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UNIT IV IMAGING MODALITIES AND ANALYSIS

Radiographic and fluoroscopic techniques
➢ Radiographic and fluoroscopic techniques are two essential imaging methods used in medical
applications to visualize internal structures of objects or living organisms. Both techniques
involve the use of X-rays, but they differ in their application and image acquisition methods.
➢ Both radiography and fluoroscopy use ionizing radiation, which can be potentially harmful in
large doses. Therefore, these imaging techniques should be used wisely, and appropriate safety
measures must be taken to minimize radiation exposure to patients and operators.
➢ Medical imaging professionals and radiologic technologists are trained to operate these
techniques safely and efficiently.
1. Radiographic Technique:
➢ Radiography is commonly known as X-ray imaging. It involves passing X-rays through an object
or body part to create an image on a specialized detector (X-ray film or digital sensor).
➢ The X-rays are absorbed differently by various tissues and materials, creating varying levels of
X-ray attenuation, which results in the formation of a two-dimensional image.
➢ It is widely used in medicine to diagnose and monitor various conditions and diseases, such as
fractures, lung infections, dental issues, and gastrointestinal disorders.
2. Fluoroscopic Technique:
➢ Fluoroscopy is a real-time X-ray imaging technique that allows continuous visualization of
moving internal structures in real-time. Unlike radiography, where a single static image is
produced, fluoroscopy provides dynamic images similar to watching a continuous X-ray movie.
➢ During fluoroscopy, X-rays pass through the object or the patient and are captured by a
fluoroscope, which converts the X-rays into a continuous image displayed on a monitor.
➢ The imaging system typically includes an X-ray tube positioned on one side of the object and a
fluorescent screen or an image intensifier (zinc sulphide-cadmium sulphide mixture) on the other
side. The image intensifier amplifies the X-ray signal to produce a brighter and more detailed
image on the monitor.
➢ It is used for real-time imaging during various medical procedures, such as barium swallow
studies, cardiac catheterization, and orthopedic surgeries.
X-ray Machines for Generation of X-rays:
➢ X-rays are generated inside a special device called the X-ray tube, which is a sealed chamber
kept under high vacuum. The X-ray tube consists of two main parts: the cathode and the
anode.
➢ The cathode has a tungsten filament coil that heats up when electricity flows through it. This

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heating causes the cathode to release high-speed electrons. These electrons are then
accelerated and focused onto the anode, which is made of a material with a high atomic
number, often tungsten.
➢ When the fast-moving electrons hit the anode, they interact with its atoms, causing them to
release energy in the form of X-rays. These X-rays emerge from the anode in all directions
but are focused by a collimator to form a beam that can pass through the patient's body and
create an X-ray image.

The X-ray output, 𝑄 = 𝐾 . 𝐼𝐵 . 𝑡. 𝑉𝑎2

𝐼𝐵 = Beam current(mA)
𝑡 = Time of exposure
𝑉𝑎 = Anode voltage(100kv)
➢ X-rays are produced due to sudden deceleration of fast-moving electrons when they collide
and interact with the target anode. In this process of deceleration, more than 99% of the
electron energy is converted into heat and less than 1% of energy is converted into x-rays.
To avoid damaging the anode due to excess heat, two methods are commonly used:
1. Constructing the anode with a tungsten alloy embedded in a large mass of copper. This
allows heat to dissipate efficiently and provides good image resolution.
2. Using a rotating anode, where the target area is along the rim of the disc. This
arrangement keeps the focus area smaller and allows for better heat dissipation.
➢ The rotation of the anode is achieved using magnetic coupling by stator coils placed outside
the X-ray tube. This rotation ensures that the anode is not overheated during continuous use.
➢ Modern X-ray machines are equipped with microcomputers that monitor the temperature of
the anode. If the anode becomes too hot, the microcomputer triggers an alarm to prevent
damage.
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➢ In low-energy X-ray machines, stationary anodes are used, while high-energy X-ray
machines employ rotating anodes to handle the increased heat and power demands.
➢ The X-ray machine must have proper shielding to ensure safety. This includes:
1) A metal casing to protect against radiation exposure. The casing contains the X-ray tube and
prevents X-rays from escaping and harming anyone nearby.
2) An oil-filled housing to protect against overheating. The oil helps dissipate heat generated
during X-ray production, preventing damage to the machine and ensuring safe operation.
3) A grounded metal housing to protect against high voltage. By grounding the housing, any
excess electrical charge is safely directed away from the machine, reducing the risk of electric
shock to users.
Block diagram and operation of an x-ray machine:
The X-ray machine consists of several important blocks that work together to generate X-rays and
control their exposure.
1) Multitap AC Line Transformer: This block is responsible for providing the necessary
power supply to different parts of the X-ray machine. It has multiple taps that can be selected
to compensate for variations in the incoming AC power supply. The transformer allows
different voltages to be chosen, depending on the specific requirements of the X-ray machine.
2) X-ray Tube Filament Circuit and Transformer: The filament circuit and transformer work
together to heat up the cathode filament inside the X-ray tube. When the X-ray machine is
turned on, the cathode filament is heated, releasing a stream of electrons. This heating process
is crucial as it prepares the cathode to emit electrons necessary for X-ray generation. The
power supplied to the filament can be adjusted using the taps on the transformer.
3) X-ray Tube High Voltage Circuit, Transformer, and Bridge Rectifier: This block is
responsible for generating the high voltage needed to accelerate the electrons from the cathode
to the anode inside the X-ray tube. The AC voltage from the transformer is transformed into
high voltage, and a bridge rectifier circuit converts the AC supply to DC high voltage. The
high voltage can also be adjusted using the taps on the transformer, depending on the energy
requirements of the X-rays needed for specific applications.
4) Timing Circuit: The timing circuit plays a critical role in controlling the exposure time of
the X-ray machine. It determines when the X-ray machine is turned on and off, ensuring that
the X-ray radiation time is precisely controlled. This timing control is crucial for patient safety
and obtaining accurate X-ray images during medical procedures.

