Module 9

Weld and Base

Metal
Discontinuities
 Discontinuity

“ Any interruption in the uniform

nature of an item ”

2
 Discontinuities

 Seams and laps

 Laminations
 Weld undercut
 Weld cracks
 Weld porosity
 Many others

3
 Defect

“ A non-conforming discontinuity ”

All discontinuities are not defects.

All defects are discontinuities.

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 Discontinuity Criticality

 Linear - non-linear
 End condition - sharpness
 Surface - sub-surface
 Loading - uniform, non-uniform
 Fatigue
 Impact

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 Crack

“ A fracture type discontinuity

characterized by a sharp tip and
high ratio of length and width
(depth) to opening displacement ”

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 Crack Types
 Hot/cold
 Delayed/underbead
 Longitudinal
 Transverse
 Throat/toe/root
 HAZ/base metal
 and many more

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Longitudinal Crack

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a longitudinal crack on the exterior
surface of the weld may result from
excessive concavity, insufficient
reinforcement, or excessive welding speed.
It may also be caused by shrinkage due to
rapid cooling and high restraint.
Transverse Crack

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Transverse cracks are generally the
result of longitudinal shrinkage strains
acting on weld metal of low ductility.
Transverse cracks in steel weld metals
are typically related to hydrogen
embrittlement. This type of crack, is
common in joints that have a high
degree of restraint.
Throat Crack

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Toe Crack

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Crater Cracks in
Aluminum Weld

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Propagation of Crater
Crack in Aluminum Weld

15
Underbead Cracks

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 Underbead Cracking

 Often delayed cracking

 Caused by hydrogen
 Difficult to detect
 Avoid with low H2 process

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 Incomplete Fusion

“ A weld discontinuity in which

fusion did not occur between
weld metal and fusion faces or
adjoining weld beads ”

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 Locations of
Incomplete Fusion

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Incomplete Fusion
at Weld Face

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Insufficient heat input,
wrong type or size of electrode,
improper joint design,
inadequate gas shielding
Incorrect electrode position
Weld metal running ahead of the
arc
Trapped oxides or slag on weld
groove or weld face
Incomplete Fusion Between
Weld Metal and Base Metal

22
Radiograph of Side-Wall
Incomplete Fusion

23
 Incomplete Joint
Penetration

“ Weld metal does not extend

entirely through the joint
thickness. The term is used
only for groove welds.”

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Examples of Incomplete
Joint Penetration

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Incomplete Joint
Penetration

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Excessively thick root face or
insufficient root opening
Insufficient heat input
Slag flooding ahead of welding arc
Electrode diameter too large
Misalignment of second side weld
Failure to backgouge when
specified
Bridging of root opening
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Partial Joint Penetration

“ Penetration not required to

be complete by designer ”

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 Inclusions

“ Entrapped foreign solid

material such as slag, flux,
tungsten or oxide”

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Failure to remove slag
Entrapment of refractory oxides
Tungsten in the weld metal
Improper joint design
Oxide inclusions
Slag flooding ahead of the welding arc
Poor electrode manipulative technique
Entrapped pieces of electrode covering
In making a root pass, if the electrode is too
large and the arc impinges on the groove faces
instead of on the root faces, the slag may roll
down into the root opening and be trapped
under the weld metal
Surface Slag Inclusion

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Radiograph of Elongated
Slag Inclusions

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 Radiograph of
Tungsten Inclusions

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 Porosity

“ Cavity type discontinuities formed

by gas entrapped during weld
metal solidification ”

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Scattered Surface
Porosity

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Linear Surface Porosity
with Connecting Crack

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Isolated Surface Porosity

37
Elongated Surface
Porosity

38
 Radiograph of
Scattered Porosity

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Radiograph of Cluster
Porosity

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Radiograph of Linear
Porosity

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Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen in
the welding atmosphere
High solidification rate
Dirty base metal
Dirty filler wire
Improper arc length, welding current, or
electrode manipulation
Volatilization of zinc from brass
Galvanized steel
Excessive moisture in the electrode
covering or on joint surfaces
 Undercut

“ A groove melted into the base

metal adjacent to the weld toe
or weld root and left unfilled by
weld metal ”

43
Typical Appearance
of Undercut

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Undercut Adjacent
to Fillet Weld

45
 Radiograph of Surface
Undercut

Surface undercut should be found with VT, NOT RT !

46
Excessive welding current
Excessive travel speed
Poor electrode manipulation
 Underfill

“ A condition in which the weld

face or the root surface is below
the adjacent surface of the base
metal ”

48
Underfill in
Groove Welds

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 Overlap

“ The protrusion of weld

metal beyond the weld
toe or weld root ”

50
Overlap Examples

Overlap

Overlap

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 Overlap in
Fillet and
Groove Welds

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 Undercut & Overlap
in Fillet Weld

Undercut

Overlap

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 Fillet Weld Convexity

“ The maximum distance from

the face of a convex fillet weld
perpendicular to a line
joining the weld toes ”

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Fillet Weld Convexity

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Weld Reinforcement

“ Weld metal in excess of

the quantity required to
fill a joint ”

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Face and Root
Reinforcement

57
Face Reinforcement on both
sides when welded from both
sides

58
Effect of Weld
Reinforcement
angle on
Fatigue
Strength

59
Improper and Acceptable
Treatment of Weld
Reinforcement

60
 Arc Strike

“ A discontinuity resulting from

an arc, consisting of any
localized remelted metal, heat-
affected metal, or change in
the surface profile of any
metal object ”

61
Photomicrograph of Martensitic
Structure Produced by an Arc
Strike

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 Spatter

“ Metal particles expelled

during fusion welding that do
not form part of the weld ”

63
Crack Formed at
Weld Spatter

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 Lamination

“ A discontinuity with separation

or weakness generally aligned
parallel to the worked surface
of a metal ”

65
Cracking and Delamination
Due to Lamination

66
 Delamination

“ Separation of a lamination
under stress ”

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 Lamellar Tear

“A subsurface terrace- and step-

like separation in the base metal,
parallel to the surface, caused by
tensile stresses in the through-
thickness direction.

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Lamellar Tearing

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 Seams and Laps

“ Longitudinal base metal

surface discontinuities found
in wrought products ”

70
Deep Seam on Surface of Semi-
Finished Rolled Product

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Cluster Seams on Surface of
Semi-Finished Rolled Product

72
 Lap on Surface of
Rolled Steel Billet

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 Dimensional

 Size irregularities
 Shape imperfections
 Distortion

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 Discontinuities in EBW
and LBW
“Unique to the special attributes of the
high-energy beams and narrow weld
width”

 Beam deflection (missed joint)

 Root Porosity
 Shrinkage voids
 Hot cracks
 Lack of fusion (spiking)

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The End …… any questions?

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