
Bhutan; the Central border across UP Punjab and Himachal Pradesh; and in Aksai Chin area and fully
border between Jammu and Kashmir and the Chinese territories of integrated Tibet in China.
Sinkiang and Tibet. In the main problem over border arose between India In August 1959 a strong Chinese detachment crossed into
and China in the North-East and Ladakh in North-West. ertory south of Gigyitun on the NEFA border and fired on the Indian
Indian
The border berween India and China had been fixed along McMahon or ward picket. They arrested the entire picket comprising of 12
Line in 1914 at a Conference held at Shimla, This Conference wàs bembers, even though eight of them managed to somehow escape.
convened to sort out border differences between Nepal, Bhuran, Sikkim hereafter the Chinese detachment tried to overpower the outpost at
and Tibet. In this Conference the representatives of British India, Tibet Longju, located well within the Indian territory China, however, clairned
and China took part. After detailed negotiations an agreement was hat Longju was undisputably Chinese territory and the
et up outpost there in grave violation of China's Indian troops had
concluded whereby Tibet was divided into Inner Tiber and Outer Tibet.
The boundary betweern Outer Tibet and India was demarcated at the high September, 1959 Prime Minister Cho En-lai formallyterritorial integrity. In
laid claim to 50,000
squate miles of territory,In October, 1959 the Chinese trOops
mountain peaks. Thisline was drawn on the suggestion of Arthur Henry party of 19 Indians in Ladakh and killed 16 of ambushed a
McMahon., who represented British India at the Shimla Conference. This pulslie protest in India and a demand was madethem. This evoked strong
in certain quarters that
line came to be known as McMahon Line and was treated as a lawully
demarcated border berween India and China.At may be noted that though diplomatic relations with China be snapped.
In April 1960 the Prime Ministers of India and China met to resolve
the representatives of China, British India and Tibet signed the map the
demarcating the ine between India and China, the Chinese government differences. However, in yiew of the
did not ratify it. However, the Government of China did not dispute this public opinion nuch could not be achieved.mounting pressure of Indian
The two leaders, however.
boundary line. agreed that the officials of the two governments should meet and
Origin of Border Dispute. Differences regarding boundary examine the relevant documents. Three rounds of talks were
berween the officials of two countries in latter half of l960, but held
berween India and China first appeared í1954 when the Maps published situation did not improve. On the countrary during this period, China
the
in China showed a large part of Indian territory a_ Chinese. When tndia countinued to introduce into Indian territory and consolidate its hold over
brought this to the notice of the Chinese authofities they argued that the already occupied territory. All this convinced the Indian
these maps were the copies of the old maps and would be revised in duc that the security of border with China must be strengthened ad itleadership
course n July 1954 China sent a protest note to India alleging that the proceeded with the building of new outposts in its territory. These moves
Indian troops had illegally occupied Bu-Je (Barahooti), an area within of India were highly resented by China and the situation seemed to be
Chinese territory. India rejected this protest and asserted that this area heading for a direct confrontation between the two.
was located within the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and an Indian post
in the neanwhile on 12.July 1962 the Chinese siezed an Indian
police post in Galban Valley of Ladakh and took four Indian jawans as
64
 Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 and Lberation of
Bangladesh 69
disobedience movement
Khan.) The military against the highhanded policy of President Yahya
CHAP ER oppression. On the other government of Pakistan
hand Mujab formed resorted to policy of
freedomThis Mukti
resulted in a sort of civil war in East Bahini to achieve
number bf Bengali Bengal and a large
refugees to India, causing greater
fled
INDO-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1971 AND LIBERATION economy. This naturally strained India's relations wit. strain on its
other hand Pakistan Pakistan. On the
OF BANGLADESH and actively helping openly accused India of instigating the
charges. them against Pakistan. India, howeiI, Eas1 Bengalis
denied these
In fact in
March 1971 when the East Behgalis
Ever since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 the relations between government, indiato refrained from according formed an interis
India and Pakistan have been far from cordial. in fact the two countries government due the fear that this may recognition to the interim
were involved in three major wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971. Of these Despite all this Pakistan
mounted provoke
an attack on IndiaPakistan into a war.