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Working of X – ray Machine

The X-ray machine works by controlling the intensity and quality of the X-ray radiation used for
medical imaging.
1) X-ray Radiation Intensity Control: The X-ray radiation intensity is controlled using three main
factors:
a) Filament Heat Control (mA): The amount of heat applied to the cathode filament determines
the number of electrons produced. More electrons result in higher X-ray intensity, which
affects the strength of the X-ray exposure.
b) Kilovolt Control (kV): The kilovolt control adjusts the voltage applied to the X-ray tube.
Higher voltage accelerates the electrons more, producing X-rays with greater penetration
depth.
c) Timing Control: The timing control regulates the exposure time of the X-ray machine. It
determines how long the X-rays are emitted during the imaging process.
2) Aluminum Filters: To improve the quality of the X-ray image and reduce unnecessary radiation
dose to the patient, the emitted X-rays pass through aluminum filters. These filters absorb lower-
energy X-rays, which are less useful for imaging and contribute to higher radiation dose without
enhancing the image quality.
3) Collimator: After passing through the aluminum filters, the X-rays are focused using a
collimator. The collimator is a metal shutter with a hole of a specific size and shape (rectangular
or circular). The size of the hole can be adjusted using lead strips. By adjusting the collimator, the
X-ray beam can be controlled and shaped to target specific areas of the patient's body for imaging.
4) Lamp and Reflective Mirror Arrangement: To help the medical attendant position the patient
correctly, the X-ray machine has a lamp and a reflective mirror arrangement. This creates a visible
pattern on the patient's body, showing where the X-rays will be exposed. It helps ensure accurate
positioning and reduces the risk of repeated X-ray exposures.
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5) Bucky Grid: The X-rays transmitted through the patient's body pass through a Bucky Grid before
reaching the film cassette. The Bucky Grid is a device that improves the sharpness of the X-ray
image by reducing scattered radiation. It consists of thin lead vanes separated by spacers made of
a low-attenuation material.
6) Image Intensifier: For further enhancement of image sharpness, the primary X-ray radiation with
information is passed through an image intensifier. This device amplifies the X-ray image, making
it brighter and more detailed for better visualization and diagnosis.
Image intensifier in Radiography

➢ The image intensifier has high atomic number material screens on the top and bottom of the
x-ray film. The high z-screens are used to capture more amount of x-rays.
➢ After that there are phosphors above and below the x-ray film and they introduce secondary
visible light radiation by scattering process.
➢ Finally, there are silver bromide grains in the film which absorbs the secondary radiation and
preserves the x-ray image.
➢ In cases where high resolution is required films with denser silver bromide grains are alone
used without image intensifying screens.
Fluoroscopy:
➢ A fluoroscope is a specialized medical imaging device that plays a crucial role in performing
dynamic studies of the human body.
➢ Unlike traditional X-rays that provide static images, fluoroscopy allows medical professionals
to observe real-time movements and activities within the body.
➢ This capability is particularly valuable when it comes to understanding the functioning of
various organs, systems, and structures that are constantly in motion.
Working Principle:
➢ The process begins with an X-ray generator that produces a controlled stream of X-rays. These
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, which can pass through the body's tissues to
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varying degrees.
➢ The X-rays pass through the patient's body and interact with the different tissues. Dense
structures, like bones, absorb more X-rays and appear white on the fluoroscopic image, while
softer tissues appear darker.
➢ The X-rays that pass through the body are detected by a fluorescent screen in the image
intensifier tube. This screen emits visible light when struck by X-rays. This light is then
captured by a photoelectric material, which releases electrons in response to the light exposure.
➢ The released electrons are accelerated and amplified using a high voltage. This amplification
increases the brightness of the image, making it easier to see and analyze. The amplified
electrons are focused onto a smaller screen known as the output phosphor.
➢ The amplified image on the output phosphor is now visible in real-time. The bright image
represents the X-ray pattern that has passed through the patient's body, showing the movement
and changes occurring inside.

X-ray Generator: The x-ray generator is responsible for producing the x-rays used in fluoroscopy.
It generates electrical power that is converted into x-rays in the x-ray tube.
X-ray Tube: The x-ray tube is where the x-rays are produced. It emits a controlled beam of x-rays
that passes through the patient's body. The x-rays interact with the internal structures, creating a
shadowy image on the image intensifier.
Collimator: The collimator is a device that shapes and restricts the x-ray beam to a specific area of
interest. It helps reduce unnecessary radiation exposure to areas of the patient's body that are not being
examined.
Filters: Filters are used to remove low-energy x-rays from the beam. These low-energy x-rays are
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less useful for imaging and contribute more to patient dose. By filtering them out, the quality of the
x-ray image is improved while minimizing patient exposure.
Patient Table: The patient table is where the patient lies during the fluoroscopy procedure. It can be
adjusted and moved to allow proper positioning of the patient and the area of interest.
Grid: The grid is a device placed between the patient and the image intensifier. It helps to reduce
scattered radiation from reaching the image intensifier, which improves the image quality by reducing
unwanted background noise.
Image Intensifier: The image intensifier amplifies the faint image produced by the x-rays passing
through the patient. It does this by converting the light created by the input phosphor into an electronic
signal that is then intensified and focused onto the output phosphor.
Optical Coupling: Optical coupling refers to the connection between the output phosphor of the
image intensifier and the viewing system. It ensures that the intensified image is accurately transferred
to the viewing system without loss of quality.
Television System: The television system consists of a video camera focused on the output phosphor
of the image intensifier. The camera captures the intensified image and sends it to a monitor, allowing
medical professionals to view the real-time images in detail.
Image Recording: In some cases, the fluoroscopic images need to be captured for documentation or
further analysis. Image recording devices can be connected to the television system to capture and
store the fluoroscopic images.
Image intensifier in fluoroscopy:
➢ The image intensifier in fluoroscopy is a device that combines X-ray detection and light
amplification in a single glass tube. When X-rays hit the input screen, which is usually made
of cesium iodide, it glows in proportion to the X-ray strength.
➢ The glowing input screen is placed close to a photocathode, where it stimulates the emission
of electrons. These electrons are accelerated by an electric field with a voltage of around 25KV
and are focused into a beam.
➢ The accelerated electrons then hit the output phosphor, which creates a smaller but much
brighter image compared to the original X-ray image on the input screen.

