4

CHINA'S CLASSICAL
AGE
TO 221 B.C.E.

> How did war and conquest shape China's

development in the Classical Age? Chapter 4
examines the development of the central features of Chinese
society in the Classical Age. Chinese history is commonly
discussed in terms of a succession of dynasties. The Shang
Dynasty (ca. 1500-1050 s.c.E.) was the first to have writing,
metalworking, cities, and chariots. The Shang were overthrown
by one of their vassal states, which founded the Zhou Dynasty
(ca. 1050-256 s.c.E.). The Zhou rulers set up a decentralized
feudal governmental structure that evolved over centuries
into a multistate system. As warfare between the states
intensified in the sixth century s.c.E., social and cultural
change quickened. It was in this period that the philosophies
of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism were developed.

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88
 > \/\il1at vvas trie
irnpact of Chi m-1 's
gE:og 1·aphy on tile
devt::iopment of
Cl1in es:e :::ocieties';,

> Wh at \1\/a::: lifo like

during thE: Shang
Dy nasty, ,:in cl v11h;:1t
effect d id writ ing
I1:~ve on Cl1inr?s(;:
cultu,e and
gov(?rnmen1..-)

> How was Ch in a

governed, arKI
what Wc\S lifr?, like'
clurin g t he Zhou
Oyn;:1:5ty?

> How clici ach1anc.::s

in milita,·y
tec hnology
con i:i-ibute i:o thE:
rise of inclepenc!(~nt
state::,?
> WilEi i idE:as dicl
Bronze Head from China Archaeological discoveries continue to expand our knowledge of the Con i'ucius 'i"E:acl1 ,
cultures and civilizations of early China. This large bronze mask was found among a large set
of sacrificial offerings in the modern province of Sichuan. These unusual objects, which were
and 1·,ow were they
found only there, suggest a distinct culture. (Sanxingdui Three Star Mound Museum, Guanghan Chengdu sp1·e;:1d ai' ter hi:::
Sichuan, China/© Willi am Perry/Alamy)
cleat~,?

> How clic! tll<3

teach in g::, of
Dao isrn, Le(Jali2,m,
and othet" ~,c hool s
of thou~Jh"I. differ
from Cordu ciani:sr·n?
II what was
the impact
of China's
geography
on the
development
of Chinese
societies?
Neolithic Jade Plaque

This small plaque (2½ inches by 3¼ inches), dating from about 2000 s.c.E., is similar to others
of the Liangzhu area near modem Shanghai. It is incised to depict a human figure that merges
into a monster mask. The lower part could be interpreted as his arms and legs but at the same
time resembles a monster mask with bulging eyes, prominent nostrils, and a large mouth.
(Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology/Uniphoto Press, Japan/Ancient Art & Architecture
Collection, Ltd.)

:Vhe term China, like the term India, does not refer to the same geographical
entity at all points in history. The historical China, also called China proper, was
smaller than present-day China. The contemporary People's Republic of China
includes Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Turkestan, Manchuria, and other territories that in
premodern times were neither inhabited by Chinese nor ruled directly by Chinese
states.

The Impact of Geography

China proper, about a thousand miles north to south and east to west, occupies
much of the temperate zone of East Asia (Map 4.1). The northern part, drained by
the Yellow River, is colder, flatter, and more arid than the south. Wheat and millet
loess were the region's most important crops. The dominant soil is loess -fine wind-
► Soil deposited by wind; it is driven earth that is fertile and easy to work even with simple tools. Because so
fertile and easy to work.
much of the loess ends up as silt in the Yellow River, the riverbed rises and easily

CHAPTER LOCATOR What was the Impact What was life like during
of China's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of how did writing affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese societies? Chinese culture?

90 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE

 ,->-CHRONOLOGY-=: ~
- - - - - - - - - - -- - ~· ■ I - • -

ca. 5000 B.C.E. 500-200 B.C.E.

Emergence of regional Neolithic settlements Golden age of Chinese philosophy

ca. 1500-1050 B.C.E. 453-403 B.C.E.

Shang Dynasty The Art of War

ca. 1200 B.C.E. 403-221 B.C.E.

Evidence of writing found in royal tombs; chariots come into use Warring States Period; decline of the Zhou Dynasty

ca. 1050-256 B.C.E. ca. 370-300 e.c.e.

Zhou Dynasty Mencius

ca. 900 e.c.e. ca. 350 B.C.E.

Book of Songs, Book of Changes, Book of Documents Infantry armed with crossbows

551-479 e.c.e. ca. 310-215 B.C.E.

Confucius Xunzi

ca. 500 B.C.E. ca. 300-200 e.c.e.

Iron technology in wide use; cities spread across the central Zhou Early Daoist teachings outlined in Laozi and the Zhuangzi
states

floods unless diked. Drought is another perennial problem for farmers in the north.
The Yangzi (YANG-zuh) River is the dominant feature of the warmer, wetter, and
more lush south, a region well suited to rice cultivation. The Yangzi and its many
tributaries are navigable, so boats were traditionally the preferred means of trans-
portation in the south.
Mountains, deserts, and grasslands separated China proper from other early
civilizations. Between China and India lay Tibet, with its vast mountain ranges
and high plateaus. North of Tibet are great expanses of desert, and north of the
desert, grasslands stretch from Ukraine to eastern Siberia. Chinese civilization did
not spread into any of these Inner Asian regions, above all because they were not
suited to growing crops. Inner Asia, where raising animals is a more productive
use of land than planting crops, became the heartland of China's traditional ene-
mies, such as the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu (SHUHNG-noo) and Mongols.

