Memory Devices

It is an electronic component or piece of hard ware used to store data.

Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory:

Electronic memory devices: it is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and
compact in size, and can be read written when coupled with the central processing unit(CPU).

▪ It is an integral part of modern computing.

▪ Electronic memory stores data in the form of bits. (they have two states 0 & 1)
▪ Byte is a basic unit of measurement in electronic memory.
▪ Electronic memory can be read or written to. Reading refers to retrieving data from the
memory, while writing refers to storing data in the memory.

History of organic / Polymeric Memory Devices:

▪ During 1968-70, bistable electrical conductivity and resistivity phenomenon was observed in
Polydivinyl benzene and Polystyrene polymer materials. But the performance was not
satisfactory for practical applications.
▪ In 1980’s two stable ferroelectric polarization sates was discovered in polymers. But they
required very high operating voltage of 30V.
▪ In 1995, ferroelectric polymer films as thin as 1nm were fabricated, which requires 1V to
switch between two states.
▪ In 2001, an organic field effect transistors memory devices was demonstrated using a
thiophene oligomer as the conductor and a ferroelectric organic polymer as gate insulator.
▪ In 2000, a WORM type memory device was developed consisting of a thin film P-n silicon
diode.
▪ In 2004, ultrathin film organic materials were discovered with multilevel conductivity states.
▪ The international technology Roadmap for semiconductors has identified polymer memory
as an emerging memory technology since the year 2005.

Classification of electronic memory devices:-

1. Transistor Type Electronic Memory.
2. Capacitor Type Electronic Memory.
3. Resistor Type Electronic Memory.
4. Charge Transfer Effects Electronic Memory.

1. Transistor Type Electronic Memory:

Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is converted to p-type and n-type
semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities. A transistor is a miniature
electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch. A computer memory chip
consists of billions of transistors; each transistor is working as a switch, which can be switched
ON or OFF. Each transistor can be in two different states and store two different numbers, ZERO
and ONE. Since chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros and
ones, and almost every number and letter
can be stored.
Ex: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory),
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Some key materials used in these devices are Silicon, Metal oxides like Silicon Dioxide,
Hafnium Oxide, Polysilicon, Metals like Al, CU, etc.
2. Capacitor Type Electronic Memory:
A capacitor type consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge.
It is used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy.
If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral “1” and hold “0” when the cell is
discharged.
If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges dissipate slowly and
memory would be volatile.
On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in nature, can maintain
permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly switched between two stable states
(bistable) by an external electric field. Thus, memory based on ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM)
is nonvolatile
memory.
Ex: - Dynamic Random Access Memory
Organic and Polymeric ferroelectric materials are used in these type of memory devices.

3. Resistor Type Electronic Memory:

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type memory,
or resistive random access memory (RRAM). Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a
simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal structure generally referred to as MIM structure.
The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M)
electrodes and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil). Initially, the
device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0”state, when resistance changed or
under external applied field changes to low resistance state or “ON” logical value “1”.
Ex: Resistive Random Access Memory (RRAM)
Some key materials used are Metal oxides like TiO2, HfO2, Metals like Pt, Ag, Dielectrics
like SiO2 etc.

4. Charge Transfer Effects Electronic Memory:

This type of electronic device is based on the charge transfer effects of a charge transfer
complex.
A charge transfer complex consists of two parts, one electron donor and other an electron
acceptor. It is called as a donor-acceptor complex.
The conductivity of CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D-A
components.
Ex: Ferroelectric Random Access Memory (FeRAM)

Types of Organic Memory Devices / Materials

These are three class of materials, which can exhibit bistable states and are used in organic
memory devices are called organic memory materials.
Organic electronic memory device stores data based on different electrical conductivity states (ON
and OFF states) in response to an applied electric field.

1. Organic Molecules.
2. Polymeric Materials.
3. Organic – inorganic Hybrid Materials.

1. Organic Molecules:
These are different category of organic molecules, which show bistable or multiscale states,
when external field is applied.
Ex: Pentacene, Perfluoropentacene, etc.,
They are p-type and n-type organic semiconductor materials.
 a) p-type organic semiconductor materials:
An organic molecules with π – conjugated system and possess holes as major charge carrier
is called p-type organic semiconductor materials.