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➢ To improve image quality and clarity, the image intensifier uses a lens to collimate and focus
the intensified output image. Another lens called the collimating lens maximizes the light
gathering power during the process.
➢ The intensified light is collected and refocused on the film plane using the objective lens of
the camera. This final step results in a significantly brighter and clearer real-time image for
visualization during fluoroscopy procedures.
Computed Tomography
Computer tomography, often called CT or CAT scan, is a medical test that helps doctors see
inside your body. It's like taking many X-rays from different angles to create a detailed picture.
Instead of just one X-ray, CT scan takes lots of them while you're lying down. These X-rays go
through your body and give information about what's inside. When the CT scan takes all these
pictures, a computer puts the pieces together to show the inside of your body in a special way.
It's kind of like making a slice of your body so doctors can see all the details.
Instrumentation
➢ The detector response is directly related to the number of photons impinging on it and so to tissue
density since a greater proportion of x-rays passing through dense tissues are absorbed than that
are absorbed by the less dense tissues.
➢ When they strike the detector, the x-ray photons are converted to The timing, anode voltage (KV)
and beam current (mA) are controlled by a computer through a control bus.
➢ The high voltage DC power supply drives an x-ray tube that can be mechanically rotated along
the circumference of a gantry.
➢ The patient is lying in a table through the centre of the gantry.
➢ The x-rays pass through the patient and are partially absorbed and the remaining x-ray photons
impinge upon

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➢ several of as many as 1000 radiation detectors fixed around the circumference of the gantry.
➢ scintillations.
➢ The computer senses the position of the x-ray tube and samples the output of the detector along
a diameter line opposite to the x-ray tube.
➢ Calculation based on data obtained from a complete scan is made by the computer.
➢ The output unit then produces a visual image of a transverse plane cross section of the patient on
the cathode ray tube.
➢ It can also be photographed with a camera to produce a hard copy record.
➢ The present-day CT machines can obtain slices in 1-2 seconds in high resolution and 5-10
seconds in precision modes.
CT - Scanning system:
➢ The scanning system acquires x-ray transmitted information for an image to be reconstructed.
➢ It includes x-ray source and detectors.
➢ X-ray transmitted information are of four kinds namely,
1. Position information- information on which traverse is being performed and how for is
the scanning frame along its traverse?
2. Absorption information - information on values of attenuation coefficient.
3. Reference information - information from reference detectors.
4. Calibration information-obtained at the end of each traverse.
➢ All the above information are acquired and taken in the form of profiles.
➢ The different scanning gantry commercially used can be catogarised as five generations,
namely,
1) First generation - Parallel beam Geometry:
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➢ Collimated x-ray beam passes through the body and its attenuation is detected by a sensor
from the opposite side.
➢ The x-ray tube moves translationally along the patient body length with the sensor on the
other side also moving translationally.
➢ After a full translational motion, the x-ray tube and the detector both make a 1degree tilt for
the next new linear scan.
➢ Thus, the x-ray tube and detector scans the patient 180 times around the patient to collect x-ray
transmitted information.
➢ This set up is called the traverse and index arrangement.

➢ For each translational motion there are 180 measurements and thus a total of 32,400 independent
measurements of attenuation are obtained to produce an image.
➢ The disadvantage of this system is that the scan time is more.
➢ Thus, it becomes essential that the patient stay still throughout the entire scan period.
➢ The picture quality from this type of scanning system is good.
2) Second generation:
➢ These types of scanning systems are also similar to the first generation systems.
➢ The index angle in this system is greater (10 degree)

➢ Therefore, for each 1degree tilt, it is possible to take 10 profiles thus covering the full set of 180
profiles in 18 traverses.
➢ The scan time in this method is considerably reduced.

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➢ Foreach traverse move it takes and thus the full scanning time is the 18-20s range.
3) Third generation:
➢ This generation scanning systems does not equip an x-ray tube which has to traverse
translationally.
➢ The x-ray to be exposed on the patient is a fan beam which is large enough to cover the whole
patient.
➢ There are multiple detectors system along with the x-ray tube which detects x-ray transmitted
information from the patient.
➢ The fan beam angle is usually between 30 degree and 50 degree.
➢ The complete rotation gets over in a few seconds.
➢ The disadvantage of this system is that it cannot change geometry and thus a fan beam set for
the largest patient is inefficient for smaller objects.
➢ Another disadvantage of third generation scanning systems is that the detectors cannot be
calibrated at scan time.

4) Fourth generation:
➢ These types of devices do not have rotating detector.
➢ The x-ray tube rotates around the patient exposing x-ray beam on the m and the x-ray transmitted
information from the patient is received by detectors sur ounding the patient.
➢ There are as many as 2000 detectors.

➢ The detectors are placed so close that x-ray transmitted from patient is not wasted.
➢ Calibration of detectors at scan time is possible in fourth generation scanning devices.
5) Fifth generation:
➢ There are two types

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i) Electron beam traverse

ii) Spiral scanning
➢ In electron beam traverse or electron beam tomography both the x-ray tube x-ray detectors are
stationary.
➢ The electron beam from an electron gun is made to strike on a tungsten array arranged semi
circularly underneath the patient.
➢ By this, x-rays is produced and focused on the patient and the scanning time for a slice is of the
order of 50ms.