Early Agricultural Societies of the Neolithic Age

From about 10,000 B.C.E. agriculture was practiced in China. It apparently origi-
nated independently of somewhat earlier developments in Egypt and Mesopota-
mia but was perhaps influenced by developments in Southeast Asia, where rice
was also cultivated very early. By 5000 B.c.E. there were Neolithic village settle-
ments in several regions of China. The primary Neolithic crops were drought-
resistant millet, grown in the loess soils of the north, and rice, grown in the wet-
lands of the lower reaches of the Yangzi River. In both areas pigs, dogs, and cattle
were domesticated, and by 3000 B.C.E. sheep had become important in the north
and water buffalo in the south. Silk production can also be traced back to this
period.

)
How was China How did advances in What ideas did Confucius How did the teachings of
governed, and what military technology teach, and l1ow were they Daoism, Legalism, and rJ LearningCurve
Check what you know.
was life like during the contribute to the rise of spread after his death? other schools differ from
Zhou Dynasty? independent states? Confucianism?
91
 -<lt,-4 MONGOLIAN
1
SHAtv 4-trs. STEPPE
GOBI
TAKLAMAKAN
DESERT

TIBETAN.
PLATEAU

INDIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN

Bay of
Bengal
Winter monsoon winds
~ Summer monsoon winds \
■
0 250 500 miles
Neolithic settlement, J
co. 5000-2500 BCE 0 250 500 kilomelers

■®Mill ■ The Geography > MAPPING THE PAST

of Historical China ANALYZING THE MAP: Trace the routes of the Yellow and Yangzi
Chinese civilization developed Rivers. Where are the areas of loess soil? Where are the Neolithic
in the temperate regions sites concentrated?
drained by the Yellow and CONNECTIONS: Does China's geography explain much about its
Yangzi Rivers. history? (See also Map 4.2.) What geographical features had the
greatest impact in the Neolithic Age? How might the fact that the
Yellow and Yangzi Rivers flow west to east, rather than north to
south, have influenced the development of Chinese society?

Over the course of the fifth to third millennia B.C.E ., many distinct regional
Neolithic cultures emerged. These Neolithic societies left no written records, but
we know from the material record that over time they came to share more social
and cultural practices. Many practices related to the treatment of the dead spread
to other groups from their original area. Fortified walls made of rammed earth
were built around settlements in many places, suggesting not only increased con-
tact between Neolithic societies but also increased conflict. (For more on life in
Neolithic societies, see Chapter 1.)

- QUICK REVIEW
What were the most important differences between the region
around the Yellow River and the region around the Yangzi River?

CHAPTER LOCATOR WIH; t WQ S \lw iin pr,ct What was life like during
o f Chi1w 's ncoq1:1pily the Shang Dynasty, and
on tl1c cl c,vel opn icnt of how did writing affect
CHAPTER4 Chinese soc ir.ti os'! Chinese culture?
92 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 What was life like
during the Shang
Dynasty, and what
effect did writing
have on Chinese
culture and
government?

Royal Burial s at Anyang

Eleven large tombs and more than a thousand small graves

have been excavated at the royal burial ground at Anyang.
In 2005 seven pits were discovered in which horses and
chariots had been buried to accompany a king in the
afterlife. (© CHINA NEWSPHOTO/Reuters/Corbis)

Arcp.aeological evidence indicates that after 2000 B.C.E. a Bronze Age civilization
appeared in north China that shared traits with Bronze Age civilizations else-
whet:e in Eurasia, such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. These traits included
writing, metalworking, domestication of the horse, class stratification, and cult
centers. The archaeological findings are linked to the Shang Dynasty, long known
from early texts.

Shang Society
Anyang
Shru1g civilization was not as densely urban as that of Mesopotamia, but Shang
► One of the Shang Dynasty
kings ruled from large settlements {Map 4.2). The best excavated is Anyang, -from capitals from which the Shang
which t,he Shang kings ruled for mare than two centuries. At the center of Anyang kings ruled for more than two
were large palaces, temples, and altars. Outside the central core were industrial centuries.

