FISH PROCESSING AND PACKAGING VENTURES

Fish and fish products

The small-scale fisheries of developing countries are vital
because they provide a nutritious food which is often cheaper
than meat and therefore available to a larger number of people.
In many countries the bulk of fish is sold fresh for local
consumption. Processing, where this is done, is either to supply
distant markets or to produce a range of products with different
flavours and textures.
Fish is an extremely perishable food. For example, most fish
become inedible within twelve hours at tropical temperatures.
Spoilage begins as soon as the fish dies, and processing should
therefore be done quickly to prevent the growth of spoilage
bacteria. Fish is a low acid food and is therefore very susceptible
to the growth of food poisoning bacteria. This is another reason
why it should be processed quickly. Some methods of
preservation cause changes to the flavour and texture of the fish
which result in a range of different products. These include:
Cooking (for example, boiling or frying)
Lowering the moisture content (by salting, smoking and drying
collectively known as curing)
Lowering the pH (by fermentation)
Lowering the temperature with the use of ice or refrigeration also
preserves the fish, but causes no noticeable changes to the
texture and flavour.
The nutritional significance in the diet
Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains
many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either white,
oily or shellfish. White fish, such as haddock and seer, contain
very little fat (usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as
sardines, contain between 10-25%. The latter, as a result of its
high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E
and K) and essential fatty acids, all of which are vital for the
healthy functioning of the body.
Types of fish products
Cooked fish
Cooking provides short-term preservation of fish and it is usually a
few days before any deterioration becomes noticeable.
A range of methods are used for cooking fish but the principle of
the process remains the same. The flesh of the fish softens,
enzymes become inactivated and the process kills many of the
bacteria present on the surface of the fish.
Boiling and poaching both involve cooking the fish in hot water
whereas frying uses hot oil. The advantage of these techniques is
they are very simple and require no more than basic household
equipment and are therefore suitable for small-scale production.
Cooked fish products are most usually for immediate consumption
and require no sophisticated packaging. The shelf-life can be
extended for a few days by using refrigerated storage and the
product should be covered to prevent recontamination.
Cooled/frozen fish
The spoilage of fish is directly related to temperature. The higher
the temperature, the faster the spoilage up to around 40°C, above
which heat will destroy bacteria and enzymes. Any reduction in
the temperature prior to processing will maintain the quality of the
fish for longer.
Fish can be kept cool by covering it with clean, damp sacking and
placing it in the shade. Although this method is simple and
requires no special equipment, the fish still begins to deteriorate
within a few hours.
An alternative is to pack the fish with ice. This is an effective
method and preserves the fish for a longer period of time.
Obtaining ice, however, can be difficult for the following reasons:
Most ice-making machines are power-operated and therefore
require some kind of fuel. Obtaining fuel can often be difficult and
the machines may prove expensive to operate.
A great deal of ice is required and often the cost of the ice is
greater than the actual cost of the fish.
Freezing is an alternative method for cooling fish. This technique
provides long-term preservation, but it is relatively expensive in
terms of equipment and operating costs. In view of this it is not
recommended for the majority of small-scale fisheries.
Cured fish products
Curing involves the techniques of drying, dry salting/brining
(soaking in salt solution) or smoking. These may be used alone or
in various combinations to produce a range of products with a
long shelf-life. For example:
Drying - Smoking - Drying
Brining - Smoking - Drying
Salting - Drying
Salting - Drying - Smoking
Techniques such as these reduce the water content in the flesh of
the fish, and thereby prevent the growth of spoilage
microorganisms.
Dried fish
The heat of the sun and movement of air remove moisture which
causes the fish to dry. In order to prevent spoilage, the moisture
content needs to be reduced to 25 per cent or less. The
percentage will depend on the oiliness of the fish and whether it
has been salted.
Traditionally, whole small fish or split large fish are spread in the
sun on the ground, or on mats, nets, roofs, or on raised racks.
Sun-drying does not allow very much control over drying times,
and it also exposes the fish to attack by insects or vermin and
allows contamination by sand and dirt. Such techniques are totally
dependent upon the weather conditions. The ideal is dry weather
with low humidity and clear skies.
Drying fish on racks

