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Unit 1: Ecology
Chapter 52: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
I. Overview: Discovery Ecology
A. Ecology​: the scientific study of interactions between organisms and the environment
B. Global ecology​: examines how the biosphere is impacted by regional exchanges of energy and materials;
how alters distribution and function of organisms worldwide
C. Biosphere​: global ecosystem
D. Landscape ecology​: examines factors impacting the exchange of energy, materials, and organisms
between multiple ecosystems
E. Landscape/seascape​: connected ecosystems
F. Ecosystem ecology​: explores how energy flow and chemical cycling between the environment and
organisms
G. Ecosystem​: a community of organisms in a specific area and the physical factors of how the organisms
interact
1. Biotic AND abiotic factors included
H. Community ecology​: examines how interspecific interactions (i.e. predation and competition) impacts
community structure and organization
I. Community​: a group of populations of different species in an area
1. Biotic ONLY
J. Population ecology​: examines factors that impact population size and how/why it changes through time
K. Population​: a group of individuals of the same species living in an area
L. Organismal ecology​: examines how an organism’s structure, physiology, and behavior meet the
challenges posed by its environments
II. 52.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is rapidly changing
A. Climate​: long-term weather in a specific area
1. Most significant impact on distribution of organisms
2. Comprised of four main factors: temperature, precipitation, sunlight, wind
B. Macroclimate​: patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level
C. Microclimate​: small, localized patterns
D. Global Climate Patterns
1. Primarily determined by sunlight and Earth’s location in space
a) Sun affects temperatures and various cycles (i.e. water, air)
E. Regional and Local Effects on Climate
1. Climate subject to seasonal variation
2. Seasonality
a) Passage around Sun and tilted axis of rotation causes strong seasonal differences in
middle to high latitudes
b) Tropics​: regions between 23.5° north latitude and 23.5° south latitude
c) Higher latitudes causes oblique angle of light, greater diffusion of energy
d) Annual changes of day length, temperature, solar radiation
(1) Impacts environment
e) Alterations in wind patterns can change ocean currents
f) March equinox​: equator directly faces the sun, global 12 hours per day and night
g) June solstice​: northern hemisphere tilts to sun, longest day and shortest night in north,
shortest day and longest night in south
h) September equinox​: same as March
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i) December solstice​: vice versa to June
3. Bodies of Water
a) Ocean currents heat and cool air masses
(1) Oceans and large lakes moderate climate of surrounding land
b) Mediterranean climate​: hot and climate caused by cool/dry summer ocean breezes
warming when over land
4. Mountains
a) Impact air flow over land
b) Warm moist air approaches, rises and cools, moisture released on the windward side, cool
and dry air on the leeward side, absorbs moisture and causes a rain shadow
(1) Impacts desert formation
c) Affects the amount of sunlight, and subsequently the rainfall, temperature, and ultimately
local species distribution
F. Microclimate
1. Can be altered by shade, evaporation from soil, wind patterns
a) Trees moderate forest microclimates
2. Abiotic​: nonliving factors (chemical and physical attributes such as temperature, light, water, and
nutrients)
a) Affect distribution and organism abundance
3. Biotic​: living factors, other organisms that are part of an individual’s environment
G. Global Climate Change
1. Large scale change in Earth’s climate strongly affects biosphere
2. Species must move to deal with changing climate
III. 52.2 The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate and disturbance
A. Biomes: major life zones characterized by flora (terrestrial biomes) or by their physical environment
(aquatic biomes)
1. When studying, focus on name, precipitation, and plants for terrestrial and temperature for
aquatic
B. Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
1. Longitudinal patterns between terrestrial biomes
2. Climograph: an annual plot of a particular region’s mean temperature and precipitation
a) Based on annual averages
b) Climate variation pattern also impactful
3. Abiotic characteristics can also alter what you can grow (i.e. soil type)
