PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Scientists believe that the formation of the undergoes beta decay and produces Nitrogen-
universe began through the explosion of a 15.
primordial atom which happened 13 billion
years ago. It is known as the Big Bang. It Nitrogen-15 fused with proton gives off Helium
became a theory that also explains the and ends up with Carbon-12. Then the process
continuous expansion of the universe. repeats again.

Right after Big Bang, protons and neutrons Tri alpha process happens in red giant star
combined together and formed light elements once they leave the stage of main sequence
Hydrogen and Helium in the process of Big star. This is how three Helium-4 are converted
Bang Nucleosynthesis. Other light elements into Carbon.
such as Lithium and Beryllium were also
formed during this process. A star accumulates more mass and continues
to grow into red super giant. Alpha particle
Stellar Nucleosynthesis fusion happens at its core and creates more
The word “stellar” means star and the heavy elements until Iron. This is known as the
formation of elements in the center of the star Alpha ladder process.
is called stellar nucleosynthesis. Carl Sagan
said that “We are made of star stuff.” What did How do elements heavier than Iron form?
he mean by that? If we know how some As the energy at the core of the star decreases,
important heavy elements were formed same nuclear fusion cannot produce elements higher
as stars, that maybe a clue. than Iron. Different pathway is needed for
heavier elements to be formed. Neutron
Case is different in massive star or star eight capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus.
times larger than solar mass. They undergo
CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) cycle to Neutron capture can be slow or rapid
convert Hydrogen into Helium. You can see at a. S-process or slow process happens when
the right how Carbon 12 fused with proton (H) there is a slow rate of capturing neutron while
and form Nitrogen-13. Nitrogen-13 undergoes there is a faster rate of radioactive decay
beta decay to form Carbon-13. Carbon-13 hence increasing the proton by 1.
captures proton (H) and b. R-process or rapid process means that
there is faster rate of capturing neutron before
Nitrogen 14 is formed. Nitrogen 14 captures it undergoes radioactive decay thus, more
proton and Oxygen-15 is produced. Oxygen-15 neutrons can be combined at the nucleus. This
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is what happens in a supernova forming found that organizing the elements at the time
heavier elements than Iron with the process by their calculated weight demonstrated a
known as supernova nucleosynthesis. periodic pattern of both physical and chemical
properties, such as luster, physical state,
Key Points reactivity to water, and others.
• The atomic number is the number of protons
(positively charged particles) in an atom. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an • The oldest stars in the Galaxy are deficient in
English physicist who demonstrated that the the abundance of elements heavier than
atomic number, the number of protons in an Helium (but show the predicted amount of He)
atom, determines most of the properties of an • The current record holder has Fe/H about
element. 130,000 times smaller than the solar value.
• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully • Not quite down to Big Bang abundances, but
carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction a we are getting pretty close and still looking.
process of transforming one element or isotope
into another element. Chemical Evolution
• In 1925, there were four vacancies in the • Low-mass stars synthesize `new’ He, C, O
periodic table corresponding to the atomic during the main- sequence, RGB, HB and AGB
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Elements with phases.
atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized • These freshly minted elements are brought to
using particle accelerators. the surface via convection and redistributed via
• A particle accelerator is a device that is stellar winds and planetary nebulae into the
used to speed up the protons to overcome the interstellar medium to be incorporated into later
repulsion between the protons and the target generations of stars.
atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical
fields. It is used to synthesize new elements. Chemical Evolution II
• Elements with atomic numbers greater than • For more massive stars, `equilibrium’ fusion
92 (atomic number of uranium) are called reactions produce elements all the way up to
transuranium elements. They were Fe.
discovered in the laboratory using nuclear • Freshly made elements are delivered via
reactors or particle accelerators. stellar winds or, sometimes more spectacularly
via supernova explosions
Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of
elements based on their atomic weight. He
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Chemical Evolution III System abundance of heavy elements at 38Sr,