Alternatives to sun-drying involve the use of solar or artificial

dryers. There has been a great deal of research on the
development of solar dryers as an improved method of drying
fish. This has shown that by achieving increased drying
temperatures and reduced humidities, solar dryers can increase
drying rates and produce a lower moisture content in the final
products, with improvements in fish quality compared with the
traditional sun-drying techniques.
Figure 1: Improved solar dryer

Figure 1 illustrates a solar tent dryer. This was first developed in

Bangladesh, but there are now numerous variations in different
parts of the world. It is probably one of the most simple designs.
Figure 2: Solar tent dryer

Figure 2 shows an improved solar dryer, with a separate collector

and drying chamber. The chimney is painted black to absorb
more heat. This will heat the air inside the chimney, thereby
increasing the air flow through the dryer.
Figure 3: Tray dryer
Figure 3 illustrates an artificially-heated tray dryer. When rain
threatens, the trays, which were previously placed in the sun to
dry, are assembled on top of each other over a simple heating
compartment. A roof and chimney are placed on top, and drying
continues by direct heating.
Both solar and artificial dryers try to overcome the difficulties
posed by sun-drying during the rainy season. With these dryers it
is possible to minimize drying times and to increase the product
quality. It should however, be pointed out that it is only
advantageous to use such dryers if there is a market for a higher-
quality product or if the fish would otherwise be lost.
Salted fish
Most food poisoning bacteria cannot live in salty conditions and a
concentration of 6-10 per cent salt in the fish tissue will prevent
their activity. The product is preserved by salting and will have a
longer shelf-life. However, a group of micro-organisms known as
'halophilic bacteria' are salt-loving and will spoil the salted fish
even at a concentration of 6-10 per cent. Further removal of the
water by drying is needed to inhibit these bacteria.
During salting or brining two processes take place simultaneously:
water moves from the fish into the solution outside
salt moves from the solution outside into the flesh of the fish.
Salting requires minimal equipment, but the method used is
important. Salt can be applied in many different ways. Traditional
methods involve rubbing salt into the flesh of the fish or making
alternate layers of fish and salt (recommended levels of salt
usage are 30-40 per cent of the prepared weight of the fish).
There is often the problem, however, that the concentration of salt
in the flesh is not sufficient to preserve the fish, as it has not been
uniformly applied. A better technique is brining. This involves
immersing the fish into a pre-prepared solution of salt (36 per cent
salt). The advantage is that the salt concentration can be more
easily controlled, and salt penetration is more uniform. Brining is
usually used in conjunction with drying.
Ultimately the effectiveness of salting for preservation depends
upon:
uniform salt concentration in the fish flesh
concentration of salt, and time taken for salting
whether or not salting is combined with other preservation
methods such as drying.
Smoked fish
The preservative effect of the smoking process is due to drying
and the deposition in the fish flesh of the natural chemicals of
wood smoke. Smoke from the burning wood contains a number of
compounds which inhibit bacteria. Heat from the fire causes
drying, and if the temperature is high enough, the flesh becomes
cooked. Both of these factors prevent bacterial growth and
enzyme activity which may cause spoilage.
Fish can be smoked in a variety of ways, but as a general
principle, the longer it is smoked, the longer its shelf-life will be.
Smoking can be categorized as:
Cold smoking. In this method, the temperature is not high
enough to cook the fish. It is not usually higher than 35°C.
Hot smoking. In this method, the temperature is high enough to
cook fish.
Hot smoking is often the preferred method. This is because the
process requires less control than cold processing and the shelf-
life of the hot-smoked product is longer, because the fish is
smoked until dry. Hot smoking does, however, have the
disadvantage that it consumes more fuel than the cold-smoking
method.
Traditionally, the fish would be placed with smouldering grasses
or wood. Alternatively, fish may be laid or hung on bamboo racks
in the smoke of a fire (see below).
Smoking fish traditionally
There are various types of kiln available in different parts of the
world, which are used for smoking. Although traditional kilos and
ovens have low capital costs, they commonly have an ineffective
air-flow system, which results in poor economy of fuelwood and
lack of control over temperature and smoke density. Improved
smokers include the oil drum smoker and the chorker smoker.
Oil drum smoker

