Curved

Spacetime
for
Newtonian
Gravity
 Newtonian Gravity
𝑚𝑀 • Force vectors
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺 2 (−𝑒𝑟 ) • 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑟 • Galilean Transformations
Poisson’s Equation • Universal time 𝑡
2
𝛻 𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌 Newton-Cartan Theory
• Curved spacetime
• Geodesics
𝑅00 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌 • Galilean Transformations
• Universal time 𝑡
General Relativity
• Curved spacetime
1 8𝜋𝐺 • Geodesics
𝑅𝜇𝜈 − 𝑅𝑔𝜇𝜈 + Λ𝑔𝜇𝜈 = 4 𝑇𝜇𝜈
2 𝑐 • Lorentz Transformations
• Proper time 𝜏
 𝑚𝑀 𝑒𝑟 𝑀
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺 2 (−𝑒𝑟 ) 𝑚 𝐹𝐺
𝑟
𝑟
Gravitational Field 𝑔
𝑚

𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑀
𝑀 𝑀 causes “negative
𝑔≡ 𝐺 2 (−𝑒𝑟 ) divergence” in 𝑔
𝑟
 𝛻⋅𝑉 >0 𝛻⋅𝑉 =0 𝛻⋅𝑉 <0
+ve divergence Zero divergence -ve divergence
(convergence)
Overall, vectors are Overall, no vectors Overall, vectors are
“leaving” the box. “entering”/“leaving” “entering” the box.
the box.
Gravitational (Vector) Field
𝑔≡
𝑀
𝐺 2 (−𝑒𝑟 )
𝑟 ⇔ 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑔 = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌
(equivalent)

Mass density
(mass per volume)
Gravitational (Vector) Field Gravitational (Scalar) Potential
𝑔≡
𝑀
𝐺 2 (−𝑒𝑟 )
𝑟
= −(𝛻𝜑) 𝜑
𝑔 = (−𝛻𝜑) 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑔 = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌

𝛻 ⋅ (−𝛻𝜑) = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌

𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌 Poisson’s
Equation
2
≡𝛻 𝜑 “Laplacian”
 2
𝜕 𝜑 2
𝜕 𝜑 2
𝜕 𝜑
2
𝛻 𝜑 = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Laplacian = “bump detector” for 𝜑

𝜑

𝛻𝜑
2 𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 < 0 𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 > 0
𝛻 𝜑
Poisson’s Equation 𝜌≥0
𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 ≥ 0
𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌 𝛻𝜑

𝜑
𝜌
→ Theory of curved spacetime
for Newtonian gravity…
𝑔𝜇𝜈 Greek Letters = all 4 spacetime indices
0 → 𝑡, 1 → 𝑥, 2 → 𝑦, 3→𝑧