What about the trans-Fe elements? 56Ba and 82Pb. These are easily understood
• Equilibrium fusion reactions of light elements in the context of the S-process and `magic’
don’t proceed past Fe because of Fe’s location numbers of neutrons.
at the peak of the curve of binding energy. • The site of the S-process is AGB start during
• However, in certain circumstances, and between shell flashes. The no source is a
supernovae for example, non- equilibrium by-product of C13+He4 -> O16
reactions can build elements beyond Fe in the • 43Tc is an s-process nucleus and proof that it
Periodic Table. Many of these are radioactive, is in operation in AGB stars.
but some are stable.
The R-process
Neutron Capture Elements • The R-process is the Rapid addition of
• There are two principle paths to building the neutrons to existing nuclei. Rapid here means
elements heavier than Fe. Both use the that many neutrons are added before a beta-
addition of neutrons to existing `seed’ nuclei decay occurs.
(neutrons have no charge so are much easier • First build up a VERY heavy isotope, then, as
to add to positively-charged nuclei). beta-decays occur, you march up in atomic
number and produce the REALLY HEAVY
S-process (slow addition of neutrons) STUFF.
R-process (rapid addition of neutrons) • For this to happen, a big burst of neutrons is
needed. The most promising place with the
The S-process right conditions is in a SNII explosion right
• The S-process stands for the Slow addition above the collapsed core.
of neutrons to nuclei. The addition of a no • We see an overabundance of R-process
produces heavier isotope of a particular elements in the oldest stars. As the early
element. However, if an electron is emitted chemical enrichment of the Galaxy was
(this is called beta- decay), the nucleus moves through SNII, this is evidence of SNII as the
one step up the periodic table. source of r-process elements.
• `Slow’ here means that rate of no captures is • If we look at the Crab Nebula or other SNII
low compared to the beta-decay rate. remnants we don’t see r-process elements.
• It really is slow. Sometimes 100’s of years go • We DO see regions of enhanced O, Si, Ne
by between neutron captures. and He which appear to reflect the `onion skin’
• The S-process can produce elements up to structure of the massive star progenitor.
#83 - Bismuth. There are peaks in the Solar
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 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

The Transuranic Elements Stellar nucleosynthesis

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was This is the process by which elements are
uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in created within stars by combining the protons
1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element and neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter
having an atomic number 93could be created. elements. Fusion inside stars transforms
He used a particle accelerator to bombard hydrogen into helium, heat, and radiation.
uranium with neutrons and created an element Heavier elements are created in different types
with an atomic number 93 which he named of stars as they die or explode.
neptunium.
The Superheavy Elements
Transuranic elements are synthetic elements Superheavy elements are elements with
with atomic numbers higher than that of atomic numbers beyond 103. These are
Uranium (Z = 92). produced by bombarding heavy nuclear targets
with accelerated heavy projectiles.
At the end of 1940, element-94 was
synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, A. Polarity of Bonds and Electronegativity
and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with Electronegativity (EN) measures the relative
deuterons (particles composed of a proton and tendency of an atom to attract electrons to
a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was itself when chemically combined with other
named plutonium. atom.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 B. Polarity of Molecules and Molecular
(atomic number of uranium) are called Geometry
transuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and For polyatomic molecules, both the bond
plutonium are both transuranium elements. polarity and molecular shape determine the
They are unstable and decay radioactively into overall molecular polarity. In terms of
other elements. All these elements were molecular geometry, the valence shell electron
discovered in the laboratory as artificially pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory would help us to
generated synthetic elements. They are determine the spatial arrangement of atoms in
prepared using nuclear reactors or particle a polyatomic molecule.
accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn
the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis
of these transuranium elements.