➢ The x-ray transmitted information from the patient is received by detectors arranged in a
semicircular fashion above the patient.
➢ Silicon photodiodes combined with luminescent crystals are used as detectors.
➢ In spiral scanning system, the x-ray tube rotates continuously around the patient.
➢ The patient undergoes slow, continuous translational motion.
➢ Thus the focal point or sot of the x-ray fan beam traces on helix.
➢ In this method fast multiple scans for 3D imaging is possible.
➢ In this method images are reconstructed at secondary positions and secondary spacing thus
resulting in overlapping data.
➢ By this even a smaller size lesion is not missed.
➢ The disadvantage of this system is that, since the patient is moved there is blur ing of images.
➢ The movement of the patient influences the spatial resolution perpendicular to the scan slice.
But, this blurring can be reduced by deli luring software.
Viewing part:
➢ The final picture of the CT is viewed on a television type picture tube.
➢ The picture is actually constructed of a number of elements in a square matrix where each
element is the absorption value of the point in the body it represents.
Storing part:
➢ CT pictures are stored for further processing and evaluation.
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➢ CT picture is stored in digital form so that processing becomes easy.

➢ CT pictures can be stored in magnetic disc, magnetic tape and floppy disc.
➢ Floppy disc provides a medium storage range.
➢ A bilaterally coated floppy disc can be accommodated up to 20 CT pictures of 256*256 matrix.
➢ Floppy disc are easy to handle, have low maintenance costs.
➢ Hard copy print-outs can be made in the gray scale or in colour shades.
➢ Gray shades are restricted between 8 and 10.
Applications of CT
➢ Detecting and diagnosing liver, lung and pancreatic cancer.
➢ It helps the doctor to identify the presence and location of a tumer, its size and how much of
has affected nearby tissue.
➢ Provide important information about the brain (bleeding, swelling of the arteries or tumor)
➢ Helps to detect bone disease, bone density and state of the patients’ spina.
➢ Provide valuable data on blood flow and other vascular conditions.

ULTRASONIC IMAGING
Introduction
➢ Ultrasound refers to acoustical and mechanical waves of frequency 2000Hz and above.
Ultrasound can be generated from piezoelectric crystals like quartz, barium titanate,
Rochelle salt, lead zirconate titanate etc.
➢ Piezo crystals produce a voltage across their two surfaces when deformed or deform and
produce ultrasonic waves if a voltage is placed across the element from those same surfaces.
➢ The ultrasound scanning technique is a method by which ultrasonic energy is sent into the
body by placing the transducer over the area to be scanned.
➢ Bursts of ultrasonic energy are transmitted from a piezo electric or magneto strictive
transducer through the skin and into the internal anatomy. When this energy strikes an
interface of different acoustical impedance three things can happen i) Reflection ii)
Scattering iii) Refraction and diffraction.

Reflection:
➢ The tissues of the human body ray in their densities and stiffness. Hence the velocity of the
sound burst also varies. Sound waves passing from one tissue to the other are reflected at the
interface of the tissues and return to the transducer as echoes.
➢ Various tissues offer varying degrees of resistance to the passage of sound through them and
this is called acoustical impedance.
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𝑍 =𝑑 ×𝐶
where, 𝑍 = Acoustical impedance (in Ray/ s)
𝑑 = Density of the medium (gm/ cm3)
𝐶 = Velocity of sound wave (cm/ s)
➢ If the difference is acoustic impedance of two tissues is small, then a part of the sound
wave is reflected. If the difference is large then the percentage of reflection of sound is quite
large.
➢ For example – when sound wave passes through soft tissues and meets a bone interface in
the acoustic impedance between the soft tissue and bone is quite large. Therefore 99% of
sound wave is reflected. There are two types of Reflection namely,
i) Specular reflection:
➢ Occurs when the surface is larger than the sound beam.
➢ Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
➢ If angle of incidence = 90°, the reflected echo is depicted on the screen is a high
intensity dot.
➢ Used in areas such as kidney, aorta, gall bladder.
ii) Non Specular reflection:
➢ Occurs when the interface is smaller than the sound beam.
➢ Gray scale scanning is made used here, where reflections and different amplitudes
of echoes are recorded in different shades of gray.
➢ Used areas – parenchymal tissues.
(i) Scattering:
This occurs when the tissue interface is ir egularand smallerthan the sound beam.
(ii) Refraction and Diffraction:
When sound waves refract and travel in different path there occurs a decrease in the amplitude of
the returning echoes due to the bending of sound waves.
Display modes:
The reflected echoes are displayed on the screen as useful image. The various display modes are,
➢ A – mode
➢ B – mode
➢ M – Mode (or) T – M mode.
A – Mode display:
➢ A - Mode means amplitude mode. In this mode, the reflected echoes are depicted as vertical
spikes along the horizontal base line.

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➢ A one-dimensional image displaying the amplitude (strength) of the returning echo signals
along the vertical axis and time (as distance from transducer) along the horizontal axis is
called an A - mode image.
➢ The distance between the transducer and a structure determines where an echo is seen along
the time axis. Time and distance are interchangeable, because an echo is assumed to travel
at a constant speed in a body tissue (1540 m/ s), the time it takes for the echo to return to the
transducer can be converted to distance.
➢ A - Mode is the most basic form of diagnostic ultra sound. Here a single beam of ultra sound
is analyzed.

➢ Here the strength of the acoustic impedance is shown as the size of the echo.

➢ Shown above is the echo from fluid filled organ with a strong back wall reflection.
Example: gall bladder, urinary bladder, simple cyst.

➢ Shown above is an echo from a structure with weak back wall reflection.

➢ Shown above is the echo of a structure with a complex mass having both solid and fluid.

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➢ ‘A’ mode echoes have positive and negative peaks due to the movement of arterial walls in
the blood vessels. This type of mode helps in cyst puncture. It helps in determining any
tumour in the inner eye and brain.
B – Mode display:
➢ This is known as the brightness mode. Here the reflected echoes are depicted as dots on
the screen. Every reflection produces a single dot. The brightness of the dot depends on the
intensity of the reflected echo.
➢ This mode creates a two-dimensional cross section of the body that is obtained by
summing many ‘A’ mode beams and converting the echoes to dots of a brightness that varies
from the strength of the echo.
➢ In this mode the intensity of the sound reflected is proportional to the brightness of the
dots. The B mode imaging involves scanning along two sections namely longitudinal and
transverse.
The longitudinal section has,
1. Antero-posterior
2. Cephalocaudal (Top-Bottom) The transverse section has,
1. Antero-posterior
2. Lateral (Right-left)
By combining the two sections three-dimensional imaging can be done.