three wars the war of 1971 had far reaching impact on the power India acted promptly and gave a in Western
and politics of the sub-continent. It not only led to the decided to accord recognition to the befitting reply to Pakistan indiasector. aisode
bifurcation of Pakistan but also saw the emergence of an independent on 6 December, 1971. interim government of
On 10
Bangladesh
wherebyy the December,
Bangladesh. 1971 India
Background. The genesis of the problem can be traced
back to two agreed to set up aconcludedjoint
a treaty
Bangladesh
partitioned on the basis of religion and the state of under Indian general with the
an India-Mukti Bahini comnand
1947 when India was
- eastern and objective of
Pakistan military regime.It was agreed that liberating Bangladesh from
Pakistan was created. Pakistan comprised of two wings the Indian army would leave
western- which were separated from each other by about 1200 miles of Bangladesh as soon as normalcy was
part, India pledged to protect established in the couitróOn its
observed "Psychologically, emotionally
indian territory.As Prof. Dutt has
Bengal's participapn in the Muslim L.eague's extend economic assistance for the territorial integrity of
the reconstrüction of the Bangladesh and
and even physícally East also worked out details new state. They
concepts of politics even before partition And in the emergence of regarding the returh of Bangladeshi refugees to
minimal."(The demand forreation of Pakistan was mainly their country.
Pakistan was noteworthy In the meanwhile China
supported by the Muslims of Uttar Pradesh and Bombay)it isconcentrated India with an came to the support of Pakistan and
Pakistan was served
ordered its s uftimatum. Even USA extended support to Pakistan and
majority of the population of
that though the controlled by the Seventh
politics of the country was largely
in East Pakistan, the Soviet Union warned third
Fleet to move towards the Bay of 8a1. However.
Bengal.
Punjab, In view of the different
leaders from West Pakistan, specially continent. On 9 August l1971parties
to refrain from interferênce in the sub
of East Bengal never felt emotionally India signcda Treaty of Peace, Friendship
languages and cultures the peoIn fact the people of ast Beng and Cooperation with Soviet Union for
one with the people of West 20 years.
bureaucratic-military rulers of Pakistan, who
were unhappy with the Pakistan and tried to keep the people of East
of its kind which India
critics regarded this treatysigned after independenceThis with
was the first Teaty
any count Some
West as contrary to the
mainly hailed from resented by East Pakistan. India. However, it cannot be denied hon-aligned char cter of
Pakistan under their control. This was naturally cause of conflict in so far as it acted as a that the Treaty proved quite hepul
Immediate Cause of Conflict. The immedit
deterrent against US and Chinese intervention in
Pakistan in conivance with Z.A. war. According to VP Dutt The Treaty lent a new
was that President Yahya Khan Party, denied dimension to the Indo
Bhutto, leader of Pakistan People Sheikh
the right to form government
h Majibur Rehnan,
in Pakistan even Soviet.relationship
off the most seriouswherein
threat toSone
India's i
came to be crucial for
and warding
the Awami League Leader, of the 300 seats
though his party had seured 160 in the Provincial Assembly in
in the National The War of 1971. On 4
declaration of war against India. Even
socio-economic
December, 1971 Pakistan made a
polity.
Assembly and an absoute majority
Maiibur Rehaman launched a ciil
before the
against India, on 3 December 1971 the Pakistan army declaration of war
elections held in December, in the western sector. They attacked started aggression
several Indian posts on this
side of
68
Lospirathe fsevte
 India and China
231

had an apprehension that India was trying to be leader of ÀSia. The issue
of Tibet also generated some tension in their relations The Government
CHAPTER 19 of China regarded Tibet as part of China and prepared plans to annex it.
