WATER

AN ESSENTIAL INGRADIENT OF LIFE

SOURCES OF WATER
SOURCES OF WATER

SURFACE WATER RAIN WATER UNDERGROUND WATER

FLOWING STILL WATER SPRINGS WELLS TUBE WELLS

STREAMS PONDS

RIVERS LAKES

SEA RESERVOIRS
 IMPURITIES IN WATER

• Dissolved Impurities : Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Sulphates and Chlorides of

Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Sodium and Potassium
• Dissolved Gases : CO2 , O2 , N2 , H2S , NH3 etc
• Suspended Impurities : Inorganic – sand, clay
• Organic – Vegetable and animal matter
• Colloidal Impurities : Finely divided silica and clay, organic waste products etc
• Micro Organisms : Bacteria, Algae , Fungi , Virus etc.
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER

The quality of water required for industries depends upon the requirement of a particular
industry. S No. Purpose Specifications of water Remarks
1. Boiler Feed Very soft, Nitrate and organic Hard water forms scales on
Water compounds should be less and the wall of boiler, dissolved
least amount of dissolved salts salts may choke pipes and
may produce alkalinity.
2. Cooling Free from growth of algae, The spray nozzles or
systems fungi etc. least amount of circulating pipes may clogged
dissolved gases
3. Alcoholic Should be very pure,free from Should confirm to the
Distillaries pathogenic bacteria, should standards of drinking water
not be alkaline
4. Laundries Should be as soft as possible, Fe and Mn may cause stains
free from Fe and Mn
5. Textiles Should be soft and free from May cause stains
Fe and Mn
6. Sugar Industries Free from pathogenic bacteria , free Sugar obtained is deliquescent
from sulphates, carbonates and
nitrates
7. Pharmaceutical Very pure free from any pathogenic Salts present in hard water may react
Industries bacteria and very soft water with the chemicals to form undesirable
substances.
8. Confectionaries Very soft, colourless, odour less and
free from pathogenic bacteria
 ANALYSIS OF WATER
• HARDNESS OF WATER : Soap consuming capacity of water.
• The water which does not form lather with soap .
• Cause of Hardness : Presence of salts of Calcium and Magnesium
• 2C17H35COONa + CaSO4 (C17H35COO)2Ca + Na2SO4
• 2C17H35COONa + MgCl2 (C17H35COO)2Mg + 2NaCl
TYPES OF HARDNESS
 Hardness

Temporary Permanent

1. Can be removed by boiling can not be removed by boiling

2. Due to presence of Bicarbonates of Due to presence of Sulphates and
Ca2+ and Mg2+ Chlorides of Ca2+ and Mg2+
3. can be removed by special means
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCo3↓ + H2O + CO2
Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3↓ + H2O + CO2
4. Also called Carbonate Hardness Non Carbonate Hardness

5. Can also be removed by addition of Lime By special means

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
 CALCIUM CARBONATE EQUIVALENTS

• Hardness is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate equivalents.

• The reasons are:
• Molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100 which makes the calculations easier.
• It is considered as most insoluble in water.
•
• Calcium Carbonate Equivalent = Equivalent weight of CaCO3 x Mass of the Substance
Equivalent weight of substance

•=
 MgCl2 (1 mole)
95gm

Ca(HCO3)2 ( 1 mole) CaCO3 (1 mole) Mg(HCO3)2 (1mole)

162gm 100gm 146gm

CaSO4 (1 mole) MgSO4(1mole)

136gm 120gm

CaCl2 (1mole)
111gm
MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
 MULTIPLICATION FACTOR

Salt Molar Mass Multiplication factor

Ca(HCO3)2 162 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 100/146
CaCl2 111 100/111
MgCl2 95 100/95
CaSO4 136 100/136
MgSO4 120 100/120
CaCO3 100 100/100
Salt Molar Mass Multiplication Factor
Al2(SO4)3 342 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 100/278
NaAlO2 82 100/82 X2
HCO3- 61 100/61 X 2
CO3-2 60 100/60
OH- 17 100/17 X2
H+ 1 100/1 X 2
 UNITS OF HARDNESS

• Parts per Million (ppm): The hardness present in 106 part of water.
• Milligrams per Litre (mg/l): Hardness in milligrams present in one litre of
water.
• Degree Clarke’s (oCl): Hardness present in 70000 parts of water.
• Degree French (oFr): Hardness present in 105 parts of water.
• 1ppm = 1mg/l = 0.1 oFr = 0.07oCl
• Hardness is in terms of calcium carbonate equivalents
DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS – EDTA METHOD

• This is an example of Complexometric titration.