B – Mode display Image

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➢ Oblique sectional scanning is also possible. As the transducer moves across the body,
dots are created and retained on the oscilloscope by the help of a scan converter (memory).
➢ This gives two dimensional images in each section. By performing both longitudinal and
transverse movements, 3D image is obtained which helps in understanding the anatomy
better.
➢ Array scaling refers to the depiction of echoes in various shades of gray according to the
intensity of reflected beam. Machines with 8, 16, 32, and 64 gray shades are available.
➢ A real time scan is provided by a B-Scansystem in which the scan rate of the transducer is
fast enough to capture the movements of the organs being imaged.
➢ Movements of heart, pulsating aorta, and foetal movements are captured, allowing the
physician to observe its motion. Time gain compensation (TGC) circuits are used in B- Mode.
Since the deeper echoes are more attenuated by the greatest tissue path length, TGC
controls this to obtain the echo on the screen, by producing compensation through the
increase of gain of the transducer.
T-M Mode Display:
➢ T-M mode stands for Time – Motion Mode. This is actually the A – Mode scan but with
successive looks at the target created by scanning the time base vertically.
➢ This mode is primarily used to study moving objects like valves and walls of the heart. The
machine has a line called the M – Cursor and by positioning the cursor at the required
point the T-M Mode tracing of the heart is obtained.
➢ M – Mode is very useful in studying cardiac functions, by making various accurate
measurements of the shambles and valve movements.
Ultrasonic Imaging Instrumentation
➢ A computer controlled ultrasonic image forming, system consist of so many peripheral sub
units which are controlled by a computer through the control layers.
➢ The transducer position data are fed to the computer. The computer sends this information
to signal processing unit which also receives the signal from the receiver.
➢ It controls receiver sensitivity. Proper depth gain compensation is calculated by the
computer are given to the signal processing unit.

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➢ Image storage unit, stores patient information data which can be displayed again for detailed
examination. The ultrasonic velocity is calculated and given to the display unit.
➢ The high speed analog to digital converter have enabled digitization of high frequency
signals. The echoes from the patient body surface are collected by the receiver circuit.
➢ Proper depth gain compensation is given by TGC circuits. The received signals are converted
into digital signals and stored in memory.
➢ The stored digital color coded and converted to analog signals. Finally these are fed into
video section of the TV monitor where it is displayed.
Biomedical Applications of Ultrasonic Imaging:
1. Used in evaluation of lesions of soft tissues and organs like liver, gall bladder, pancreas,
kidneys, uterus and ovaries.
2. Used in early diagnosis of congenital anomalies, evaluation of placenta and its
abnormalities.
3. Drainage of fluid, collections, biopsies of small lesions are done effectively using diagnostic
ultrasound.
4. The cardiac anatomy and function is also imaged and studied.
5. Blood flow characteristics, flow across valves, movement of heart walls can be assessed.
6. It is useful in locating deeply situated lesions in the brain.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (OR) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI)
➢ All materials contain nucleus that have a combination of protons and neutrons.
➢ It possesses a spin and the amount of spin give rise to a magnetic moment. The magnetic moment
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has a magnitude and direction.

➢ In tissues Magnetic moments of nuclei making up the tissue are randomly aligned, resulting in a
zero net magnetization.
➢ When a material is placed in a magnetic field B0, some of the randomly oriented nuclei experience
an external magnetic torque which tends to align the individual parallel or anti-parallel magnetic
moments to the direction of an applied magnetic field.
➢ This gives a magnetic moment that accounts for the nuclear magnetic resonance signal on
which the imaging is based.
➢ This moment is in the direction of applied magneticfield Bo. With the magnetic moments being
randomly oriented with respect to one another, the components in the X-Y plane cancel one
another out while the Z components along the direction of the applied magnetic field add up to
produce this magnetic moment M0 shown in Figure given below.

o
➢ The application of external magnetic field causes the nuclear magnetic moments to align
themselves, producing a net moment in the direction of the field B0
➢ The human body consists of millions of atoms in which 80% of the atoms are H2 atoms. A
patient is placed in the external magnetic field which causes the magnetization of protons of
H2 in the body.
➢ Due to magnetization, these protons align themselves in accordance to the external magnetic
field and the protons undergo some precision or wobbling at a frequency called Larmor frequency.
➢ The Larmor frequency is given by 𝜔0 = 𝛾. 𝐵0 , where γ is a constant called gyromagnetic ratio
and 𝐵0 is the strength of the applied magnetic field.
➢ Each H2 atom precess at its own Larmor frequency and hence possess a different energies
respectively (E = h ω)

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Principle – MRI
➢ At equilibrium state lower energy nuclei are more in number compared to higher energy
nuclei.
➢ Now using reference radiation at resonance with energy equal to the difference in energy of lower
state and higher state, all lower energy nuclei are pushed to higher energy level.
➢ These excited nuclei will slowly fall back from higher energy level to lower energy level
simultaneously giving out reference signals called Nuclear Magnetic Resonance signals.
➢ The NMR signals are detected, processed and image is obtained. The NMR signals are picked
by RF coils and processed by computers using Fourier Transforming techniques to produce an
image.
Instrumentation:
The basic components of MRI system includes,
1. Magnet
2. Coordinate system
3. RF Transmitter system
4. RF Detection system
5. Imager system
➢ The magnet produces a strong, uniform, steady magnetic field B0. The gradient coils produce
a time varying, non-uniform magnetic field and this gradient field is used to obtain spatial
distribution information.
➢ There are transmitters and receiving RF coils surrounding the site on which the images is to be
constructed.
➢ There is a super position of a linear magnetic gradient field and the uniform magnetic field applied
to the patient.
➢ When this super position takes place the resonance frequencies of the processing nuclei
will depend primarily on the positions along the direction of magnetic field gradient.
➢ This produces a one dimensional projection of the structure of the 3D object.
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➢ By taking a series of these projections at different gradient orientations using X, Y, Z gradient

coils,a 2D or 3D image can be obtained.