Chorker smoker

As well as improved smokers, there are also improved techniques

which involve either pre-salting the fish, so that the moisture
content is reduced prior to smoking. Alternatively there are a
range of improved kiln and oven designs (for details refer to the
equipment catalogue section).

Production of cured fish products

The table below outlines the stages in the production of a range of products:

Process/product Gut Wash Treat DrySmokeDryPack

with salt
Dried fish * * * *
Dried and salted * * * * *
fish
Dry-salted and * * * * * *
smoked fish
Brined and * * * Brine * * * *
smoked fish solution

Equipment required
Processing Equipment
stage
Gut Cutting equipment
Wash
Weighing and
Salt measuring equipment
Brine meter
Smoke Smoking equipment
Solar dryer
Dry Fuel-fired dryer
Electric dryer
 Packaging materials
Pack
Sealing machine
Packaging of cured fish products
The most important concerns regarding packaging for these
products are to prevent moisture pick-up and to prevent
recontamination by insects and micro-organisms. Traditional
packaging materials include cane baskets, leaves, and jute bags.
Alternatives include flexible packaging such as polythene bags, or
wooden and cardboard packs. Indeed, the two may be combined,
as in a polythene bag enclosed in an outer cardboard pack.
Fermented fish
Fermentation is a process by which beneficial bacteria are
encouraged to grow. These bacteria increase the acidity of the
fish and therefore prevent the growth of spoilage and food-
poisoning bacteria. Additionally, salt is used to prevent the action
of spoilage bacteria and allow the fish enzymes and the beneficial
acid-producing bacteria to soften (break down) the flesh.
Fermentation is therefore the controlled action of the desirable
micro-organisms in order to alter the flavour or texture of the fish
and extend the shelf-life.
The use of fermentation as a low-cost method of fish preservation
is commonly practiced all over the world. There are many different
types of fermented products and their nature depends largely on
the extent of fermentation which has been allowed to take place.
They can be categorized as:
fish which retains its original texture
pastes
liquids/sauces.
As with salting, there is little need for equipment other than pans
and containing vessels, and the process may easily be carried out
on a small scale.
The table below outlines stages in the production of a typical
fermented-fish product.
Fish paste (bagoong)
This is a product from Eastern Asia. It is made from whole or
ground fish, fish roe, or shellfish. It is reddish brown in colour,
although this will depend on the raw materials used, and is slightly
salty with a cheese-like odour.
Equipment required
Processing stage Equipment
Wash Clean water
Drain
Gut Cutting equipment
Add salt (approx 5 per Weighing and
cent) measuring equipment
Leave to ferment (for Fermentation bin
several months)
Add colouring (optional)
Pack Sealing machines

Packaging of fermented fish

There are almost as many traditional methods of packaging
fermented fish as there are ways of making it - such as
earthenware pots, oil cans, drums and glass bottles. In the past,
the latter have been used because of their low cost, but
nowadays, cheaper plastic containers tend to replace the
traditional types. The most important function of packaging for
fermented fish products is that the containers should be air-tight,
helping to develop and maintain the airless conditions required for
good fermentation and storage. As the major advantage of these
products is their low cost, the type of packaging is necessarily
restricted. Glass bottles are often used for the better-quality
products, but earthenware pots and even plastic bags are used.