How was China How did advances in What ideas did Confuciusj How did the teachings of
§

j
governed, and what military technology teach, and how were they Daoism, Legalism, and LearnlngCurve
Check what you know.
was life like during the contribute to the rise of spread after his death? other schools differ from
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~ ---------1 93
---·----------·
 areas where bronzeworkers, potters, stone carvers, and
[§.1 Shang Dynasty, ca. 1500 B.C.E. other artisans lived and worked. Beyond these urban settle-
[51 Early Zhou Dynasty, ca. 550 B.C.E.
ments were farming areas and large forests.
Texts found in the Shang royal tombs at Anyang show
that Shang kings were military chieftains. They fought rebel-
lious vassals and foreign tribes, but the situation constantly
changed as vassals became enemies and enemies accepted
offers of alliance. War booty was an important source of the
king's revenue, especially the war captives who could be
made into slaves.
Bronze-tipped spears and battle axes were widely used
by Shang warriors, giving them an advantage over less tech-
nologically advanced groups. Bronze was also used for the
fittings of the chariots that came into use around 1200 B.C.E.
Chariot technology apparently spread by diffusion across
Asia, passing from one society to the next.
Shang power did not rest solely on military supremacy.
The Shang king was also the high priest, the one best quali-
fied to offer sacrifices to the royal ancestors and the high god
Di. Royal ancestors were viewed as able to intervene with
Di, send curses, produce dreams, assist the king in battle, and so on. The king
divined his ancestors' wishes by interpreting the cracks made in heated cattle
■t@#lfJ •
The Shang bones or tortoise shells prepared for him by professional diviners.
and Early Zhou Dynasties,
Shang palaces were undoubtedly splendid but were constructed of perishable
ca. 1500-400 B.C.E.
material like wood, and nothing of them remains today, giving China none of the
The early Zhou government
controlled larger areas than the
ancient stone buildings and monuments so characteristic of the West. What has
Shang did, but the independent survived are the lavish underground tombs built for Shang kings and their consorts.
states of the Warring States The one royal tomb not robbed before it was excavated was for Lady Hao, one
Period were more aggressive of the many wives of the king Wu Ding (ca. 1200 B.c.E.). The tomb was filled with
about pushing out their
almost 500 bronze vessels and weapons, over 700 jade and ivory ornaments, and
frontiers, greatly extending the
16 people who would tend to Lady Hao in the afterlife. Human sacrifice did not
geographical boundaries of
Chinese civilization. occur only at funerals . Inscribed bones report sacrifices of war captives in the
dozens and hundreds .
Shang society was marked by sharp status distinctions. The king and other
noble families had family and clan names transmitted along patrilineal lines, from
father to son. Kingship similarly passed along patrilineal lines. The kings and the
aristocrats owned slaves, many of whom had been captured in war. In the urban
centers there were substantial numbers of craftsmen who worked in stone, bone,
and bronze.
Shang farmers were obligated to work for their lords (making them essentially
serfs). Their lives were not that different from the lives of their Neolithic ances-
tors, and they worked the fields with similar stone tools. They usually lived in
small, compact villages surrounded by fields.

Bronze Metalworking
As in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India, the development of more complex forms of
social organization in Shang China coincided with the mastery of metalworking,
specifically bronze. The bronze industry required the coordination of a large labor

CHAPTER LOCATOR WJ1at w,1s til o i11q ,ar;t What was life like during
o f Ch tr1 ;:1·:•; ~woq , aplly the Shang Dynasty, and
on tlw cl c! Vt~\ o pment of haw did writing affect
CHAPTER 4 Clli rw '..le s oc 1e lic·<t Chinese culture?
94 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
force and skilled artisans. Bronze was used more for ritual than for war in Shang
times. Most surviving Shang bronze objects are vessels that would have originally
been used during sacrificial ceremonies.
The decoration on Shang bronzes seems to say something interesting about
Shang culture, but scholars do not agree about what that is. In the art of ancient
Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia, representations of agriculture and of social hierar-
chy are very common, matching our understandings of the social, political, and
economic development of those societies . In Shang China, by contrast, images of
wild animals predominate. Some animal images readily suggest possible mean-
ings. Birds, for example, suggest to many the idea of messengers that can com-
municate with other realms, especially realms in the sky. More problematic is the
most common image, the stylized animal face called the taotie (taow-tyeh). To taotie
some it is a monster-a fearsome image that would scare away evil forces . Others ► A stylized animal face
commonly seen in Chinese
imagine a dragon-an animal whose vast powers had more positive associations .
bronzes.
Some hypothesize that it reflects masks used in rituals. Others associate it with
animal sacrifices, totemism, or shamanism. Still others see these images as hardly
more than designs . Without new evidence, scholars can only speculate.

The Development of Writing

The survival of divination texts inscribed on bones from Shang tombs demonstrates
that writing was already a major element in Chinese culture by 1200 B.c.E. Writing
must have been developed earlier, but the early stages cannot be traced, probably
because writing was done on wood, bamboo, silk, or other perishable materials.
The invention of writing had profound effects on China's culture and govern-
ment. A written language made possible a bureaucracy capable of keeping rec-
ords and corresponding with commanders and governors far from the palace.
Hence literacy became the ally of royal rule, facilitating control over a wide realm.
Literacy also preserved the learning, lore, and experience of early Chinese society
and facilitated the development of abstract thought.
Like ancient Egyptian and Sumerian scripts, the Chinese script was logographic : logographic
each word was represented by a single symbol (Figure 4.1) . In western Eurasia ► A system of writing in which
each word is represented by
a single symbol, such as the
Chinese script.
FIGURE 4.1 • The Origins of Chinese Writing
The modern Chinese writing system (bottom row) evolved from the script employed by diviners in
the Shang period {top row). (Source: Adapted from Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of
China [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996], p. 26. Reprinted by permission of Cambridge University Press.)