➢ The slice of the image depends on the gradient magnetic field.

➢ The gradient magnetic field is controlled by computer and that field can be positioned in three
time invariant planes (X, Y, and Z).
➢ The transmitter provides the RF signal pulses the received nuclear magnetic Resonance is
pickedby the receiver coil and is fed into the receiver for signal processing.
➢ By 2D Fourier transform the image is constructed by the computer and is displayed on the
TV screen.
Advantages of MRI over other medical imaging techniques:
1. Superior contrast resolution
2. Direct Multi polar imaging, slices in the sagittal and consoling and oblique directions can be
obtained directly.
3. There is a total absence of harmful radiations like X – rays, gamma rays, positrons, etc.
MRI – Magnet:
There are different varieties of magnets used for MRI. They are permanent magnets, electro magnets,

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resistive magnets and superconducting magnets.

1. Permanent Magnets:
➢ While using permanent magnets the patient is placed in the gap of the permanently
magnetized pole pieces.
➢ Carbon – ion alloys, alnico, neodymium ion are the different permanent magnetic materials.
➢ The advantage of permanent magnet is that it can produce small magnetic fields without
powersupply.
➢ But these magnets are heavy and they produce low fields of the order of 0.3 Tesla.
2. Electro magnets:
➢ These use soft magnetic materials which magnetize only when electric current is passed
through coils wound around them.
➢ Electro magnets require external electric power supply.
3. Resistive Magnets:
➢ These use large current carrying coils of aluminum strips or copper tubes.
➢ These coils require very high electrical power almost square of the field strength it is
produce. As higher field strength are required electrical power supply has to be increased
➢ The power in the coil is converted into heat which is dissipated by liquid cooling system.
Fora field strength of nearly 0.2 Tesla the power requirement is nearly 70 KW.
4. Superconducting Magnets:
➢ This is made of superconducting materials.
➢ These types of materials lose their resistive property or rather becomes absolutely
conductive below a certain specific temperature.
➢ For example, NbTi (Niobium Titanium) loses its resistance properties below a specific
temperature (-264° C).
➢ Thus, the power required to magnetize these materials is less.
➢ Power is needed for just energizing the material to the required magnetic field strength.
➢ Once the coil is energized a temporary magnetic field is set up. Continuous power
requirement is not necessary.
➢ After acquiring the required magnetic field strength, the coils are short circuited.
➢ The magnets are kept at critical temperature (-264° C) by liquid helium and liquid
nitrogen toppings. Cryogenic refrigerators reduce or eliminate the need for refilling the
liquid helium reservoir.
➢ Super Conductive magnets used for whole body examinations have an open internal
diameter of 1 m, and can produce up to 2 Tesla.
➢ The current required for energizing is of the order of 200 A. RF Transmitter system:
➢ The RF transmitter system activates the nuclei so that when it comes back to the
equilibrium state it gives out NMR signal.

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➢ The RF transmitter system consists of RF generator, RF transmitter, RF power amplifier

and RF transmitting coils.
➢ The generator consists of RF crystal oscillator.
➢ The RF pulse generated is amplified to levels between 100Wto several KW.
➢ The pulses are then fed to the transmitter coil which exposes the RF signals to the
patients. The RF coil generates and transmit RF fields orthogonal to the direction of the
main field.
➢ The RF coils are saddle and solenoid shaped.
➢ The coils are tuned to NMR frequency and are isolated from the rest of system RF
shielding cage.
RF detection system:
➢ This is used to detect and pick up nuclear magnetic resonance signals from the human
body and to generate an output signal for processing by the computer.
➢ The detector system consists of receiving coils, matching networks, amplifier, filter and
A/D converters. The receiver coil surrounds the area of interest and picks the NMR
signals and converts them to output voltage V(t).
➢ The detected RF signal is of weak amplitude in the nano voltage range and thus requires
specially designed RF antennas.
➢ The pre amplifier is a low noise amplifier which amplifies the NMR signals.
➢ Then a phase detector signal detects all the signals whose frequencies are centered
aroundtransmitted frequency and a filter rejects the rest of the signal.
➢ Then an A/D converter converts the analog NMR signals to digital form, which is given to the
computer for further processing.
Gradient System:
➢ The gradient system is used to have spatial distribution information.
➢ By varying the field in a specific fashion, the region from which the information (NMR)
is obtained can be selected.
➢ The strength of the signal is proportional to the density of the H2 nuclei in that plane.
➢ There are various methods for selecting a slice, but the selective excitation method is
used widely.
➢ Here, the characteristics of the slice will be determined by the shape of the pulse and the
thickness of the slice is determined by the width of the pulse.
➢ The gradient field is used to provide discrete, movable time variant plane so that various
locations may be sensed without moving the sample or magnet system.
➢ The gradient system comprises of sub systems.
➢ The first sub system includes the interface which interfaces the computer and the
gradient control system.

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➢ This sub system helps in positioning of the three-time invariant planes (X, Y, and Z).
Imager system:
➢ This comprises of the computer, display system and the control console.
➢ The computer does image processing, timing and control of RF and gradient pulse
sequences, it also helps in display.
➢ A mini computer is used, this collects the nuclear magnet resonant signal in digital form,
then process it, displays the image and also stores it. ADC with 16 bits or higher is used
to produce digital NMR.
➢ The computer with array processor designed for the rapid performance of specific
algorithms like FFT or 2D Fourier Transform to convert digital time domain data to
image data. The reconstructed image data are transmitted to the display console.
➢ The image can be stored in a floppy disk or magnetic tape.
Thermography
➢ The technique by which the pattern of infrared radiation emitted by the human skin is
formed into an image is called thermography.

