MODULE-2

IoT Sensing and Actuation: Almost all the applications in IoT—be it a consumer
IoT, an industrial IoT, or just plain hobby-based deployments of IoT solutions—
sensing forms the first step. Incidentally, actuation forms the final step in the whole
operation of IoT application deployment in a majority of scenarios.
The basic science of sensing and actuation is based on the process of transduction.
Transduction is the process of energy conversion from one form to another. A
transducer is a physical means of enabling transduction. Transducers take energy in
any form (for which it is designed)—electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound,
and others—and convert it into another, which may be electrical, mechanical,
chemical, light, sound, and others. Sensors and actuators are deemed as transducers.
Sensors:
I. Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the
ambient changes in their environment. They generate responses to
external stimuli or physical phenomenon through characterization of the
input functions and their conversion into typically electrical signals. For
example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or
atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.
II. A IoT Sensing and Actuation sensor is only sensitive to the measured
property e.g., a temperature sensor only senses the ambient temperature
of a room. It is insensitive to any other property besides what it is
designed to detect Finally, a sensor does not influence the measured
property (e.g., measuring the temperature does not reduce or increase the
temperature)

The various sensors can be classified based on:

1) power requirements, 2) sensor output, and 3) property to be measured.
• Power Requirements: The way sensors operate decides the power requirements that
must be provided for an IoT implementation. Some sensors need to be provided with
separate power sources for them to function, whereas some sensors do not require any
power sources. Depending on the requirements of power, sensors can be of two types
1. Active Sensors: These sensors do not require an external power source. They
directly convert environmental stimuli into an output signal. For example, a
photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.
2. Passive Sensors: These sensors need an external power source to operate. The
external energy interacts with the sensor's characteristics to produce output. For
instance, a thermistor measures resistance when a voltage or current is applied.
Output Types: The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components to
be integrated with an IoT node or system. Typically, almost all modern-day processors
are digital; digital sensors can be directly integrated to the processors. However, the
integration of analog sensors to these digital processors or IoT nodes requires
additional interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital converters (ADC), voltage
level converters, and others.
Sensors are broadly divided into two types, depending on the type of output generated
from these sensors, as follows
1. Analog Sensors: These generate a continuous signal proportional to the
measured quantity. They are ideal for measuring properties like temperature,
speed, and pressure. For example, a thermometer provides a continuous
response to changes in temperature.
2. Digital Sensors: These produce discrete signals, typically in binary form
(ON/OFF or 1/0). They are used in systems requiring digital processing, such as
motion sensors indicating presence or absence.
Measured Properties: The property of the environment being measured by the
sensors can be crucial in deciding the number of sensors in an IoT implementation.
Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial variations and can be
quantified only based on temporal variations in the measured property, such as
ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and others. Whereas some properties to be
measured show high spatial as well as temporal variations such as sound, image, and
others.
Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types.
1. Scalar Sensors: Measure quantities where only magnitude is significant, such
as temperature or pressure. Orientation changes do not affect these sensors. For
example, a thermocouple detects changes in temperature without directional
sensitivity.
2. Vector Sensors: Measure quantities influenced by both magnitude and
direction, like velocity or orientation. They are used for applications requiring
spatial information. For instance, a gyroscope detects orientation changes along
three axes.
Sensor Characteristics:
All sensors can be defined by their ability to measure or capture a certain phenomenon
and report them as output signals to various other systems. However, even within the
same sensor type and class, sensors can be characterized by their ability to sense the
phenomenon based on the following three fundamental properties.
• Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor
can detect is referred to as the resolution of a sensor. For digital sensors, the smallest
change in the digital output that the sensor is capable of quantifying is its sensor
resolution. The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the precision.
A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution. For example, a temperature
sensor A can detect up to 0.5 C changes in temperature; whereas another sensor B can
detect up to 0.25 C changes in temperature. Therefore, the resolution of sensor B is
higher than the resolution of sensor A.

• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure
the environment of a system as close to its true measure as possible. For example, a
weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that this
sensor is 9998% accurate, with an error rate of 002%.

• Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor.