I then
WORD goal, lo show, (men and
ox sheep tree moon earth water declare bowl) heaven to pray
I
SHANG
SYMBOL I
t ~ t j) _Q_ (i)~ljl 21 1 T~
I

MODERN
CHARACTER -t ,I + ',
7F-- JJ _±- -
11<- 7f: it ]:__ 7i!L

How was Chino How dicl c1 d vcmccs in Wh at ideas cli cl Confu c ius How dicJ ll1e teachings of
9ov o1nP.d. c1 ncl wl1z1t 111ilitc1ry techn ology teac h, and how were th ey Dao isni, Le,Jali srn , ancl
§ LemningCurve
Ch ec k wh at you know.
wa s life like during the co ntribute to th e ri se of sp macl aft er his cJoath? oth er school s differ fro m
Zh o u Dyrmsty? in clep encJcnt states? Co nfuci ani sm ?

95
 logographic scripts were eventually modified or replaced by phonetic scripts, but
that never happened in China. Because China retained its logographic writing
system, many years were required to gain full mastery of reading and writing,
which added to the prestige of education.
Why did China retain a logographic writing system even after encounters
with phonetic ones? Although phonetic systems have many real advantages,
especially with respect to ease of learning to read, there are some costs to drop-
ping a logographic system. Since characters did not change
TABLE 4.1 • Pronouncing Chinese Words when the pronunciation changed, educated Chinese could read
Letter Phonetic Equivalent in Chinese texts written centuries earlier without the need for translation.
Phonetic equivalents for the vowels and especially Moreover, as the Chinese language developed regional vari-
perplexing consonants are given here. ants , readers of Chinese could read books and letters by con-
a ah temporaries whose oral language they could not comprehend.
e uh Thus the Chinese script played a large role in holding China
ee; except after z, c, and ch, when the
sound is closer to i in it together and fostering a sense of connection with the past. In
u oo; as in English food addition, many of China's neighbors (Japan, Korea, and Viet-
c ts (ch, however, is like English ch) nam, in particular) adopted the Chinese script, allowing com-
q ch munication through writing between people whose languages
z dz were totally unrelated. In this regard, Chinese characters were
zh j
like Arabic numerals, which have the same meaning however
x sh
they are pronounced (Table 4.1).

- QUICK REVIEW
What were the sources of Shang power and wealth?

CHAPTER LOCATOR What was th e impact Wh.:it was life like du ring
of China's geo graphy the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of l1ow did writi ng affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese societies? Chinese cult ure?
96 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 How was China II
governed, and
what was life
like during the
Zhou Dynasty?

Winged Immortal

Less than 8 inches tall, this bronze candelabra is

in the shape of an immortal. Those who mastered
the secrets of not dying were thought to be able to
fly through the heavens. (Werner Forman/akg-irnages)

The Shang campaigned constantly against enemies in all directions. To the west
of t he Shang were the fierce Giang (chyang). Between the Shang capital and the
Qiarng were the Zhou (joe) . In abo~t 1050 B.c.E. the Zhou rose against the Shang
and defeated them in battle. Their successors maintained the cultural and politi-
cal advances that the Shang rulers had introduced.

Zhou Politics
The early Zhou period is the first one for which transmitted texts exist in some Book of Documents
► One of the earliest Chinese
abundance. The Book of Documents (ca. 900 B.C.E.) describes the Zhou conquest
books, containing documents,
of the Shang as the victory of just and noble warriors over decadent courtiers led speeches, and historical
by an irresponsible and sadistic king. accounts about early Zhou rule.

How did advances in

~ LearningCurve
How was China What ideas did Confucius How did the teachings of
governed, and what military technology teach, and how were they Daoism, Legalism, and
Check what you know.
was life like during the contribute to the rise of spread after his death? other schools differ from
Zhou Dynasty? independent states? Confucianism?
97
 Like the Shang kings, the Zhou kings sacrificed to their ancestors, but they
also sacrificed to Heaven. The Book of Documents assumes a close relationship
between Heaven and the king, who was called the Son of Heaven. According to
the documents, Heaven gives the king a mandate to rule only as long as he rules
in the interests of the people. Because the last king of the Shang had been deca-
dent and cruel, Heaven took the mandate away from him and entrusted it to the
Mandate of Heaven virtuous Zhou kings. This theory of the Mandate of Heaven remained a central
► The theory that Heaven gives feature of Chinese political ideology from the early Zhou period on.
the king a mandate to rule
Rather than attempt to rule all their territories directly, the early Zhou rulers
only as long as he rules in the
set up a decentralized feudal system. They sent relatives and trusted subordi-
interests of the people.
nates with troops to establish walled garrisons in the conquered territories. Such
a vassal was generally able to pass his position on to a son, so that in time the
domains became hereditary. By 800 B.C.E. there were about two hundred lords
with domains large and small.
As generations passed and ties of loyalty and kinship grew more distant,
the regional lords became so powerful that they no longer obeyed the commands
of the king. In 771 B.C.E. the Zhou king was killed by an alliance of non-Chinese
tribesmen and Zhou vassals. One of his sons was put on the throne, and then for
safety's sake the capital was moved east to modern Luoyang, just south of the
Yellow River in the heart of the central plains (see Map 4.2, page 94). However,
the revived Zhou Dynasty never fully regained control over its vassals, and China
entered a prolonged period without a strong central authority.