➢ The constituent parts of thermography equipment include infrared radiation detector,

scanning mirrors, focusing optics, and electronic circuitry to amplify detected infrared
signal.
➢ The detectors used are photo conductors whose resistances decrease with increase in
incident radiation. Liquid nitrogen is used to cool the detector.
➢ The detectors used in thermography possess high sensitivity and short response time.
➢ The thermographic image is then obtained by scanning the infrared detector from left to
right and from top to bottom.
➢ The imaging system consists of a front surfaced converging mirror and a hexagonal front
surfaced mirror that rotates at 20 rev/sec.
➢ As this mirror rotates, it is tilted continuously, so that the point of examination by the detector
is moved across the scene with a slight angle.
➢ The rate of tilt of the mirror is such that whole scene is examined with 125 lines in 4.5 sec.
➢ Then the tilt on the mirror is reversed, and it returns to its un-tilted position in 1.5 sec, and
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the scene is scanned again.

➢ In this way, the detector provides an output as it continuously examines the infrared
energy emitted by the object under investigation.
➢ The detector output is led to an amplifier which in turn modulates the intensity of the beam
of cathode ray display tube. One photo for each isotherm level is taken for quantitative
analysis and evaluation.
➢ A video recording on magnetic tape of the thermal images from CRT screen can also be
done, and played back for later evaluation.
➢ For color recording, each isotherm setting is exposed through a different color filter on a
single frame of color film.
➢ This gives concentrated and easily interpreting information on the temperature distribution.
Each color corresponds to a specific temperature.
Endoscopy
➢ Endoscopy is used to assess the interior surfaces of an organ by inserting a tube into the
body. The instrument may have a flexible tube and it provides an image for visual
inspection and photography.
➢ It also enables us taking biopsies and retrieval of foreign objects.
➢ An endoscope consists of
1. A flexible tube,
2. A light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light
source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical
fiber system,
3. A lens system transmitting the image to the viewer from the fiberscope and
4. Additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators.
➢ Modern Endoscope has,
1. Two light channels to illuminates the area of interest;
2. An image channel to enable the doctor to see what is happening
3. An instrument channel through which instruments can be placed.
4. Control cables to control the fiber movement
➢ A range of special instruments can be inserted which enables doctors not only to see inside
to make an accurate diagnosis, but also to operate on the diseased area. These special
instruments might be needed to a) cut out diseased tissue, b) take a biopsy, c) seal a site of
bleeding with heat and d) remove an object that is causing an obstruction.
➢ An eye piece which incorporates, a) A TV camera b) still camera and c) A movie camera

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➢ The endoscope has also enabled doctors to carry out keyhole surgery where surgical
treatments can be applied without having to make major incisions.
➢ This leads to less complications and more rapid recovery of the patient.
➢ There are many types of endoscopes based on the organs on which they are to be used and
areas they explore.
➢ Endoscopes used to look directly at the ovaries, appendix or other abdominal organs, for
example is called laparoscopes and the technique is called laparoscopy. Other endoscopes
are inserted through incisions to look at joints (arthroscopy) or the lungs (bronchoscopy)
and still others used to view the inside of the bladder (cystoscopy). The latest development
is to have a video camera at the end of the endoscope.
Different types of Biotelemetry systems
➢ This is a technique in which physiological variables are measured at a point and transmitted
over a distance. The technique of biotelemetry makes it possible to monitor physiological
events from a distance.
Applications of Biotelemetry:
1) Used to Monitor ECG even under ergonomic conditions.
2) Used to monitor patient in an ambulance and other locations away from hospital
3) Collection of medical data from a home or office
4) Monitoring the health of astronauts in space
5) Research on un-anesthetized animals
6) Isolation of an electrically susceptible patient from power line operated ECG equipment to
prevent accidental shock.
Design Considerations for a telemetry System:
1) Simplicity of the telemetry system
2) Transmission should be with maximum fidelity
3) Installation of measuring system on the living system should not interfere with
the living system
4) Telemetry components should be or less weight and size
5) High reliability and stability is must
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6) Power consumption should be small

7) Shielding of the cable is a must in wire based transmission.Telemetry System:
➢ Telemetry is defined as the process by which the information regarding the quantity being
measured is transmitted to a remote location for application like data processing,
recording or displaying.
➢ In other words telemetry means measuring at a distance. Therefore, it becomes essential
to transmit data through some form of communication channels.
Methods of classification of Telemetry Systems:
1. On the basis of the characteristics of electric signal such as voltage, current,
position, frequency and pulse.
2. Based on the form of data transmitted – analog & Digital.
3. Based on transmission distance – Short distance type & Long distance type.
4. Based on whether user has control over transmission channel or not.
Functional Blocks of Biotelemetry

Transducer : It converts physical variable (or electrical parameter such as variable resistance,
inductance or capacitance) into electrical quantity or signal (e.g. voltage or current).
Signal conditioner-1 : It converts electrical output into electrical signal compatible with next element
i.e. transmitter part.
Transmitter : This part makes signal compliant to be transmitted over transmission medium. The
typical functions performed by this module include modulation, amplification, signal conversion,
multiplexing etc. Multiplexing such as TDM and FDM is used to measure multiple parameters from
remote site.
The receiving side consists of receiver part, signal conditioner-2 and end device. Let us understand
these modules.
Receiver : It is used to retrieve information from the received signal from the medium. Amplification,
demodulation, signal conversion and demultiplexing (if used) at the transmitting end.
Signal conditioner-2 : It processes receiver output to make it suitable for the end device.
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End device : Depending upon type of telemetry and its purpose, it may have analog or digital
indication, Digital storage, data processing and closed loop control.
Benefits or advantages of Biotelemetry
➢ The biotelemetry system is simple in architecture.
➢ It does not require physical presence of doctors near the patients.
➢ It provides first aid to the patients by remote monitoring of bio-parameters in realtime.
➢ It saves money for the patients by avoiding unnecessary frequent trips.
➢ It saves time for the doctors as all the bio-parameters of patients are available online on their
mobile phones.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Biotelemetry
➢ It does not give real time feelings to the patients and doctors both.
➢ All the bio-parameters of the patients can not be monitored remotely due to complexity
involved in some of the measurements.
➢ The bio-parameter measurements is carried out one by one with multiple biotelemetry tools
or equipments. Hence it requires more time to complete all the measurements. This is often
cumbersome for patients and doctors both.
➢ The facility to avail biotelemetry based equipments is very costly.
➢ It requires training to use biotelemetry based equipments or tools.
SINGLE CHANNEL TELEMETRY SYSTEM
➢ For a single channel telemetry system, a miniature battery operated radio transmitter is
connected to the electrodes of the patients.
➢ The transmitter broadcasts the biopotential to a remote place in which the receiver detects the
radio signal and recovers signal for further processing.
➢ The receiving system can be located in a room separately from the patients.
➢ The only risk is shock to the patient.