𝑀𝑖𝑗 Latin/English Letters = 3 space indices

1 → 𝑥, 2 → 𝑦, 3→𝑧
Newton’s
nd Geodesic Equation
2 Law 2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈
𝑑 𝑥 𝜎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝜆2
+ Γ𝜇𝜈
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
=0
 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑎 = 𝑔
𝑑2𝑥
= −𝛻𝜑
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝜑 Looks like the Geodesic Equation…
= − 𝑖 𝜎
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 Find 𝜆 and Γ𝜇𝜈 to make the match!
2 𝑖
𝑑 𝑥 𝜕𝜑 2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈
+ 𝑖=0 𝑑 𝑥 𝜎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 + Γ𝜇𝜈 = 0
𝑑𝜆2 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝜑 𝑑2𝑥 𝜎 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
+ 𝑖=0 + Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝜆2 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝜎 𝜆 → 𝑡 𝑑2𝑥 𝜎 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
Find 𝜆 and
Γ𝜇𝜈 to + Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
make the match! 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜎 → 0 𝑑2𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
0
2 + Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑡 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
2 + Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
⇒ Γ𝜇𝜈 =0 0 + Γ𝜇𝜈 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 𝑖
𝑑 𝑥 𝜕𝜑 𝑑2𝑥 𝑖 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
+ 𝑖=0 + Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖
𝑑𝑥 𝑖 Γ𝑗𝑘 =0
Find 𝜆 and𝜎
Γ𝜇𝜈 to No 1st order terms… ⇒ 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 Γ𝑗0 =0
make the match! 2 𝑖 0 0 𝑖
𝑑 𝑥 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Γ0𝑘 =0
𝜆→𝑡 + Γ00 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑖 𝜕𝜑
Γ𝜇𝜈 =0 Γ00 must be
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝜑 𝑑 𝑡 𝑑 𝑡
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜈
+ 𝜎
Γ𝜇𝜈 =0
𝜆→𝑡 𝑑𝜆2 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑖 𝜕𝜑
Γ00 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
𝜎 2 𝑖
All other Γ𝜇𝜈 =0 𝑑 𝑥 𝜕𝜑
2
+ 𝑖
= 0
This is a “geodesic 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥
equation” for
Newtonian Gravity. 𝑎 + 𝛻𝜑 = 0
We have connection coefficients for Newtonian Gravity:
𝑖 𝜕𝜑 0 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Γ00 = Γ𝜇𝜈 = Γ𝑗𝑘 = Γ0𝑘 = Γ𝑗0 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
What’s the “Curvature” of spacetime for this connection?
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝛼 𝜌 𝛽 𝜌
𝑅 𝜎𝜇𝜈 = 𝜕𝜇 Γ𝜈𝜎 − 𝜕𝜈 Γ𝜇𝜎 + Γ𝜈𝜎 Γ𝜇𝛼 − Γ𝜇𝜎 Γ𝜈𝛽
Non-zero terms: lower index 𝜎 must be 0, upper index 𝜌 must be 𝑖:
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝛼 𝑖 𝛽 𝑖
𝑅 0𝜇𝜈 = 𝜕𝜇 Γ𝜈0 − 𝜕𝜈 Γ𝜇0 + Γ𝜈0 Γ𝜇𝛼 − Γ𝜇0 Γ𝜈𝛽
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 0 0
𝑅 0𝜇𝜈 = 𝜕𝜇 Γ𝜈0 − 𝜕𝜈 Γ𝜇0
 0 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 Γ𝜇𝜈 = Γ𝑗𝑘 =0
𝑅 0𝜇𝜈 = 𝜕𝜇 Γ𝜈0 − 𝜕𝜈 Γ𝜇0 Γ00 = 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 𝑖
Γ0𝑘 𝑖
= Γ𝑗0 =0
𝜇 = 0, 𝜈 = 0 𝜇 = 𝑗, 𝜈 = 0
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑅0𝑗0 = 𝜕𝑗 Γ00 − 𝜕0 Γ𝑗0
𝑅000 =𝜕0 Γ00 − 𝜕0 Γ00 𝑖
𝑅0𝑗0 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 − 0
𝑖
𝑅000 =0 𝑖
𝑅0𝑗0 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑

𝜇 = 0, 𝜈 = 𝑗 𝜇 = 𝑗, 𝜈 = 𝑘
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑅00𝑗 = 𝜕0 Γ𝑗0 − 𝜕𝑗 Γ00 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖
𝑅0𝑗𝑘 = 𝜕𝑗 Γ𝑘0
− 𝜕𝑘 Γ𝑗0
𝑅00𝑗 = 0 − 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 𝑖
𝑖
𝑅00𝑗 = −𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 𝑅0𝑗𝑘 =0−0
We have connection coefficients for Newtonian Gravity:
𝑖 𝜕𝜑 0 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Γ00 = Γ𝜇𝜈 = Γ𝑗𝑘 = Γ0𝑘 = Γ𝑗0 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
What’s the “Curvature” of spacetime for this connection?
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅0𝑗0 = −𝑅00𝑗 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑
9 components
𝜕1 𝜕1 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕1 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕1 𝜑
𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 = 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑗 𝜑
𝜕1 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕2 𝜑 6 independent
𝜕1 𝜕3 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕3 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕3 𝜑 non-zero components
Explicit formulas (Cartesian Coordinates)
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅0𝑗0 = −𝑅00𝑗 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 Spherical Potential
𝐺𝑀
𝐺𝑀 2 𝑖𝑗 𝑖 𝑗
𝜑=−
𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 = 𝑟 𝛿 − 3𝑥 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟5 𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

