Receptors:

 Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be conducted by the nerves.
Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.
These are classified as follows :
 Phono-receptors: These are present in inner ear.
Functions: The main functions are hearing and balance of the body.
 Photo-receptors: These are present in the eye.
Function: These are responsible for visual stimulus.
 Thermo-receptors: These are present in skin.
Functions: These receptors are responsible for pain, touch and heat stimuli.
These receptors are also known as thermoreceptors.
 Olfactory-receptors: These are present in nose.
Functions: These receptors receive smell.
 Gustatory-receptors: These are present in the tongue.
Functions: These helps in taste detection.

Nervous System:
 The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called nervous tissue. The nerve cell or neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. It is the nervous
system which is mainly responsible for control and coordination in complex animals.
Functions of the nervous system
 Nervous system receives information from the environment.
 To receive the information from the various body.
 To act according to through muscles and glands.
Neuron:
 Neuron is a nerve cell which helps in receiving and sending messagesin the form of electrical inmpulse.
Parts of Neuron
(i) Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair like structures protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites.
Dendrites receive the nerve impulses.
(ii) Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
(iii) Myelin sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath. The myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulse from the surroundings.

Types of neuron
 Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
 Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
 Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor neuron.
Synapse:
 The point contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
 In Synapse, the nerve ending releases chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
 The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and start a new electrical impulse by increasing the calcium level.
 Thus, in synapse electrical impulse gets converted into chemicals to start another electrical impulse of the same intensity.
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ):
 NMJ is the point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a neuron.
 In Synapse, the nerve ending releases chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
 The neurotransmitters change the level of proteins in muscles and thus causing them to contract and relax
Human Brain:
 Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly composed of nervous tissue. The tissues are highly folded to accommodate a large surface area in less space.
 The brain is covered by a three-layered system of membranes, called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges which act as shock absorber.
 The human brain can be divided into three regions, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Parts of Human Brain :

 Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
 Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
 Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla, oblongata.

Cerebrum:
 The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brains. It is divided into two hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres.
 The cerebrum is responsible for memory, IQ and all five senses.
Mid Brain:
 The mid brain connects forebrain with the hind brain
 It controls urge to eat and drink and some reflexes.
Cerebellum:
 It is a tree like structure in the brain
 It controls posture and balance.
 It controls the precision of voluntary action.
Medulla:
 It controls involuntary actions.
 Example: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
Pons:
 It controls respiration
Spinal cord:
 Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between different parts of the body and brain.

Reflex Action:
 Reflex action is a Quick spontaneous and immediate response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal chord.
  For example, when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your hand. All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from the imminent
injury. This is an example of reflex action.
 Some part of the reflex action goes to the brain and is stored as memory.
Reflex Arc:
 The path through which nerves signals, involved in a reflex action, travel is called the reflex arc.
Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron(Spinal chord)(message to brain) → Motor neuron → Effector (muscle)
 The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone.
 The sensory neurons pick signals from the receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the spinal cord.
 The spinal cord sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron.
 The effector comes in action, moves the receptor away from the danger.
 The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do not travel up to the brain. This is important because sending signals to
the brain would involve more time.
 Although every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is mainly controlled at the level of spinal cord.
Protection of brain and spinal cord
 Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shocks absorber and enclosed in cranium (Skull)
 Spinal chord is protected by back bone
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control:
 Muscle tissues have special filaments, called actin and myosin. When a muscle receives a nerve signal, a series of events is triggered in the muscle.
 Calcium ions enter the muscle cells. It result in actin and myosin filaments sliding towards each other and that is how a muscle contracts.
 Contraction in a muscle brings movement in the related organ.
Endocrine System:
 The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland is called endocrine gland.
 Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands.
 Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system in control and co-ordination.
 The nerves do not react to every nook and corner of the body and hence hormones are needed to affect control and coordination in those parts.
 Moreover, unlike nervous control, hormonal control is somewhat slower.
Hormones:
 These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from
their sources.
Endocrine System
 helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds called hormones.
Endocrine Gland: A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Gland Location Hormones Produced Functions

Pituitary gland (also Growth hormone (GH). GH stimulates growth.

At the base of the
known as the master It is called master gland as it controls the secreations of all glands in
brain
gland) the body

Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine Controls general metabolism and growth in the body.

Prepares the body for emergency situations and hence is also called
Adrenal gland Above kidneys Adrenalin
‘Fight and flight’ hormone.

Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level

Sperm production, development of secondary sexual characters during

Testis (male) In Abdomen Testosterone
puberty.

Egg production, development of secondary sexual characters during

Ovary (female) In Abdomen Oestrogen
puberty.

Adrenal gland Above kidneys Adrenaline Controls 3f fight, flight fear

Pinial gland brain Melatonin It maintains day night and biological cycle

Para thyroid gland Throat Parathormone It controls the calcium level

Thymus Chest Thymosin Helps in increasing immunity

Makes pituitary gland release hormones

Hypothalmus Brain Relasing hormones
It maintains body temp.

Feedback mechanism:
 The feedback mechanism is the mechanism of the body to maintain the levels of hormones in the body within the desired limits.
 In it the body self trigerrs the hypothalmus to trigger pituitary gland
 Eg, when the level of glucose in blood rises, it gives a message to hypothalmus which in turn gives a message to pituitary gland. It then gives a message to pancreas
to release the insulin which gonverts glucose to glycogen.

Co-ordination in Plants:
  Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical means for control and co-ordination.
 Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in plants.
 Movements in plants can be divided into two main types :
1. Tropic movement
2. Nastic movement
1. Tropic Movement:
 The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus are called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of
a plant part in a particular direction.
 There are four types of tropic movements.

I. Geotropic movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic
movement, i.e. they grow in the direction of the gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.

II. Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic
movement, while roots usually show negative phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches and a hole in the
container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of the sunlight. This happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the
part of stem which is away from the sunlight. As a result, the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate of cell division is attained by
increased secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from sunlight.
III. Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest source of water. This shows a positive hydrotropic
movement.

IV. Thigmotropism Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called thigmotropism movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils
of climbers. The tendril grows in a way so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell division in different parts of the tendril happens
due to action of auxin.
V. Chemotropism: the movement towards chemicals. Eg growth of pollen tube by the chemical secreted by style.
2. Nastic Movement:
 The movement which do not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts are called nastic movement.
 For example, when someone touches the leaves of mimosa, the leaves droop. The drooping is independent of the direction from which the leaves are
touched.
 Such movements usually happen because of changing water balance in the cells.
 When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves lose- water and become flaccid, resulting in drooping of leaves.
Plant hormones:
 Plant hormones are chemical which help to co-ordinate growth, development and responses to the environment.
 Main plant hormones are
1. Auxin: (Synthesized at shoot tip).
Function: Helps in growth.
Phototropism: more growth of cells towards the light.
2. Gibberellin:
Helps in the growth of the stem.
3. Cytokinin:
Promotes cell division.
4. Abscisic acid:
Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone)
5. Ethylene:
Only gaseous hormone, helps in rottening of fruits.