Only if, upon multiple repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same error rate, can
it be deemed as highly precise. For example, consider if the same weight sensor
described earlier reports measurements of 98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon
three repeat measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg. Here, the sensor
precision is not deemed high because of significant variations in the temporal
measurements for the same object under the same conditions.
Sensorial Deviations
Sensorial deviations that are considered as errors in sensors, most of the sensing in IoT
is non-critical, where minor deviations in sensorial outputs seldom change the nature
of the undertaken tasks. However, some critical applications of IoT, such as
healthcare, industrial process monitoring, and others, do require sensors with high-
quality measurement capabilities. As the quality of the measurement obtained from a
sensor is dependent on a large number of factors, there are a few primary
considerations that must be incorporated during the sensing of critical systems.
Full-Scale Range and Truncation: Sensors have a defined measurement range
between their minimum and maximum values. If a sensor's output exceeds this range,
it is truncated to the maximum or minimum limit. This range is called the full-scale
range.
Sensitivity Error: A sensor’s sensitivity may deviate from its specified value due to
fabrication or calibration issues. This leads to inaccuracies in measurements under
real-world conditions.
Offset Error (Bias): If a sensor consistently measures a value with a constant
deviation from the actual value, it has an offset error. Example: A temperature sensor
showing 11°C instead of 0°C has a bias of 11°C.
Non-Linearity: When a sensor's transfer function deviates from a straight line, it
causes non-linear behaviour. This error is expressed as a percentage of the sensor's full
range and affects measurement accuracy.
Drift: Slow, independent changes in a sensor’s output over time are termed drift. This
can occur due to physical or material changes in the sensor and may span months or
years.
Hysteresis Error: A sensor exhibits hysteresis when its output depends on previous
input values. This error is common in analog and magnetic sensors and is measured as
positive and negative percentage variations of the full range.
Quantization and Aliasing Errors: Digital sensors may introduce quantization errors
when approximating analog signals. Aliasing errors occur if the sampling frequency is
incorrect, causing multiple signals to appear as one.
Environmental Influences: External factors, such as temperature, can impact a
sensor's output. For example, semiconductor-based sensors are highly sensitive to
environmental temperature changes.
Sensing Types:
Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories based on the nature of the
environment being sensed and the physical sensors being used to do so 1) scalar
sensing, 2) multimedia sensing, 3) hybrid sensing, and 4) virtual sensing

Scalar sensing: Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be
quantified simply by measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured values with
respect to time

Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light,

humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values as they normally do not have
a directional or spatial property assigned with them. Simply measuring the changes in
their values with passing time provides enough information about these quantities. The
sensors used for measuring these scalar quantities are referred to as scalar sensors, and
the act is known as scalar sensing

Multimedia Sensing:
1. Definition: Multimedia sensing captures features with spatial and temporal
variance, measuring properties like images, speed, sound, and energy that
depend on both direction and magnitude.
2. Characteristics: These vector quantities follow the vector law of addition,
meaning their values can differ across directions under identical conditions.
 3. Example: A camera-based system for surveillance is a multimedia sensing
example, as it records spatial and temporal changes for monitoring purposes.

Hybrid Sensing:
1. Definition: Hybrid sensing uses scalar and multimedia sensors together to
capture multiple environmental properties. This approach allows temporal
mapping of data to generate more comprehensive insights.
2. Application in Agriculture: Soil moisture and temperature sensors measure
soil conditions, while a camera analyzes leaf color. Combined, they provide a
holistic view of plant health at any given time.
3. Use in Monitoring Systems: Smart parking systems and forest fire detection
use hybrid sensing. For example, cameras and temperature sensors together
confirm events like fires for more reliable monitoring.
Virtual Sensing:
4. Definition: Virtual sensing uses data from existing sensors to infer
measurements for nearby areas without deploying physical sensors. This
reduces the need for dense sensor networks.
5. Application in Agriculture: Sensors in one farmer’s field can guide watering
and fertilization regimens for neighboring fields using extrapolated
measurements. This ensures cost-effective monitoring.
6. Example: Sensors S1 and S3 can detect fire at event E2 through data
superposition, even though E2 lacks its own dedicated sensor, ensuring efficient
resource use.

Sensing Considerations:
The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break
the feasibility of an IoT deployment.
The following major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-based sensing
solutions: 1) sensing range, 2) accuracy and precision, 3) energy, and 4) device size.
These factors are discussed as follows

1.Sensing Range: The sensing range defines a sensor node's detection fidelity and
measurement limits, Typical approaches to optimize the sensing range in
deployments include fixed k-coverage and dynamic k-coverage. For example, a
proximity sensor detects within a few meters, while cameras range from tens to
hundreds of meters.
Fixed k-coverage ensures consistent detection but introduces redundancy with
overlapping sensor nodes. Dynamic k-coverage uses mobile nodes post-event
detection, which is costly and terrain-dependent.
Sensor Complexity and Cost: Increased sensing range and complexity elevate sensor
costs, making high-range sensors like cameras significantly more expensive than
simpler ones like proximity sensors.
2.Accuracy and Precision:
The accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a sensor are critical in
deciding the operations of specific functional processes.
Consumer-grade sensors, while affordable, lack the accuracy and precision needed for
industrial applications, where precise measurements up to 3–4 decimals is required,
cannot be facilitated by these sensors.
Industrial sensors are typically very sophisticated, and as a result, very costly.
However, these industrial sensors have very high accuracy and precision score, even
under harsh operating conditions.
3.Energy Efficiency: The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to
determine the lifetime of that solution and the estimated cost of its deployment. If the
sensor or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it requires replenishment of its
energy sources quite frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its cost goes
up; whereas its deployment feasibility goes down.