Ex: Pentacene.
• It is a linear aromatic hydrocarbon formed by the fusion of five benzene rings. It obtained in
crystal and thin film form and exhibits a very good hole mobility.
• When a positive voltage was applied between gate and source, it was found no flow of electrons
to drain due to higher energy gap between the Fermi level of gold (source) and LUMO of
Pentacene.
• On the other hand, when a negative voltage is applied between the drain and source, holes are
induced at source. This permits a channel of charges (holes) to drain through semiconductor and
insulator interface when a secondary voltage is applied. Therefore it called as P-type
semiconductor

b) n-type organic semiconductor materials:

An organic molecule with π – conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent groups
and possess electrons as major charge carrier is called n-type organic semiconductor.
Ex: Perfluoropentacene.
When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the resulting
molecules is perfluoropentacene. It have strongly electron withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms,
which exhibits strong electron mobility.
In Pentacene, when hydrogen atoms are substituted by highly electronegative fluorine atoms,
it is called Perfluoropentacene and acts as N-type of semiconductor. When a positive voltage is
applied between source and drain, electrons are induced in the source (gold).This permits the channel
of charges to drain through semiconductor-insulator interface as the bandgap between Fermi level of
gold (source) LUMO energy of Perfluoropentacene is 1.95ev which is lesser than LUMO energy of
Pentacene. Therefore, it is n-type semiconductor.
2. Polymeric Materials:
These are the class of polymers, which exhibit memory effect and used in electronic memory
devices are called Polymeric materials.
▪ One such polymer used for organic memory device is Polyimide with Donor-Triphenyl
amine and Acceptor-phthalimide to form Donor – acceptor structure.
▪ They exhibit two stable charge states under applied electric field. These sates arise due to
transfer of electrons from donor to acceptor. This bistability is used to store data in memory
device.

Donor (D): Triphenyl Amine group (TPA)

Acceptor (A): Phthalimide group

3. Organic – inorganic Hybrid Materials.

Generally, organic- inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing inorganic
material.

a) Organic- carbon allotrope hybrid material

Polymer containing electron donor such as thiophene, carbazole and aniline derivative can be
combined with fullerene to obtain a charge transfer hybrid material.

b) Organic- inorganic nanocomposites

These are the hybrid electronic material device in which organic polymer with the appropriate
functional group is combined with metal nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal oxide
nanoparticles.
Eg : 8-hydroxyquinoline containing polymer with gold nanoparticles sandwiched between
two metal electrodes
 DISPLAY SYSTEM
Electroactive and photoactive materials
Organic semiconductors used in electronic devices are called as electroactive materials.
Organic semiconductors used in optoelectronic devices are called as Photoactive materials.

Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in the UV to IR region.
Display system (OLED) consisting of photoactive and electroactive material absorb light
and allows an electron to jump from HOMO of a Donor to LUMO of an Acceptor.
This phenomenon generate and transport charge carriers.
In an OLED device, the light-emitting layer is excited by the recombination energy of
electrons from the cathode and holes from the anode, and then the light-emitting layer emits
light when returning to the ground state. One of the electrodes consists of transparent material
in order to extract light from the light emitting layer.

Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the
study, design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light
and light into energy through semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices: A hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and
light into energy through semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one energy form to
another.
They can also detect light and transform light signals to electrical signals for processing by a
computer.

working principle

Conduction band

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Optoelectronic devices are special types of semiconductor devices that are able to convert
light energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to light energy.
If the photon has an energy larger than the energy a gap, the photon will be absorbed by the
semiconductor, exciting an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, where it
is free to move. A free hole is left behind in the valence band.
When the excited electron is returning to valence band, extra photon energy is emitted in the
form a light.
This principle is used in Optoelectronic devices.

Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic devices

Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.
The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:
1.Quantum Confinement effect
2.Increased surface area to volume ratio

The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its
bulk, which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.

Properties of Silicon Nanocrystals for optoelectronics

1.Silicon Nanocrystal has wider bandgap energy due to quantum confinement.
2.Si NCs shows higher light emission property(Photoluminescence)
3.Si NCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
4.Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5.Larger surface area-volume ratio.

Applications:
1. Si NCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics
2. SiNCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photodetectors and optoelectronic
synaptic devices

Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices

1. Small organic molecules

Eg : pentacene, perfluoropentacene, and rubrene.

2. Conducting polymers
Eg : Polyacetylene, polyaniline, polythiophene.

Light absorbing materials - Poly(3-hexyl thiophene )

Poly(3-hexyl thiopheneare an important class of conjugated polymers, environmentally and
thermally stable material.
• P3HT is a conjugated polymer belongs to the family of thiophenes where thiophene is
the main chain and hexyl group is the side chain.
• Due to the hexyl group they are soluble in the organic solvents.

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Properties:
1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhib its conductivity due to
holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
2. Poly-3-hexylthiophene(P3HT) have great capability as light-absorbing materials inorganic
electronic devices.
3. P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge transport properties required for
Optoelectronics.
4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.
6.P3HT indicate that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the
degree of Crystallinity.