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You can predict the shape or molecular will be soluble or miscible with another
geometry of a substance using the nonpolar substance.
following
steps: B. Bond Strength and Physical Properties
Step 1: Determine the central atom of a of Covalent Compounds
molecule. The central atom is the least 1. There are several types of IMFA and below
electronegative element. they are arranged from STRONGEST to
Step 2: Draw the appropriate Lewis dot WEAKEST.
structure for the molecule.
Step 3: Count the number of bonding pairs of Ion-dipole→H-bonding→dipole-
electrons and non-bonding (or lone pairs) dipole→dipole-induced dipole→London
around the central atom. forces of attraction
Step 4: Determine the electron pair orientation
using the total number of electron pairs. 2. The strength of IMFA greatly affects the
Step 5: Name the shape of based on the physical properties of substances such as
location of the atoms boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure,
surface tension, etc.
A. Polarity, Solubility, and Miscibility
One of the practical applications of polarity of Atoms are held together in molecules by
molecule in real-life scenario is manifested on strong intramolecular forces, like covalent and
the solubility and miscibility of substances to ionic bonds. On the other hand, other forms of
form solution. attractive forces are present to keep these
molecules together giving rise to the different
Solubility is defined as the ability of a solid states of matter, which, then exhibit their own
substance to be dissolved in a given amount of bulk properties such as boiling, melting, and
solvent while miscibility is the ability of the two freezing points, and viscosity among others.
liquids to combine or mix in all proportions, There are three general types of intermolecular
creating a homogenous mixture. The general forces (IMF), namely, van der Waals forces,
rule to remember about the solubility and ion-dipole interaction, and H-bonding. Van der
miscibility of molecular compounds can be Waals forces, after the Dutch chemist
summarized in a phrase, “like dissolves like” or Johannes van der Waals (1837-1923) consist
“like mixes with like”. This means that polar of dipole-dipole interaction, dipole-induced
substances will only be dissolved or mixed with dipole interaction, and dispersion forces.
polar substances while nonpolar substances
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Dipole-dipole attraction is present among will gain instantaneous dipoles, too. Attraction
polar molecules. Through constant movement, between opposite charges will happen among
the charges of the molecules align in such a the species present. These are true for ion-
way that the positive (+) end of one molecule is induced dipole and induced dipole-induced
attracted to the negative (-) end of the other dipole interactions.
molecule. This happens due to the shift of
electron density towards the more Ion-dipole interaction results from the
electronegative element in the molecule attraction between either a cation (+) or an
resulting to (+) and (-) ends. The measure of anion (-) with permanent polar molecules. The
this electron shift is known as dipole moment, ions will be attracted to the opposite charges
represented by crossed arrow, . present in the dipole resulting to this type of
attraction.
Dipole-induced dipole interaction, just like
the dipole-dipole forces, depends on the H-bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole
presence of polar molecules. The other interaction between the H-atoms in a polar
molecule needs not be a polar one. The partial bond. It requires that the H-atoms in the
charges present in the dipole cause the molecules be bonded with more
polarization or distortion of the electron electronegative atoms such as O, N, or F to
distribution of the other molecule. This gives form H-bonds with other molecules.
rise to regions of partial (+) and (-) poles. This
induced dipole will then be attracted to the All interacting substances exhibit the presence
original polar molecules, resulting to dipole- of London dispersion forces in addition to other
induced dipole attraction. forces of attraction among them.

Dispersion forces (London dispersion Intermolecular forces (IMF) present among

forces), were named after the German species
physicist Fritz London (1900-1954). The Polar substances exhibit dipole-dipole
electron cloud of a neutral substance can be interaction due to the presence of (+) and (-)
normally distributed around the nucleus. At any ends of the molecules. For example, sulphur
given time, the electron distribution may be dioxide (SO2) has polar ends that will
uneven resulting to an instantaneous dipole. participate in the dipole-dipole forces of
This temporary dipole will then influence the attraction. With the presence of an ion (cation
neighbouring atoms through attractive and or anion), the charged ends of polar molecules
repulsive forces. Eventually, the substances will be attracted to the dipole. This is true in the
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case of Na+ and formaldehyde. The positive (+)

sodium ion will be attracted to the partially-
negative oxygen in formaldehyde, resulting to
an ion-dipole interaction.

For the third example, CO2 is a nonpolar

substance. It is a linear molecule and the
electron shift at the right of C is balanced by
the electron shift to the left. This produces no
net shift in electron density so no net charged
is produced. For nonpolar molecules, only
dispersion forces are present.

In both NH3 and H2O, the hydrogen atoms are

bonded to more electronegative atoms,
nitrogen and oxygen, respectively. This permits
them to form H-bonds with other molecules
with the same condition. Thus, H-bond is
present between NH3 and H2O.

Ion-induced dipole forces of attraction are

present among Fe2+ ions together with oxygen
molecules. The charge in iron will distort the
electron distribution in O2 resulting to
temporary poles in oxygen. The oppositely-
charged particles, Fe2+ and partially-negative
end of O2 will then be attracted to form the
above-mentioned force of attraction.

In all of the statements above, London

dispersion forces are also present.

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