Sensors with high energy demands increase maintenance and deployment costs. In
inaccessible areas like glaciers, energy-efficient sensors are critical for prolonged
operation.
4.Device Size and Obstruction: Smaller sensors minimize obstruction and costs,
making them ideal for IoT. Larger sensors hinder usability, reducing demand in
wearable or human activity detection applications.
1. Impact of Wearable Sensors: The rise of compact, energy-efficient wearable
sensors highlights their appeal in IoT, offering seamless integration with daily
activities without hindrance.
 2. Operational Feasibility: Sensor solutions must balance size, energy, and
accuracy to remain feasible across diverse applications, from hobby projects to
industrial and remote deployments.

Actuators

An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect the
movement or control the said mechanism or the system. Control systems affect
changes to the environment or property they are controlling through actuators.
The system activates the actuator through a control signal, which may be digital or
analog. It elicits a response from the actuator, which is in the form of some form of
mechanical motion. The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or
electronic system, a software-based system (e.g., an autonomous car control system), a
human, or any other input

Actuator Types
Broadly, actuators can be divided into seven classes: 1) Hydraulic, 2) pneumatic, 3)
electrical, 4) thermal/magnetic, 5) mechanical, 6) soft, and 7) shape memory
polymers.

1 Hydraulic actuators:
A hydraulic actuator works by compressing and decompressing fluids to perform
mechanical tasks like lifting loads. It converts mechanical motion into linear, rotary, or
oscillatory motion using the near-incompressible nature of liquids to produce high
force. However, its stiffness and limited acceleration restrict its applications
2. Pneumatic actuator works by compressing and decompressing gases, using high-
pressure air or vacuum to create linear or rotary motion. Commonly used in valve
controls, such as water pipes, these actuators are quick to respond to start and stop
signals. They can amplify small pressure changes into large forces, as seen in
pneumatic brakes that generate enough force to stop vehicles. Unlike other systems,
they do not require a stored power source for operation.
3. Electric actuators Typically, electric motors are used to power an electric actuator
by generating mechanical torque. This generated torque is translated into the motion of
a motor’s shaft or for switching (as in relays). For example, actuating equipment such
as solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical signals.
This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator
types available.
4. Thermal or magnetic actuators:
The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators.
These actuators have a very high power density and are typically compact,
lightweight, and economical. One classic example of thermal actuators is shape
memory materials (SMMs) such as shape memory alloys (SMAs). These actuators do
not require electricity for actuation. They are not affected by vibration and can work
with liquid or gases. Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic
actuators.
5. Mechanical actuator
In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear
motion to execute some movement. The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other
devices are necessary for these actuators to operate. These actuators can be easily used
in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators. They can also work
in a standalone mode. The best example of a mechanical actuator is a rack and pinion
mechanism.

6. Soft actuators: Soft actuators consists of elastomeric polymers that are used as
embedded fixtures in flexible materials such as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and
others. The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into tangible
macroscopic deformations is the primary working principle of this class of actuators.
These actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They are designed to handle
fragile objects such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or performing precise operations
like manipulating the internal organs during robot-assisted surgeries.

7.Shape memory polymers (SMPs) are smart materials that change shape in response
to external stimuli and return to their original shape when the stimulus is removed.
They are characterized by high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low density, and
biodegradability. SMP actuators function similarly to muscles, responding to stimuli
like temperature changes, light, pH, and magnetic fields. Photopolymer or light-
activated polymers (LAPs) are a special type of SMP that use light as a stimulus. LAP
actuators respond quickly and can be controlled remotely by varying light frequency
or intensity, changing shape with specific light frequencies and returning to the
original shape once the stimulus is removed.

Actuator Characteristic
The choice or selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT deployment, where a control
mechanism is required after sensing and processing of the information obtained from
the sensed environment.
Actuators perform the physically heavier tasks in an IoT deployment; tasks which
require moving or changing the orientation of physical objects, changing the state of
objects, and other such activities.
The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and
continuity of operations, as well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators
themselves. A set of four characteristics can define all actuators

Weight: The weight of an actuator impacts its application. Heavier actuators are
suitable for industrial uses where mobility is not required, while lightweight actuators
are ideal for portable systems like drones and home IoT devices. However, heavier
actuators also have specific uses in mobile systems, such as in aircraft landing gears
and engine motors.
Power Rating: The power rating determines the actuator's safe operating range. It
defines the minimum and maximum power an actuator can handle without damage.
For example, small servo motors used in hobby projects have a power rating of 5 VDC
and 500 mA, while larger motors in industrial applications may require higher ratings
like 460 VAC, 25 A, and a dedicated power supply.
Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the sensitivity
of the actuator. Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower will be its torque to
weight ratio for a given power. • Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance
Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known
as its stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiffness
can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that material. Stiff systems are
considered more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster response to the
change in load applied to it.