Applications:
• P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permit the charge carriers to move in opposite
direction and hence, used in Photovoltaic devices.
• It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
• Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
• Manufacture of smart windows.
• Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices

Light emitting material

Poly [9-vinylcarbazole] Light emitting material
Poly(N-vinyl carbazole) (PVK)is one of the highly process able
polymers as hole conducting material and therefore used as an
efficient hole transport material to prepare highly efficient and
stable planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells.

Properties:
1. PVK exhibits photoluminescence.
2. PVK is a good hole transporting material
3. PVK is soluble in common organic solvents
4. PVK is a temperature resistant thermoplastic
5. PVK is a photoconducting polymer , it’s electrical
conductivity increases when it is exposed to
electromagnetic radiation.

Applications:
1. PVK has been commonly used in OLEDs, light harvesting applications and memory
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 devices.
2. Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
3. Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells when combined with TIO on glass substrate.
4. Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with Perovskite materials.

Nanomaterials for Optoelectronic devices

Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.
Nanomaterials of 1-10nm are called Quantum dots (QD’s)
QD’s are the diversity of materials , including Si , Ge , different III-V compounds such as
GsAs, GaN, InN, GaP, InP, different II-VI compounds such as CdS, CdSe, ZnS, ZnSe and
semiconducting oxide such as In2O3, ZnO, TiO2.

The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its
bulk, which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.

Properties of Silicon Nanocrystals for optoelectronics

1.Silicon Nanocrystal has wider bandgap energy due to quantum confinement.
2.Si NCs shows higher light emission property(Photoluminescence)
3.Si NCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
4.Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5.Larger surface area-volume ratio.

Applications:
1. Si NCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics
2. SiNCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photodetectors and optoelectronic
synaptic devices

LIQUID CRYSTALS

Liquid crystals are the distinct states of matter in which the degree of molecules ordering lies
intermediate between the ordered crystalline state and the completely disordered isotropic
liquid.

Director
Liquid crystal show some orientational order.
At any point of time , one molecular axis tend to point along a preferred direction as the
molecules undergo the diffusion. This preferred direction is called Director.

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Classification of Liquid Crystals
Liquid crystals are classified into two main categories namely
1. Thermotropic Liquid crystals
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals

1. Thermotropic Liquid crystals: the class of compounds that exhibit liquid

crystalline behaviour on the variation of temperature alone are referred as
Thermotropic Liquid crystals.
Ex: p-azoxyanisole, p-azoxyphenetole.

Further thermotropic liquid crystals are classified as:

a. Nematic liquid crystals
b. Chiral nematic liquid crystals/twisted nematic liquid crystals
c. Smectic liquid crystals

a. Nematic liquid crystals:

• Nematic liquid crystals are formed by the compounds
that are optically inactive.
• The molecules are elongated Shape and approximately
parallel to one another.
• This phase has orientational order but positional order
is completely absent.
Ex: p-azoxyanisole

b. Chiral nematic liquid crystals/twisted nematic liquid crystals:

• Chiral nematic / twisted nematic liquid crystals are
formed from optically active compounds having chiral centers.
• In this phase the molecules arrange themselves so as to
form a helical structure.
• Both positional and orientational order are absent.
Ex: cholesteryl benzoate.

c. Smectic liquid crystals:

• This phase has small amount of positional
and small amount of orientational order. The molecules
are arranged in regular spaced layers (positional order).
d. Within the layer they tend to point along the director

e. Column liquid crystals /Discotic liquid crystals

1. In these liquid crystals, there is an orientation order
but no positional order.
2. There is a random motion of the molecules
perpendicular to theplane.
3. The molecules orient themselves along the director.
4. The molecules tend to position themselves in columns.

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 2. Lyotropic liquid crystals
Some compounds transform to liquid crystals phase when mixed with another substance (or
solvent) and when the concentration of a solution is varied.
They are usually obtained by mixing the two compounds and increasing the concentration of
one of the components till liquid crystals phase is observed. Such liquid crystals are called
Lyotropic liquid crystals.
Ex: soap molecules, phospholipids

Properties of Liquid Crystals

1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive index
parallel to the director and refractive index perpendicular to the director.
2. They exhibit dielectric anisotropy which is defined as the difference between dielectric
constant parallel to the director and dielectric constant perpendicular to the director.
2.The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
3.Because the molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to
change their orientation slightly.
4.Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
5.Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
6.Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal expansion.
Applications of liquid crystals:
• Liquid crystals are used in Watches, calculators, mobile telephones, laptop computers.
• LC’s are used as Indicators in automobiles dashboards, traffic signals and advertisement
boards.
• LC’s are used in Blood pressure instruments, digital thermometers and TV channel
indicator.
• LC’s are used in pH meter, conductometer, colorimeter and other analytical instruments.

Construction and working of liquid crystal display

The electro optic effect of the liquid crystals to control brightness and darkness of emergent
light is used in information displays. The information is passed on to the user, using liquid
crystal which controls the brightness or darkness of the parts of a display. Numeric display as
seven segments or pixels and alphabets display has fourteen segment displays.