Life During the Zhou Dynasty

During the early Zhou period, aristocratic attitudes and privileges were strong.
Inherited ranks placed people in a hierarchy ranging downward from the king to
the rulers of states with titles like duke and marquis, to the hereditary great offi-
shi cials of the states, to the lower ranks of the aristocracy-known as shi -and
► The lower ranks of Chinese finally to the ordinary people (farmers, craftsmen, and traders) . Patrilineal family
aristocracy; these men could
ties were very important in this society, and at the upper reaches, at least, sacri-
serve in either military or civil
fices to ancestors were one of the key rituals used to forge social ties.
capacities.
Glimpses of what life was like at various social levels in the early Zhou
Book of Songs Dynasty can be found in the Book of Songs (ca. 900 B.C.E .), which contains the ear-
► The earliest collection of liest Chinese poetry. Some of the songs are hymns used in court religious ceremo-
Chinese poetry; it provides
nies, such as offerings to ancestors. Others clearly had their origins in folk songs.
glimpses of what life was like in
The seasons set the pace for rural life, and the songs contain many references to
the early Zhou Dynasty.
seasonal changes. Some of these songs depict farmers clearing fields, plowing and
planting, gathering mulberry leaves for silkworms, and spinning and weaving.
Social and economic change quickened after 500 B.C.E. Cities began appear-
ing all over north China. Thick earthen walls were built around the palaces and
ancestral temples of the ruler and other aristocrats, and often an outer wall was
added to protect the artisans, merchants, and farmers who lived outside the inner
wall. Accounts of sieges launched against these walled citadels are central to
descriptions of military confrontations in this period.
The development of iron technology in the early Zhou Dynasty promoted
economic expansion and allowed some people to become very rich. By the fifth

CHAPTER LOCATOR What was the impact What was life like during
of China's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of how did writing affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese societies? Chinese culture?
98 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 Bells of the Marquis of Zeng

Music played a central role in court life in ancient China, and bells are among the most impressive
bronze objects of the period. The tomb of a minor ruler who died about 400 s.c.E. contained 124
musical instruments, including drums, flutes, mouth organs, pan pipes, zithers, a set of 32 chime
stones, and this 64-piece bell set. The bells bear inscriptions that name the two tones each bell could
make, depending on where it was struck. Five men, using poles and mallets and standing on either
side of the set of bells, would have played the bells by hitting them from outside. (Hubei Provincial
Museum/Uniphoto Press, Japan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection, Ltd.)

century a.c.E. iron was being widely used for both farm tools and weapons. In the
early Zhou, inherited status and political favor had been the main reasons some
people had more power than others. Beginning in the fifth century wealth alone
was also an important basis for social inequality. Late Zhou texts frequently men-
tion trade across state borders. People who grew wealthy from trade or industry
began to rival rulers for influence. Rulers who wanted trade to bring prosperity
to their states welcomed traders and began making coins to facilitate trade.
Social mobility increased over the course of the Zhou period. Rulers often sent
out their own officials rather than delegate authority to hereditary lesser lords.
This trend toward centralized bureaucratic control created opportunities for social
advancement for the shi on the lower end of the old aristocracy. Competition
among such men guaranteed rulers a ready supply of able and willing subordi-
nates, and competition among rulers for talent meant that ambitious men could
be selective in deciding where to offer their services. (See "Individuals in Society:
Lord Mengchang," page 100.)
Religion in Zhou times was not simply a continuation of Shang practices. The
practice of burying the living with the dead-so prominent in the royal tombs of
the Shang-steadily declined in the middle Zhou period. New deities and cults
also appeared, especially in the southern state of Chu, where areas that had

How was China

governed, and what
was life like during the
Zhou Dynasty?
How did advances in
military technology
contribute to the rise of
independent states?
What ideas did Confucius
teach, and how were they
spread after his death?
l
How did the teachings of
Daoism, Legalism, and
other schools differ from
Confucianism?
~ LearningCurve
Check what you know.