C. General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
1. physical/climatics features and main vegetation determine biome
a) Fauna, fungi, microorganisms also differentiate
2. Ecotone: area of integration between biomes (size varies)
3. Terrestrial biomes experience vertical layering, like in forests
a) Provides animals with different environments
4. Canopy: uppermost layer of vegetation in a terrestrial biome
D. Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes
1. Disturbance: an event (i.e. human activity, fire,etc.) that changes a community
a) Biomes are patchy as a result
b) Some biomes rely upon (i.e. natural wildfires)
2. Tropical Forest
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a) Tropical rain forests: terrestrial biome with relatively high precipitation and temperature
all year
b) Tropical dry forests: overall high precipitation and temperature, but a six to seven month
dry season
c) Equatorial and sub equatorial regions, vertically layered causes competition for light
d) Animals adapted to environment and have high diversity
3. Desert
a) Desert: extremely low precipitation
b) 30​° north and south latitude or interior o r continents, low wide ranging vegetation
(adapted) many with physical defenses like spines or toxins
c) Most animals nocturnal, rely upon water conservation
4. Savanna
a) Savanna​: tropical grassland biome with scattered, individual trees and large
herbivores, reliant upon occasional drought and fires
b) In equatorial and sub equatorial regions, warm year round, eight to nine month
dry season
c) Plants fire dominant and drought tolerant
d) Large herbivores, mammals, predators, and many insects
5. Chaparral
a) Chaparral​: shrubland biome with dense, spiny evergreen shrubs; milk rainy
winters and hot and dry lengthy summers
b) Midlatitude coastal regions with cold ocean currents circulating offshore
c) Shrubs and small trees with grasses and herbs and a high diversity, often have
adaptations to drought and fire
d) Support amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects and some mammals (browsers)
6. Temperate Grassland
a) Temperate grassland​: dominated by grasses and forbs, dry cold winters and hot
wet summers
b) In midlatitude regions, periodic drought
c) Most plants adapted to fires and periodic droughts
d) Large grazing and small burrowing mammals
7. Northern Coniferous Forest
a) Northern coniferous forest (taiga)​: long, cold winters and cone bearing trees
b) At edge of arctic tundra in North America and Eurasia
c) Usually periodic droughts, decent precipitations
d) Cone bearing trees need fire to regenerate, reduced water loss, insect outbreaks
could kill trees
e) Migratory birds, diverse mammals
8. Temperate Broadleaf Forest
a) Temperate broadleaf forest​: in the midlatitude regions with enough moisture to
sustain growth of large broadleaf deciduous trees, have distinct vertical layers
(1) Deciduous trees drop leaves before winter
b) Most precipitation during summer rains or winter snow
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c) All layers utilized by birds, mammals and insects; mammals often hibernate in
winter and birds migrate to warmer climates
9. Tundra
a) Tundra​: biome at the extreme limits of plant growth; northern is ​arctic tundra​,
high altitudes with strubby and matlike vegetation is ​alpine tundra
b) Most plants herbaceous (moss, shrubs, forbes) and dwarf shrubs, trees, lichens
(1) Permafrost restricts net growth
c) Large grazing animals (some migratory) with large mammals hunting (bears ,
wolves, foxes); birds often migrate for summer nesting
IV. 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
A. Aquatic biomes primarily differentiated by physical environment
B. Freshwater versus marine distinguished by physical and chemical differences
1. Freshwater has a 0.1% salt concentration and marine has a 3% salt concentration
C. Oceans make up 75% of Earth’s surface; evaporated water provides most of rainfall
1. Temperatures impact global climate and wind patterns
2. O​2​ supplied by marine algae and photosynthetic bacteria
D. Freshwater biomes impact soils and biotic components of terrestrial biomes
1. Influenced by climate exposed to and pattern/speed of water flow
E. Zonation in Aquatic Biomes
1. Aquatic biomes often have physical and chemical layering (vertical and horizontal)
a) Light decreases with depth (water and photosynthetic organisms absorb); affects
temperature
2. Photic zone​: upper, enough light for photosynthesis
3. Aphotic zone​: lower, little light reaches