• Indicator used is EBT.
• Buffer solution is added to maintain the pH of the solution.
• EDTA is hexadentate ligand.
• It is pH sensitive.
• It forms 1:1 complex with calcium or magnesium ions.
• EBT is an azo Dye.
PRINCIPLE OF EDTA METHOD
• ETHYLENE DIAMINE TETRA ACETIC ACID

HOOCCH2 CH2COOH
N CH2 CH2 N
HOOCCH2 CH2COOH

• ERIOCHROME BLACK T

OH
OH
NaO3S N=N

NO2
1:1 COMPLEX OF EDTA WITH METAL ION

CO
CO CH2
O CH2
O N
CH2
M CH2

O N

O CH2
CO CH2
CO
•
Eriochrome Black-T + Ca 2+ /Mg 2+ [EBT-Ca 2+ /Mg 2+ ]
(Wine red)
Unstable

EDTA + Ca+2/Mg+2 [EDTA- Ca/Mg]

(Colourless)
Stable

[EBT-Ca 2+ /Mg 2+ ] + EDTA [EDTA-Ca 2+ /Mg] + EBT

(Blue)

•
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

• Preparation of solutions:
• Standard hard water: 1mg of CaCO3 / ml (0.01 M)(SHW)
• EDTA Solution: 3.7 gm / liter ( 0.01M)
• EBT: 0.5gm /500ml of alcohol
• Buffer solution: 70 gm NH4Cl + 570ml conc. NH3 and the solution is diluted to
1 litre.
 PROCEDURE

Pipette out 50 ml of standard hard water(SHW)

Add buffer solution
Add 2-3 drops of EBT
Wine red colour is obtained
Titrate with EDTA
Wine red colour is changed to Blue
Another titrations are done in same manner with Water sample(shw) and boiled
sample (bhw)
 STEPS TO PERFORM THE TITRATION

Standardisation of EDTA TOTAL HARDNESS PERMANENT HARDNESS

Titration with standard hard water with sample hard water with boiled sample

50 ml SHW + buffer + EBT 50ml shw + buffer+ EBT 50ml bhw + buffer + EBT = wine red

Add EDTA, Vol of EDTA= V1ml Vol. of EDTA= V2ml Vol. of EDTA= V3ml

1ml SHW contains = 1mg of CaCO3 1ml EDTA consumes = 50/V1mg 1ml EDTA consumes = 50/V1mg

50 ml SHW contain= 50mg V2 ml will consume = 50/V1xV2 V3 ml will consume = 50/V1xV3

V1ml of EDTA is used for =50mg CaCO3 50 ml shw contain = 50/V1xV2mg 50ml bhw contain = 50/V1xV3
50xV2 x1000 50 V3 1000
1ml EDTA is used for = 50/V1mg 1000ml will contain= 1000ml will contain= x x
V1 50 V1 50
Strength of EDTA = 50/V1 Total Hardness = V2/V1 x 1000 Permanent Hardness = V3/V1 x1000
CALCULATIONS :

1. Strength of standard hard water

2. Standardisation of EDTA
3. Calculation for Total hardness
4. Calculation for Permanent Hardness
5. Total – Permanent hardness = Temporary hardness
NUMERICALS :