Construction of display
A simple numerical display consists of seven segments ( a,b,c,d,e,f & g) for each digit
which is used to display numbers. The top and bottom glass plates of a display have electrode
pattern. Liquid crystal mixture is filled in the cell by sealing edges. The distance between the
top and bottom glass plate is called cell thickness(4-8mm). All the seven segments are
interconnected to one another as shown in the figure.

Working of display
When the light of the display is ON an electric field is not applied to any of the segments,
then all the segments appear bright. Number display will not display any of the numbers as
shown in the figure.
Now, if the electric field is applied to a,b,c,d and e segments. The liquid crystal molecules in
this segments are aligned to external field, change the rotational angle of light and prevent the
light from passing through the second polarizer. Therefore a,b,c,d & e segments will appear
dark. Number 3 will be displayed as shown
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Similarly applying electric field to only b and c segments will display number 1.

• Watches, calculators, mobile telephones, laptop computers.

• Indicators in automobiles dashboards, traffic signals and advertisement boards.
• Blood pressure instruments, digital thermometers and TV channel indicator.
• pH meter, conductometer, colorimeter and other analytical instruments.

Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)

OLEDs are thin film electroluminescent devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched
between two electrodes.

OLED consisting of two electrodes, an anode and cathode and organic semiconducting
(multiple)layers placed between two electrodes.

When voltage is applied electrons are injected from cathode to first organic material layer called
electron injection layer. Electrons then transported to next layer called electron transportation layer
and then reaches light emission layer at the center.

Similarly holes from anode are injected to first organic material layer called hole injection layer.
Holes then transported to next layer called hole transportation layer and then reaches light emission
layer at the center.

Electrons and holes coming from opposite layer recombine and releases energy which is absorbed
by the organic molecule in the emission site and get exited from ground to higher energy state.when
it returns to ground state it emits light.

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Properties of OLED
1. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for
use in curved or flexible displays.
2. Highcontrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce deep
black sand bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colors.
3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch
on and off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.
4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image
quality is maintained even when viewed from different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like
traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption

Applications of OLED
1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones,
and other electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, streetlighting, and architectural lighting.
3. Wearabledevices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in
wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays,
interior lighting, and taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and
medical imaging. They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help
improve medical procedures and diagnosis

Quantum Light Emitting Diode (QLED)

The structure of QLED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED. But , the difference is
that the light emitting is from the QDs, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanocrystals.

QLED consisting of two electrodes, an anode and cathode and organic semiconducting layers placed
between two electrodes with QD layer placed at the center.

When voltage is applied electrons are injected from cathode to first organic material layer called
electron injection layer. Electrons then transported to next layer called electron transportation layer
and then reaches light emission layer at the center.

Similarly holes from anode are injected to first organic material layer called hole injection layer.
Holes then transported to next layer called hole transportation layer and then reaches light emission
layer at the center.

Electrons and holes coming from opposite layer recombine and releases energy which is absorbed
by the QDs in the emission site and get exited from ground to higher energy state. when QDs returns
to ground state it emits light.

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Properties of QLED
1. Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and
vibrant colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of as specific color
when they are excited by a light source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays
because they do not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the
difference between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting
in more detailed and life like images.
4. Long life span: QLEDs have a longer life span than traditional LCD displays because
they do not suffer from the same issues of back light burnout or color fading overtime.
5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they
can display fast-moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation
of flexible displays that can be bent or curved.

Applications of QLED
1. Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions,
monitors, smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image
quality and color accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
2. Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications,
including automotive lighting, streetlighting, and architectural lighting. They offer
energy-efficient and highly customizable lighting options.
3. Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in
MRI machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
4. Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and
augmented reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate
colors, which can enhance the immersive experience.
5. Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as
digital billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

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Light emitting electrochemical cells ( LEECs)

One of the main drawback of the OLED and QLED devices is the difficulty in the
injection of electron from cathode.
In the LEECs it is overcome by doping organic semiconductor by solid electrolyte
containing anion and cations which can move easily.
When voltage is applied electrons are injected from cathode to organic layer .
Similarly holes from anode are injected to organic layer.
Electrons and holes coming from opposite layer recombine and releases energy which is absorbed
by the organic layer in the emission site and get exited from ground to higher energy state. when
QDs returns to ground state it emits light.

Properties of LEECs
LEECs is simple single layer device and emits light from just single active layer. Therefore LEEC is
thinner and flexible than OLED and QLED.
Requires less power for operation.
LEEC can be solution processed and printed as a thin film.
Manufacturing and processing cost of LEECs is less than other display devices.
Applications of LEECs
They are mainly used as lighting devices
They can be used in display devices.

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