4. Pelagic zone​: made of photic and aphotic zone; open water composed of aquatic biomes
5. Abyssal zone​: 2000-6000 meters below the surface of the ocean
6. Benthic zone​: bottom of ALL aquatic biomes/ sand organic, inorganic sediments
7. Benthos​: a community of organisms that are in the benthic zone
8. Detritus​: dead organic matter; major source of food for benthos
9. Thermocline​: a thick layer of abrupt temperature change that separates the cohesively
warmer upper layer from the uniformly colder lower layer
a) Lakes predominantly layered
10. Turnover​: changing temperature provides of lakewater causing a mixing of waters
a) O​2​ rich surface water switches with nutrient rich lower water in spring and
autumn; crucial for ecosystem’s organisms
11. Aquatic communities distributed by water depth, degree of light penetration, distance
from shore, open water or near bottom
12. Lakes
a) Lakes​: standing bodies of water, multiple types
(1) Temperate lakes​: seasonal thermocline
(2) Tropical lowland lakes​: thermocline throughout year
b) Season causes variation in salinity, O​2​ content, nutrient content
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(1) O​ ligotrophic lakes​: lack nutrients, large amount of O​2
(2) Eutrophic lakes​: nutrient rich, lack of O​2​ (usually in summer or if frozen
over)
c) Plant growth impacted by depth of lake
(1) Littoral zone​: contains rooted/floating aquatic flora, close to the shore,
water is well lit and shallow
(2) Limnetic zone​: contains phytoplankton (too deep for rooted plants) such as
cyanobacteria
(a) Heterotrophs and zooplankton eat phytoplankton
13. Wetlands
a) Westlands​: support plant life able to live in water saturated soil and a habitat that
is sometimes inundated by water
(1) Water and soil have periodically low O​2​, able to filter nutrients and
chemicals
b) Basin wetlands​: become shallow basins, range of depth
c) Riverine wetlands​: develop along shallow and periodically flooded river banks
d) Fringe wetlands​: located along the coasts of seas and large alkes (freshwater and
marine) where water goes back and forth
e) Cone of the most productive biomes adapted to grow in water and periodically
anaerobic soil
(1) Swamps have woody plants, bogs have sphagnum moss
f) Diverse fauna (invertebrates, birds, mammals, etc. both herbivores and
carnivores)
14. Streams and Rivers
a) Stratified into vertical zones, current is most defining characteristic
(1) Headwater streams​: cold, clear rough, fast
(2) Rivers (downstream)​: often warmer, more cloudy from sediment
b) Salt/nutrients increase from headwaters (rich in O​2​) to mouth
c) Phytoplankton and rooted aquatic plants in grassland/desert headwater streams
d) Vertical zones distribute fish and invertebrates
15. Estuaries
a) Estuary​: meeting point between the river and sea
(1) Salinity varies with tides; high nutrients yields high production
(2) Create networks of tidal channels, islands, mudflats, natural levees
b) Saltmarsh grasses and algae are primary producers
c) Common breeding ground for fish and invertebrates
d) Feeding grounds for waterfowl and marine mammals
16. Intertidal Zones
a) Intertidal zone​: alternating under and above water due to tides (2x daily)
(1) Upper vs lower varies in period of exposure/temperature/salinity
(2) Organisms inhabit a specific strata (rocky or sandy)
(3) High O​2​/nutrient levels
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b) Wave action affects presence of seagrass and algae
c) Most animals adapted to attach to rock in rocky intertidal zones; if saddy/muddy
bury themselves
17. Oceanic Pelagic Zone
a) Oceanic pelagic zone​: ocean water far from shore being mixed by currents
(1) Higher clarity causes larger photic zone; thermally stratified
(2) High O​2​ ​levels, lower nutrients than coast; turnover between fall and
spring
b) Large amount of phytoplankton (bloom during spring turnover)
c) Zooplankton also abundant
18. Coral Reefs
a) Coral reefs​: warm water tropical biome primarily populated by skeletal structures
primarily secreted by corals; can also survive in deep or cold water
(1) Skeletal secretion composed of calcium carbonate
(2) Sensitive to temperatures, usually in photic zone with clear waters
(islands)
(3) Require high levels of O​2​ and solid substance to adhere to
b) Fringing reef​: beginning of a coral reef on a young, tall island
c) Barrier reef​: later in island’s history
d) Coral atoll​: occurs at submersion of island
e) Unicellular algae inside coral, red and green algae grow in reef
f) High animal diversity (!!!)