99
 uring the Warring States Period, men could rise to Mengchang promoted trade
high rank on the basis of talent. Lord Mengchang by issuing bronze coi11s ,
rose on the basis of his people skills: he treated Some Zhou coins, like the
his retainers so well that he attracted thousands of one shown here with t11e
talented men to his service, enabling him to rise to prime mold used to cast it. were
minister of his native state of Qi (chee) in the early third shaped like miniature knives
(© Ti1e Trustees of tl1e British
century s.c.E. Museurn/Art Resource, NY)
Lord Mengchang's beginnings were not promising.
His father, a member of the Qi royal family, already had
more than forty sons when Mengchang was born, and
he ordered the mother, one of his many concubines,
to leave the baby to die. She, however, secretly reared
him, and while still a child he was able to win his father's
approval through his cleverness .
At his father's death Mengchang succeeded him .
Because Mengchang would provide room and board to
men who sought to serve him, he soon attracted a few
thousand retainers, many of humble background, some
fleeing justice. Every night, we are told, he ate with them
all in his hall, treating them equally no matter what their Wealth and honor attract while poverty and lowliness
social origins. repel; such is the nature of things. Think of it like the
Most of the stories about Mengchang revolve around market. In the morning it is crowded and in the evening
retainers who solved his problems in clever ways. Once, it is deserted. This is not because people prefer the
when Mengchang had been sent as an envoy to Qin, the morning to the evening, but rather because what they
king of Qin was persuaded not to let so talented a min- want can not be found there [in the evening]. Do not
ister return to help Qi. Under house arrest, Mengchang let the fact that your retainers left when you lost your
was able to ask one of the king's consorts to help him, position lead you to bar them from returning. I hope
but in exchange she wanted a fur coat kept in the king's that you will treat them just the way you did before.*
treasury. A former thief among Mengchang's retainers
stole it for him, and Mengchang was soon on his way.
By the time he reached the barrier gate, Qin soldiers QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS
were pursuing him, and he knew that he had to get 1. How did Mengchang attract his many retainers, and
through quickly. One of his retainers imitated the crow- how did their service benefit him?
ing of a cock, which got the other cocks to crow, making 2. Who in this story benefited from hereditary privilege,
the guards think it was dawn, so they opened the gates and who advanced because of ability? What does this
and let his party through. suggest about social mobility during the Warring
When Mengchang served as prime minister of Qi, States Period?
his retainers came up with many clever stratagems that 3. Many of the stories about Mengchang are included
convinced the nearby states of Wei and Han to join Qi in Intrigues of the Warring States, a book that
in resisting Qin. Several times, one of his retainers of Confucians disapproved of. What do you think they
modest origins, Feng Xuan (schwan), helped Mengchang found objectionable?
withstand the political vicissitudes of the day. When sent
to collect debts owed to Mengchang in his fief of Xue, ·s11; Ji 75 2362. Translated by Patricia Ebrey.

Feng Xuan instead forgave all the debts of those too

poor to repay their loans. Later, when Lord Mengchang
lost his post at court and returned to his fief, most of
his retainers deserted him, but he found himself well
loved by the local residents, all because of Feng Xuan's
p--- Pad
generosity in his name. After Mengchang reattained his ONLINE DOCUMENT PROJECT
court post and was traveling back to Qi, he somplal ned How did rulers and their subordinates interact during
to Feng Xuan about those who had deserted him. Feng
the Warring States Period? Read a selection of stories
Xuan, we are told, got down from the carriage and
from the Warring States Period, and then complete a quiz
bowed to Lord Mengchang, and when pressed said that
the lord should accept the retainers' departures as part and writing assignment based on the evidence and details
of the natural order of things: from this chapter. See inside front cover to learn more.

100
earlier been considered barbarian were being incorporated into the cultural
sphere of the Central States, as the core region of China was called. The state of
Chu expanded rapidly in the Yangzi Valley, defeating and absorbing fifty or more
small states as it extended its reach north to the heartland of Zhou and east to
absorb the old states of Wu and Yue. By the late Zhou period, Chu was on the
forefront of cultural innovation and produced the greatest literary masterpiece
of the era, the Songs of Chu, a collection of fantastical poems full of images of
elusive deities and shamans who can fly through the spirit world.

QUICK REVIEW -
What were the most important differences between
Shang and Zhou society and culture?

How did advances in

~ LearningCurve
How was China What ideas did Confucius How did the teachings of
governed, and what military technology teach, and how were they Daoism, Legalism, and
Check what you know.
was life like during the contribute to the rise of spread after his death? other schools differ from
Zhou Dynasty? independent states? Confucianism?
101
II advances
How did

in military
technology
contribute
to the rise of
independent
states?

Mounted Swordsman

This depiction of a warrior fighting a leopard decorates a

bronze mirror inlaid with gold and silver dating from the
Warring States Period. (From Gugong wenwu yuekan, 91 [1990])

By 400 B.c .E. advances in military technology were undermining the old aristo-
cratic social structure of the Zhou. Large, well-drilled infantry armies able to with-
Warring States Period stand and defeat chariot-led forces became potent military forces in the Warring
►The period of Chinese history States Period, which lasted from 403 B.c.E. to 221 B.C.E. Fueled by the development
between 403 B.C.E. and 221 B.C.E.
of new weaponry and war tactics, the Chinese states destroyed each other one by
when states fought each other
one until only one state was left standing-the state of Qin (chin).
and one state after another was
destroyed.

New Technologies for War

By 300 B.C.E. states were sending out armies of a few hundred thousand drafted
foot soldiers, usually accompanied by horsemen. Adding to their effectiveness
crossbow was the development of the crossbow around 350 B. C.E. The intricate bronze trig-
► A powerful mechanical bow ger of the crossbow allowed a foot soldier to shoot farther than could a horseman
developed during the Warring
carrying a light bow. To defend against crossbows, soldiers began wearing armor
States Period.
and helmets. Most of the armor was made of leather strips tied with cords. Hel-
mets were sometimes made of iron.