• 0.28 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution was made to one
litre with distilled water. 100ml of the above solution required 28ml of EDTA
solution on titration. 100 ml of the hard water sample required 33 ml of the
same EDTA solution on titration. After boiling100ml of this water,
cooling,filtering and then titration required 10ml of EDTA solution. Calculate
the temporary and permanent hardness of water.
• Calculate the hardness of water sample ,whose 10 ml required 20 ml of
EDTA.
20 ml of CaCl2 solution, whose strength is 1.5 g of CaCO3perliter required 30
ml of EDTA.
• Strength of Standard hard water = 0.28 g /l
• 100 ml of this contain = .28 x 100 mg = 28 mg/ 100 ml
• 28 ml of EDTA is used for = 28 mg of CaCO3-2
• 1ml is used for = 28/28 =1mg/ml
• 1ml is used for = 1mg
• 33 ml EDTA is used for = 1x 33 =33mg
• 100 ml of sample contains = 33mg of CaCO3-2
• 1000 ml of sample contain = 33/ 100 x1000 =330 ppm
• 10 ml EDTA is used for = 1 x 10 = 10mg of CaCO3-2
• 100 ml bhw contain = 10 mg CaCO3-2
• 1000ml will contain = 10/100 x 1000 = 100 ppm
• Temporary Hardness = 330 – 100 = 230 ppm
ALKALINITY OF WATER
The ability of water to neutralize acids
CAUSES OF ALKALINITY

• Presence of CO3-2
• HCO3-
• OH-
• All the three cannot present together because
• OH- + HCO3- CO3-2 + H2O
• Borates
• Silicates and
• Phosphates
DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY

• By Acid Base Titration

• Using Phenolphthaein and Methyl Orange as indicators
• Principle of Selective use of indicators is applied
• OH- + H+ H2O
P
• CO3-2 + H+ HCO3- M

• HCO3- + H+ H2O + CO2

• Phenolphthalein indicates the complete neutralisation of OH- ions and Half
Neutralisation of CO3-2 ions
• Methyl Orange indicates the neutralization of all the three ions. Thus we can
determine the Alkalinity due to different ions. This use of indicators is called selective
use of indicators
• Procedure:
1. Pipette out known amount of water sample in a conical flask.
2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein.
3. If Pink colour is appeared titrate it with standard acid till pink colour just disappears.
4. Note the readings of burette.
5. Now add few drops of Methyl Orange. A yellow colour will appear.
6. Titrate it against the same acid till red colour is appeared.

•
• NORMALITY OF ACID = N/50

• VOLUME OF SAMPLE WATER =100ML

• VOLUME OF ACID USED TILL PH. END POINT =V2

• VOLUME OF ACID USED UPTO METHYL ORANGE END POINT = V2’

OR TOTAL VOLUME OF ACID USED
 Calculations
• N1V1 = N2V2 N1’V1’ = N2’V2’

• Water sample acid Water Sample Acid

• N1 = N2V2/ V1 N1’ = N2’V2’/V1’

• = ( N/50 X V2) /100 = (N/50 X V’2 )/100

• P = N1 X50 g/l M = N1’ X 50 g/l

• = (N1 X 50 ) X 1000 mg/l or ppm =( V’2 / 5000) X 50 X 1000 mg/l

• = (V2/5000) x 50 x 1000

• = 10V2 = 10 V2’

• V2’ is the volume of total acid used.

TYPES OF ALKALINITY
OH- CO3-2 HCO3-

P=0 - - P

P = 1/2M - 2P -

P< 1/2M - 2P M-2P

P > 1/2M 2P -M 2(M-P) -

P=M P - -
 BOILER FEED WATER

• Water used in Boilers is called Boiler feed water.

• A boiler is a closed vessel, in which water under pressure is transformed into
steam by the application of heat.
• Steam is used to drive turbine.
• Boiler feed water should have very low hardness
• Its alkalinity should be very low
BOILER PROBLEMS

• Scale and Sludge formation

• Boiler Corrosion
• Caustic Embrittlement
• Priming and Foaming
SCALE AND SLUDGE FORMATION

• CAUSES:
• Dissolved Salts – When water is converted into steam, the concentration of salt
increases with time. When IONIC PRODUCT > SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
precipitates are formed. These ppts may stick to the walls or they may exist as
loose ppt in the solution.
• The loose ppt is known as sludge and the ppt that sticks on the walls is known
as Scales.
Sludge Scales
----------
0 0
----------
0 0 ------
----------
00 0
---------
CONT.
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT
INTERNAL TREATMENT