19. Marine Benthic Zone
a) Marine benthic zone​: ocean floor except coastal areas, receives no sunlight
b) Neritic zone​: shallow region of the ocean overlapping at the continental shelf
c) Deeper means color, greater pressure causes adaptations
(1) Sufficient O​2
d) Few photosynthetic organisms (need light) leads to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
(create energy by oxidizing H​2​S)
(1) At mid ocean ridges and vents
e) Deep sea hydrothermal vents​: on mid ocean ridge, associated with volcanic
activity
f) Contains invertebrates and fishes, many reliant upon organic matter raining from
above, often around hydrothermal vents
V. 52.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
A. Species distribution affected by ecology and evolution; abiotic and biotic factors
1. Ecological time​: minute to minute environment and organism interactions
2. Evolutionary time​: over generations
B. Dispersal and Distribution
1. Dispersal​: movement of organisms from their original location
a) Explains geographic isolation
2. Natural Range Expansions and Adaptive Radiation
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a) Adaptive radiation​: rapid evolution of an ancestral species into a new species to
inhabit ecological niches
3. Species Transplants
a) If distribution limited by dispersal can lead to transplant obersacations
(reproduction means success)
b) Potential range greater than actual range
c) Species expanding could negatively impact native species
C. Behavior and Habitat Selection
1. Some species purposefully voice habitats they could inhabit
D. Biotic Factors
1. Other species can limit through predation or competition
2. Abundance or lack of other organisms (pollinators, food resources, parasites, pathogens,
competing organisms) can affect spread
E. Abiotic Factors
1. Physical aspects could prevent a new species from reproducing or surfing
2. Temperature
a) Organisms have a range of temperature they can function in
(1) Some have adaptations, others use energy to maintain healthy temperature
3. Water and Oxygen
a) Some organisms may dry out (desiccate) without water
b) Water impacts O​2​ levels (slow diffusion in water) unless rapid gas exchange
4. Salinity
a) Osmosis means amount of salt in water can impact and organism (water balance)
(1) Inability to osmoregulate so most organisms limited to salt or freshwater
(2) If able to osmoregulate, done with behavior and physiological adaptations
5. Sunlight
a) Provides energy used by most ecosystems (photosynthetic organisms)
(1) Shading or depth can limit availability
b) Excessive light can cause temperature stress
c) Higher elevation causes more UV exposure
6. Rocks and Soil
a) Terrestrial factors are pH, mineral composition, structure of rocks and soil, and
impact on plant/animal distribution
b) Aquatic factors may affect water chemistry and organisms
VI. Summary​: Ecology investigates how organisms and the environment interact and impact each other. The licmat of
the Earth significantly impacts ecosystems and is largely impacted by sun exposure. The microclimate is then
further altered by localized abiotic factors of the area. Terrestrial biomes are significantly affected by the climate.
Climate can affect a terrestrial biomes’s distribution of organisms. Vertical layering further divides these biomes,
as sunlight determines photosynthesizing organisms in each location. Aquatic biomes cover 70% of the Earth and
can be differentiated by their physical environment, not climate. THye are also layered based on light penetration,
which affects the temperature and limits the organisms able to survive. There are marine biomes with saltwater
and freshwater aquatic biomes. Thermoclines divide warm upper water from the colder, lower waters in lakes and
oceans which may experience a phytoplankton bloom during the turnover. Both organisms and characteristics of
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the environment can limit the expansion of a species. This includes the behavior of the species, the other local
species, and abiotic factors such as temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, and soil composition. This is
true for both terrestrial and aquatic biome.