CHAPTER LOCATOR Wh Qt WQS the impact What was life like during
of China 's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
011 th e development of how did writing affect
CHAPTER4 Chinese soc ieties? Ch inese culture?
102 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 The introduction of cavalry in this period further reduced the need for a
chariot-riding aristocracy. Shooting bows and arrows from horseback was first
perfected by non-Chinese peoples to the north of China proper, who at that time
were making the transition to a nomadic pastoral economy. The northern state of
Jin developed its own cavalry to defend itself from the attacks of these horsemen.
Once it started using cavalry against other Chinese states, they too had to master
the new technology. From this time on, acquiring and pasturing horses was a key
component of military preparedness.
Because of these developments, rulers wanted to increase their populations,
to have more commoners to serve as foot soldiers and more craftsmen to supply
more weapons. To increase agricultural output, they brought new land into culti-
vation, drained marshes, and dug irrigation channels. Rulers began surveying
their land and taxing farmers. They wanted to undermine the power of lords over
their subjects in order to get direct access to the peasants' labor power. Serfdom
The Warring States,
thus gradually declined. 403-221 B.C.E.
The development of infantry armies also created the need for a new type of
general, and rulers became less willing to let men lead troops merely because of
aristocratic birth. In The Art of War (453-403 B.c.E.), Sun Wu described the ideal
general as a master of maneuver, illusion, and deception. He argued that heroism
is a useless virtue that leads to needless deaths. Discipline, however, is essential,
and he insisted that the entire army had to be trained to follow the orders of its
commanders without questioning them.

The Victorious States

During the Warring States Period, states on the periphery of the Zhou realm had
more room to expand than states in the center. With access to more resources,
they were able to pick off their neighbors, one after the other. Still, for two centu-
ries the final outcome was far from clear, as alliances among states were regularly
made and nearly as regularly broken.
By the third century B.C.E. there were only seven important states remaining.
These states were much more centralized than their early Zhou predecessors.
Their kings had eliminated indirect control through vassals and in their place dis-
patched royal officials to remote cities. Before the end of the third century a.c.E.
one state, Qin, conquered all of the others, a development discussed in Chapter 7.

QUICK REVIEW -
What connections can you make between military and
social developments in the Warring States Period?

How was China

governed, and what
How did advances in
military technology
What ideas did Confuciu j
teach, and how were th ey
How did the teachings of
Daoism, Legalism, and
j.:a
r..l .
LearningCurve
was life like during the contribute to the rise of spread after his death? oth er schools differ from Ch ec k what you know.
Zl1ou Dynasty? independent states? Confucianism?
~-----~~
-------- 103
llwhat
ideas did
Confucius
teach, and
how were
they spread
after his
death?
Serving Parents with Filial Piety

This twelflh-century-c.E. lllustrat·ion ol a passage In the Classic of Filial Piety shows how commoners
should seNe their parents: by working hard at productive Jobs such as ranning and tending to their
parents' dally neecls. The married son and daughter-In-law offer food or drink to the olser couple as
their own children look on, thus learning how they should treat their own parents c1fter they become
aged. (National Palace Museum, Taiwan/The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY)

Tihe Warring States Period w as the golden age of Chinese philosophy, the era
':i.tn.en the "Hundred Schools of Thought" contended. During the same period in
which Indian sages and mystics were developing religious speculation about
karma, souls, and ultimate reality (see Chapter 3), Chinese thinkers were arguing
about the ideal forms of social and political organization and man's connections to
nature.

Confucius
As a young man, Confucius (traditional dates: 551-479 B.c.E.) served in the court
of his home state of Lu without gaining much influence. After leaving Lu, he set
out with a small band of students and wandered through neighboring states in
search of a ruler who would take his advice. We know what he taught from the
Analects, a collection of his sayings put together by his followers after his death.
The thrust of Confucius's thought was ethical rather than theoretical or meta-
physical. He talked repeatedly of an ideal age in the early Zhou Dynasty when

CHAPTER LOCATOR What was the impact What was life like during
of China's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of how did writing affect
CHAPTER4 Chinese societies? Chinese culture?
104 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 everyone was devoted to fulfilling his or her role: superiors looked after those
dependent on them; inferiors devoted themselves to the service of their superi-
\ ors; parents and children, husbands and wives all wholeheartedly embraced what
I
was expected of them. Confucius saw five relationships as the basis of society:
between ruler and subject; between father and son; between husband and wife;
between elder brother and younger brother; and between friend and friend.
Mutual obligations of a hierarchical sort underlay the first four of these relation-
ships-the senior leads and protects; the junior supports and obeys. The excep-
tion was the relationship between friends, which was conceived in terms of
mutual obligations between equals.
A man of moderation, Confucius was an earnest advocate of gentlemanly con-
duct. He redefined the term gentleman (junzi) to mean a man of moral cultivation
rather than a man of noble birth. He repeatedly urged his followers to aspire to
be gentlemen rather than petty men intent on personal gain. Confucius did not
advocate social equality, but his teachings minimized the importance of class
distinctions and opened the way for intelligent and talented people to rise in the
social scale. The Confucian gentleman found his calling in service to the ruler.
Loyal advisers should encourage their rulers to govern through ritual, virtue, and
concern for the welfare of their subjects, and much of the Analects concerns the
way to govern well. To Confucius the ultimate virtue was ren (humanity). A per- ren
son of humanity cares about others and acts accordingly. ► The ultimate Confucian
virtue; it is translated as perfect
In the Confucian tradition, studying texts came to be valued over speculation,
goodness, benevolence,
meditation, and mystical identification with deities. Confucius encouraged the humanity, human-heartedness,
men who came to study with him to master the poetry, rituals, and historical tra- and nobility.
ditions that we know today as Confucian classics.