• Colloidal Conditioning – Tannin, Agar, Kerosene etc are added

• Carbonate Conditioning – Sodium Carbonate is added
• Phosphate Conditioning – In high pressure boilers ,Sodium Phosphates are
added
• Calgon Conditioning – Calgon ( Sodium Hexametaphosphate) is added
• EXTERNAL
TREATMENT
WATER SOFTENING PROCESSES

• LIME – SODA PROCESS

• ZEOLITE PROCESS

• ION EXCHANGE PROCESS

 LIME - SODA PROCESS

• Principle:
• Dissolved impurities are converted into precipitates by adding calculated
amount of Lime and Soda to water.
• Some Coagulants are added to settle down the ppt of impurities.
• Carried out either hot or cold.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

• Lime addition removes complete temporary hardness and permanent

Magnesium hardness.
• Soda addition removes permanent Calcium hardness.
• NaAlO2 does not react with lime or soda but with water it gives Al2(OH)3,
NaOH.
• Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions are considered as permanent hardness
• HCO3- IONS ARE CONSIDERED AS NaHCO3
TYPES OF LIME SODA PROCESS

• TWO TYPES:
Batch Process
• Hot Lime Soda process
Continuous Process

Batch Process
• Cold Lime Soda process
Continuous Process
BATCH PROCESS

------------
------------------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
v v v v v v
COLD LIME SODA PROCESS
HOT LIME SODA PROCESS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
MgCO3 +Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 +CaCO3
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
FeSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4
2Fe(OH)2 + H2O +1/2 O2 2Fe(OH)3
• Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4
• CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + 2H2O
• H2S + Ca(OH)2 CaS + 2H2O
• 2HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2O
• H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O
• NaHCO3 + Ca(OH)2 Na2CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
• Reactions with Soda:
• CaCl2 + Na2CO3 2NaCl + CaCO3
• CaSO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + CaCO3
• NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
CALCULATIONS

74 [2x Temp. Mg + Temp. Ca +Perm. Mg + Salts of Fe &Al +CO2

• Lime Requirement = 100 + Acids +HCO3- - NaAlO2 All in terms of CaCO3 equi.]

106 [ Perm. Ca +Perm. Mg + Salts of Fe & Al + HCl +

Soda Requirement =100 H SO – HCO - All in terms of CaCO equi.]
2 4 3 3
ANALYSIS OF TREATED WATER

• Since the treated water is shown to contain OH- and CO3-2 ions.
• These are formed by Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3 respectively.
• During calculations the corresponding amount of these should be added
• If OH- is there the equivalent amount should be added in lime as well as in
soda requirement.
• In case of CO3-2 , the equivalent amount is to be added in soda requirement.
ADVANTAGES OF HOT LIME SODA PROCESS

• The reaction time is reduced.

• No coagulant is required
• Most of dissolved gases are removed
• Residual hardness is much less than cold process
ADVANTAGES OF LIME – SODA PROCESS

• The process is highly economical.

• The treatment leads to an increase in the pH value of water , thus reducing
the corrosion of the distribution pipes.
• This treatment also helps in reducing the total mineral content of water.
• It helps in removing iron and manganese from the water, although to a very
small extent.
DISADVANTAGES OF LIME-SODA PROCESS

• A large quantity of sludge is formed in this process, the disposal of which

poses a problem .
• Careful operation and skilled supervision is required to get good results.
• This process cannot produce water having zero hardness. This is because
CaCO3, though very slightly, is soluble in water.
NUMERICALS

• 1. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening 50000 litres
of water containing: Ca(HCO3)2 = 9.2mg, Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.9mg, CaSO4 =
15.3mg , MgSO4 = 15 mg, MgCl2 = 3 mg, and NaCl = 4.3mg.
• 2. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required per litre for softening of
water containing: Ca+2 = 80ppm, Mg+2 = 32ppm, HCO3- = 195PPM,
FeSO4.7H2O added as coagulant = 73.5ppm
Constituents Amount (mg) Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalents
Ca(HCO3)2 (L) 9.2 100/162 5.68
Mg(HCO3)2 (2L) 7.9 100/146 5.41
CaSO4 (S) 15.3 100/136 11.25
MgSO4 (L+S) 15.0 100/120 12.5
MgCl2 (L+S) 3.0 100/95 3.16
NaCl -- 4.3 --
•