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➢ Biosignal from the patient is converted into electrical signals by the transducer.
➢ They are amplified and filtered at the conditioner. Further they are frequency modulated or
pulse modulated. Frequency modulation provides the high noise interference rejection and
high stability.
➢ The biosignals are amplified to radio frequency range of few hundred KHz to about 300 KHz
and then they are transmitted by transmitter antennas
➢ At radio receiver the corresponding frequency are received and then they are demodulated,
amplified and displayed.
MULTI CHANNEL TELEMETRY SYSTEM:
➢ For most biomedical applications, simultaneous recording of Bio signals are required for
correlation study.
➢ Each signal is in need of one channel. When the number of channels is more than the two or
three, the simultaneous operation of the several single channel is difficult. At that time
multiple channel telemetry system is adopted.
Two types of multiplexing:
1. FDM
2. TDM
Frequency division multiplex system
➢ Each signal is frequency modulated on a sub carrier frequency.
➢ Modulated sub carrier frequencies are combined to modulate the RF carrier.
➢ At receiver the modulated sub carrier can be separated by the proper band pass filter.
➢ Then the each signals are demodulated by using specified frequency.
➢ Frequency of the sub carrier has to be carefully selected to avoid interference.
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➢ The low pass filter are used to extract the signals without any noise. Finally the output unit
displays the original signal.

Time division multiplex system

➢ Most biomedical signals have low frequency bandwidth requirement, we can use time division
multiple system by time sharing scheme.
➢ Transmission channel is connected to each signal channel input for a short time to sample and
transmit that signal.
➢ All the channels have been scanned once, a cycle is completed and the next cycle will start.
Scanning follows a order from signal 1 to signal 3.
➢ At the receiver the process is reversed. The sequentially arranged, signal pulses are given to
the individual channels by using gate signal generator.

➢ If the number of scanning cycles per second is large and if the transmitter and the receiver are
synchronized, the signal in each channel at the receiver side can be recovered. But the
scanning frequency has to satisfy the following condition.

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Introduction to Biometric Systems

Biometrics:
➢ Biometrics is a general term used alternatively to describe a characteristic or a process.
➢ As a characteristic, biometrics can be defined as a measurable biological (anatomical and
physiological) and behavioral characteristic that can be used for automated recognition.
➢ As a process, biometrics can be defined as an automated methods of recognizing an
individual based on measurable biological (anatomical and physiological) and behavioral
characteristics.
Biometric System:
➢ Biometric System can be called the statistical study of biological phenomena. It can be called
as the system for measurement of physical characteristics, such as fingerprints, DNA, or
retinal patterns, signature recognition for use in verifying the identity of individuals.
➢ Biometric technology has been used in many applications to increase the security of
password based identity.
➢ A good biometric system must ensure that
(1) the biometric information comes from a live person at the time of verification, and
(2) the biometric information matches the master biometric data on file.
➢ Biometric System comprises of multiple individual components (such as sensor, matching
algorithm, and result display) that combine to make a fully operational system.
➢ A biometric system is an automated system capable of:
1. Capturing a biometric sample from an end user
2. Extracting and processing the biometric data from that sample
3. Storing the extracted information in a database
4. Comparing the biometric data with data contained in one or more reference references
5. Deciding how well they match and indicating whether or not an identification or
verification of identity has been achieved.
➢ The main operations a biometric systemcan perform are 1) enrollment and 2) test. During the
enrollment, biometric information from an individual is stored. During the test, biometric
information is detected and compared with the stored information.
➢ The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and the biometric system. It
has toacquire all the necessary data. It is mostly an image acquisition system.
➢ The second block (preprocessor) performs all the necessary pre-processing. It removes
artifacts ifany from the sensor, to enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to
use some kind of normalization, etc.
➢ In the third block (feature extraction) features needed are extracted. This step is an important
stepas the correct features need to be extracted.
➢ The next block is (Template Generator). A vector of an image with particular properties is

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used to create a template.

➢ A template is a synthesis of all the characteristics extracted from the source, in the optimal
size to allow for adequate identifiability.

➢ If enrollment is being performed the template is simply stored somewhere (on a memory card
or within a database or both).
➢ If a matching phase is being performed, the obtained template is passed to a matcher(the
next block) that compares it with other existing templates, estimating the distance between
them using any algorithm (e.g. Hamming distance algorithm).
➢ The matching program will analyze the template with the input. This will then be output
(application device) for any specified use or purpose (e.g. entrance in a restricted area).
➢ A biometric system can provide the following two functions:
1) Verification: Authenticates its users in conjunction with a smart card, username or ID
number. The biometric template captured is compared with that stored against the
registered user eitheron a smart card or database for verification.
2) Identification: Authenticates its users from the biometric characteristic alone without the
use of smart cards, usernames or ID numbers. The biometric template is compared to all
records within the database and a closest match score is returned. The closest match
within the allowedthreshold is deemed the individual and authenticated.

Prepared By Dr.R.Kotteeswaran, ASP/EIE/SJCE

***************** ALL THE BEST*******************

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