India which had full sympathies with the people of Tibet insisted that
China should respect right to self-rule and settle the issue by holding
INDIA AND CHINA negotiations with Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibet and assure
Some sort of
Of autonomy to Tibet. China not only ignored this suggestion of
India but described it as an interference in the internal affairs of
China.
India and China have 19S0
maintained close relations since ancient times. In October 1950 China established its military control over Tibet
The foundation of these relations was laid by the Buddhist preachers who which greatlyshocked India because it always maintained that Tibet was
went to China and spread their religion through the breadth and length of not a part of China and China merely enjoyed nominal suzerainty over it.
the country. Alarge number of Chinese Buddhist scholars also came to India sent a strong note of protest to China to which the Chinese
India in search of knowledge. The prominent Chinese scholars who visited authorities reacted sharply. Unmindful of Indian protests China declared
India
dunns anciett times include Fahien, Huen Tsang, It sing, etc. A
large number of Chinese students also came to India to study at
Tibet as an integral part of China. When Dalai Lama tried to taise the
issue of Tibet in the United Nations, India did not condemn China and
prominent universities like Nalanda. In the modern times India expTessed took the stand that the matter should be peacefully settled by the two.
full sympathy for China when she was subjected to Japanese aggression. Failing to get the support of the international community, Dalai Lama
Relations Between 1947 and 1961
signed Sino-Tibetan Agreement on 23 May 1951. terms of this
agreement China was to take control of Tibet's external affairs, trade and
After India attained independence in 1947 it established diplomatic communications. It was also permitted to maintain an army in Tibet. In
relations with the Nationalist Government of China which was then in return for all anis China promised not to interfere with the religious
power. However, the two countries were so much pre occupicd with their beliefs and practices of the Tibetan people or with their political system or
domestic problems that the relations could not assume warmthness and with the powers and functions of the Dalai Lama.
continued to be merely routine. In fact a rift appeared in their relations
after India recognised the Tibetan delegation at the Asia Relations Panchsheel 954 Nehu ee Chau- En-lai
Conference held in March 1947. Unsympathetic attitude of the Nationalist In 1954, India entered into an agreement with China and fornally
Government towards the Indian complaint regarding Pakistan aggression recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. With this the frictions in
in Kashmir further led to cooling of relations between the two relations between India and China, which had been created since 1950
governments, and gave rise to feeling of suspicion and distrust. came to an end. The two countrics further agreed that their telations
would be governed
g by five principles poputarty known astnctsteel.
After the Nationalist Government (Kuomintang) suffered a defeat at
the hands of the Communists and established People's Republic of China These principles were (i) Mutual respect for each other's territoriai
on 1 October, 1950 India proceeded to extend official recognition to the integrity and sovereignty: (ii) mutual non-aggresston: (i] uruat non
new government. In fact India was the second non-communist country interference in each other's internat affatrs; (tv cquatity and murual
(after Burma) to accord recognition to People's Republic of China. Nehru, benefits; and (v) peaceful coexitence These beane the guiding
principles in thee relatonship betweenlndia and China.
the architect of 1ndia's foreign policy, firmly believed that amicable and
co-operative relations between India and China were desirable for the During the next three year(954-57 which are deseribed as years
b promotion of cause of worlid peace and human progress. Therefore, India of Sino-Indiarhoneyitoo the leaders of the two countries exchanged
tried to develop friendly and cooperative relations with People's Republic visits and fully co-operated with each other. This co-operation was Dest
of China (PRC). China, however, did not respond favourably because it reflected in the pandung Conference of Asian-African nations held in April
considered India as an appendage of imperialism and described Nehru as 1955 when Nehru and ChauEn-fab worked in close co-operation.
the stooge or running og of imnperíalism. Further the Chinese leadership Thereafter, India extended moral and diplomatic support to China 's claim
to Fornosa and the off-shore islands of Quemoy and Matsu Indta dlso
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