• L = 74/100 x [ Ca(HCO3)2 + (Mg(HCO3)2 X2 + MgCl2 + MgSO4]

• = 74/100 [5.68 +2 X 5.41+ 3.16 +12.5 ]per litre
• = 23.39 mg/l x 50000 = 1170 g = 1.17kg

• S = 106/100 [ CaSO4 +MgSO4 + MgCl2 ]

• = 106/100 [ 11.25 + 12.5 + 3.16 ] x 50000
• = 1.426 kg
• 3. Calculate the amount of lime(92%pure) and soda(98%pure) required for
softening of 30000 litres of water , whose analysis is as follows: Ca(HCO3)2
= 40.5ppm, Mg(HCO3)2 = 36.5ppm , MgSO4 = 30ppm, CaSO4 = 34ppm,
CaCl2 = 27.75ppm, NaCl = 10 ppm.
• 4. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening of100000
litres of water using 139ppm of FeSO4.7H2O as a coagulant . The results of
analysis of raw water and softened water are as follows:
• Analysis of raw water: Ca+2 = 160ppm, Mg+2 = 288ppm, HCO3- =
1464ppm,dissolved CO2 = 20ppm
• Analysis of treated water: OH- = 34ppm, CO3-2 = 60ppm
Constituents Amount ppm Multiplication CaCO3 equivalents
factor
FeSO4.7H2O (L+S) 139 100/278 50
Ca+2 (S) 160 100/40 400
Mg+2 (L+S) 288 100/24 1200
CO2 (L) 22 100/44 50
HCO3- (L-S) 1464 100/122 1200
OH- (L+ S) 34 100/34 100
CO3-2 (S) 60 100/60 100
• L = 74/100 [ FeSO4 +Mg+2 + CO2+HCO3-+OH- ] X 100000

• S = 106/100 [ FeSO4 + Ca+2 + Mg+2 + OH- + CO3-2 –HCO3- ] X 100000

ZEOLITE PROCESS OR BASE EXCHANGE PROCESS

• Zeolites are Sodium Aluminosilicate minerals

• General formula is --------Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O x=2-10, y=2-6
• They are capable of exchanging its Sodium ions
• They can be represented as Na2Z
• For softening of water by zeolite process, hard water is percolated through a bed of zeolite.
• When the water passes through the zeolite the hardness causing ions (Ca+2, Mg+2 etc.) are
retained by the zeolite as CaZ and MgZ respectively, while the outgoing water contains
equivalent amount of sodium salts. The block diagram and chemical reactions taking place in
zeolite softener are:
• Two types of Zeolites are there:
• Natural : Green in colour. eg. Thomsonite (Na2O,Al2O3.3SiO2.2H2O)
• Synthetic : Porous and have a gel like structure. They posses higher capacity to
exchange the ions
•
 ZEOLITE
SOFTNER
:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2Z → CaZ + 2NaHCO3
Mg(HCO3)2 + Na2Z → MgZ + 2NaHCO3
CaSO4 + Na2Z → CaZ + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2Z → CaZ + 2NaCl
MgSO4 + Na2Z → MgZ + Na2SO4
MgCl2 + Na2Z → MgZ + 2NaCl
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2Z → CaZ + 2NaHCO3

Mg(HCO3)2 + Na2Z → MgZ + 2NaHCO3
CaSO4 + Na2Z → CaZ + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2Z → CaZ + 2NaCl
MgSO4 + Na2Z → MgZ + Na2SO4

• MgCl2 + Na2Z → MgZ + 2NaCl

REGENERATION

• After some time, when the zeolite is completely changed into calcium and
magnesium zeolites, then it gets exhausted (saturated with Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions) and it ceases to soften water. It can be regenerated and reused by
first backwashing and then treating it with a 10% brine (sodium chloride)
solution.
CaZ + 2NaCl → Na2Z + CaCl2

MgZ + 2NaCl → Na2Z + MgCl2

ADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE PROCESS

• Water having very low hardness (10ppm) is produced

• The plant is so compact and occupies less space
• No sludge is produced
• The running, maintenance and operation cost is very low
• Plant can be installed in the water pipeline
DISADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE PROCESS