𝑟 2− 3𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑦 −3𝑥𝑧
𝐺𝑀 2 2
→ 5 −3𝑦𝑥 𝑟 − 3𝑦 −3𝑦𝑧
𝑟 2 2
−3𝑧𝑥 −3𝑧𝑦 𝑟 − 3𝑧
Explicit formulas 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 (Cartesian Coordinates)
𝐺𝑀
𝑟 2 − 3𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑦 −3𝑥𝑧 +𝑥
5 −3𝑦𝑥 𝑟 2 − 3𝑦 2 −3𝑦𝑧
𝑟
−3𝑧𝑥 −3𝑧𝑦 𝑟 2 − 3𝑧 2
Set 𝑥 = 𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0
𝑀
−2 0 0
𝐺𝑀
→ 0 1 0 +𝑧
𝑟3 +𝑦
0 0 1
Geodesic Deviation 𝛻𝑉 𝛻𝑉 𝑇 = −𝑅 𝑇, 𝑉 𝑉
Geodesics in time direction 𝑉 = 𝑒0
Separation in space direction 𝑇 = 𝑒𝑗
𝑉 𝑇
𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑗 = −𝑅 𝑒𝑗 , 𝑒0 𝑒0
𝑖
𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑗 = − 𝑅0𝑗0 𝑒𝑖
𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑗 = − 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 𝑒𝑖
Geodesic Deviation Special case 𝑥 = 𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0
−2 0 0
𝐺𝑀
𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑗 = − 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 𝑒𝑖 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 → 𝑟3
0 1 0
0 0 1
𝐺𝑀
𝑗 = 𝑥 direction: 𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑥 = +2 𝑟3
𝑒𝑥
• geodesics spreading apart
𝐺𝑀
𝑗 = 𝑦 direction: 𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑦 = −1 𝑟3
𝑒𝑦
𝐺𝑀
𝑗 = 𝑧 direction: 𝛻𝑒0 𝛻𝑒0 𝑒𝑧 = −1 𝑟3
𝑒𝑧
• geodesics coming together
𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 →
−2 0 0
𝐺𝑀
𝑟3
0 1 0
0 0 1
𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑 → Riemann Tensor
−2 0 0 (Newtonian Gravity)
𝐺𝑀
𝑟3
0 1 0
𝑖 𝑖
0 0 1
𝑥 𝑅0𝑗0 = −𝑅00𝑗 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑

𝜕1 𝜕1 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕1 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕1 𝜑
𝜕1 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕2 𝜑
𝑦 𝑧 𝜕1 𝜕3 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜕3 𝜑 𝜕3 𝜕3 𝜑

Φ𝑖𝑗 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑
Tidal Tensor
Riemann Curvature Tensor (non-zero components):
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅0𝑗0 = −𝑅00𝑗 = 𝜕𝑗 𝜕𝑖 𝜑
𝜇
Ricci Curvature Tensor: 𝑅𝛼𝛽 = 𝑅𝛼𝜇𝛽
𝜇
𝑅00 = 𝑅0𝜇0
0 1 2 3
𝑅00 = 𝑅000 +
𝑅010 + 𝑅020 + 𝑅030
𝑅00 = 0 + 𝜕1 𝜕1 𝜑 + 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜑 + 𝜕3 𝜕3 𝜑
2
𝜕 𝜑 2
𝜕 𝜑 2
𝜕 𝜑 2
𝑅00 = + + =𝛻 𝜑
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 𝑅00 ≡ 𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 2
𝛻 𝜑 =
4𝜋𝐺𝜌 Poisson’s Equation

𝑒𝑥
𝜌>0
𝑒𝑡
𝑒𝑦 𝑒𝑡
Converging 2
𝑅00 ≡ 𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 𝛻 𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌
Geodesics:
2
• Mass density 𝜌 creates a potential “well” 𝛻 𝜑
2
• potential “well” 𝛻 𝜑 causes time-pointing
geodesics to converge 𝑅𝑡𝑡
• “Mass attracts other mass”
𝑒𝑥
𝜌>0
𝑒𝑡
𝑒𝑦 𝑒𝑡
 𝑅00 ≡ 𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 2
𝛻 𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌
Poisson’s Equation

𝜌 time 𝜌
 𝑅00 ≡ 𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 2
𝛻 𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌
Poisson’s Equation

𝜌 time 𝜌
Converging 2
𝑅00 = 𝑅𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝛻 𝜑 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌
Geodesics:
2
• Mass density 𝜌 creates a potential “well” 𝛻 𝜑
2
• potential “well” 𝛻 𝜑 causes time-pointing
geodesics to converge 𝑅𝑡𝑡 (shrinking volume)
• “Mass attracts other mass”

𝜌 time 𝜌