• This process is not suitable for turbid waters

• The process leaves NaHCO3 which causes priming and foaming
• Treated water contains more dissolved salts
ION EXCHANGE PROCESS OR DEMINERALIZATION

• Recently ion-exchange resins have been used to remove all minerals from water. It is a process
by which ions held on a porous, essentially insoluble solid are exchanged for ions in solution that
is brought in contact with it.
• In Zeolite process only positive hardness producing ion are removed from water
• The process of complete removal of all ion present in water is known as Demineralization of water.
• For this purpose Ion Exchange resins are used
• An ion-exchange resin is a cross linked,long chain organic polymer having porous structure &
some ioniseable functional groups
• They are generally Styrene divinyl benzene copolymers
Ion exchange resins may be of two types depending upon the nature of the ionizable group.

(i) Cation Exchange Resin or Cation Exchanger - Such resins have - SO3H, -- COOH or -OH (phenolic) group as the
ionizable group. Since these resins exchange the cationic portion of minerals by their hydrogen atom, they are known
as cation exchangers.

Resins having -SO3H group are termed as strongly acidic resins whereas having –COOH group are known as weakly
acidic resins

(ii) Anion Exchange Resin or Anion Exchanger – These resins have -NH2, -NHCH3, -N(CH3)2 or -OH group. They
exchange the anionic portion of the minerals and they are known as anion exchanger.

Resins having –NH2 group are weakly basic and having quaternary Ammonium salts are strongly basic resin
PROCESS

• In this process first we pass hard water through cation exchange column, which removes all the cations (like Ca+2,
Mg+2 etc.) from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions are released from this column to water.
Thus,
2RH+ + Ca+2 R2Ca+2 + 2H+
2RH+ + Mg+2 R2Mg+2 + 2H+
After this process, hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the anions (like SO4-2, Cl- etc.)
from it, and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from this column to water. Thus,

R'OH-2 +Cl- R'Cl-+ OH-

2R'OH- + SO4-2 R'2 SO4-2+ 2OH-
2R'OH- + CO32- R'2 CO2-3 + 2OH-
H+ and OH - ions get combined to produce water molecule
H+ + OH- H2O
The water coming out from the exchanger is free from cations as well as anions. Ion-free water is known as a deionized or
demineralized water.
ION EXCHANGE PROCESS OR DEMINERALIZATION
REGENERATION OF RESINS

• After some time the cation exchangers as well as anion exchangers get exhausted
• They can be regenerated by 2% H2SO4
• R2Ca+2 +H2SO4 RH + CaSO4
• R2Mg+2 + H2SO4 RH + MgSO4
• By NaOH
• R’Cl + NaOH ROH + NaCl
• R'2 SO4-2 + 2 NaOH ROH +Na2SO4
• R'2 CO2-3 +2NaOH ROH + Na2CO3
MIXED BED ION EXCHANGER

• It consist of single column containing a mixture of strongluy cation exchanger

and strongly anion exchanger
• Hard water is passed through it
MIXED BED ION EXCHANGER
DISADVANTAGES

• Not suitable for turbid waters

• Not suitable for acidic or alkaline waters
• The treated water contain more dissolved salts as compared to Lime Soda
process
WATER TREATMENT FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSE

• Screening
• Sedimentation
• Coagulation and Sedimentation
• Filteration
• Disinfection
• Storage for distribution
DISINFECTION

• By:
• Chlorination
• Ozone
• KMnO4
• Bleaching Powder
• Boiling
 Chlorination

• Cl2 + H2O PH>8 HOCl + HCl

• HOCl H+ + OCl –
• HOCl, H+ and OCl- are considered as free Chlorine
• HOCl + NH3 NH2Cl PH >7.5
• NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 PH =5-6.5
NHCl2+ HOCl NCl3 PH <4.5
• NH2Cl , NHCl2 and NCl3 are considered as combined Chlorine
DISINFECTION - BREAK POINT CHLORINATION
DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER

• DISTILLATION
• FREEZING
• ELECTRODIALYSIS
ELECTRODIALYSIS
REVERSE OSMOSIS