The Spread of Confucian Ideas

The eventual success of Confucian ideas owes much to Confucius's followers in
the three centuries following his death. The most important of them were Men-
cius (ca. 370-300 B.c.E.) and Xunzi (ca. 310-215 B.c.E.).
Mencius, like Confucius, traveled around offering advice to rulers of various
states. Over and over he tried to convert them to the view that the ruler able to
win over the people through benevolent government would succeed in unifying
"all under Heaven." Mencius proposed concrete political and financial measures
to ease tax burdens and otherwise improve the people's lot. Men willing to serve
an unworthy ruler earned his contempt, especially when they worked hard to fill
the ruler's coffers or expand his territory.
With his disciples and fellow philosophers, Mencius also discussed other
issues in moral philosophy, arguing strongly, for instance, that human nature is
fundamentally good, as everyone is born with the capacity to recognize what is
right and act on it. Xunzi, a half century later, took the opposite view of human
nature, arguing that people are born selfish and that only through education and
ritual do they learn to put moral principle above their own interest. In his view,
much of what is desirable is not inborn but must be taught.
Neither Confucius nor Mencius had had much actual political or administra-
tive experience, but Xunzi had worked for many years in the court of his home
state. Not surprisingly, he showed more consideration than either Confucius or

How WllS China

governed, and what
How did advances in
military technology
What ideas did
Confucius teach, and
How did the teachings of
Daoism, Legal ism, and
l'JI LearningCurve
Check what you know.
was Ille hke d11ring the contribute to the rise of how were they spread other schools differ from
Zhou Dynasty? independent states? after his death? Confucianism?
105
 Mencius for the difficulties a ruler might face in trying to rule through ritual and
virtue. Xunzi was also a more rigorous thinker than his predecessors and devel-
oped the philosophical foundations of many ideas merely outlined by Confucius
and Mencius. Confucius, for instance, had declined to discuss gods, portents, and
anomalies and had spoken of sacrificing as if the spirits were present. Xunzi went
further and explicitly argued that Heaven does not intervene in human affairs.
Still, Xunzi did not propose abandoning traditional rituals. In his view, rulers
and educated men should continue traditional ritual practices such as complex
funeral protocols because the rites themselves have positive effects on performers
and observers. Not only do they let people express feelings and satisfy desires in
an orderly way, but because they specify graduated ways to perform the rites
according to social rank, ritual traditions sustain the social hierarchy.
The Confucian vision of personal ethics and public service found a small but
ardent following during the Warring States Period. In later centuries rulers came
to see men educated in Confucian virtues as ideal advisers and officials. Neither
revolutionaries nor flatterers, Confucian scholar-officials opposed bad government
and upheld the best ideals of statecraft. Confucian political ideals shaped Chinese
society into the twentieth century.
The Confucian vision also provided a moral basis for the Chinese family that
continues into modern times. Repaying parents and ancestors came to be seen
as a sacred duty. Because people owe their very existence to their parents, they
should reciprocate by respecting their parents, making efforts to please them,
honoring their memories, and placing the interests of the family line above per-
filial piety sonal preferences, all of which were aspects of filial piety. Since the family line
► Reverent attitude of children is a patrilineal line from father to son to grandson, placing great importance on it
to their parents extolled by
has had the effect of devaluing women.
Confucius.

- QUICK REVIEW
How did ideas about the family shape Confucian
philosophy?

CHAPTER LOCATOR What was the impact What was life like during
of China's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of how did writing affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese societies? Chinese culture?
106 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 How did the teachings
of Daoism, Legalism, ■
and other schools of
thought differ from
Confucianism?

> PICTURING THE PAST

Inscribed Bamboo Slips
ANALYZING THE IMAGE: Can you spot any
In 1993 Chinese archaeologists discovered repeated characters? Can you see any very
a late-fourth-century-e.c.E. tomb in Hubei simple characters?
province that contained 804 bamboo slips CONNECTIONS: What were the conse-
bearing some 12,000 Chinese characters. quences of recording texts on bamboo or
Scholars have been able to reconstruct more wooden strips? How might doing so have
than a dozen books from them, many of them shaped reading and writing in Zhou times?
previously unknown. (Private Collection/Archives For modern archaeologists who discover
Charmet/fhe Bridgeman Art Library) these texts in tombs, would the medium
used pose any challenges?

During the Warring States Period, rulers took advantage of the destruction of
states to recruit newly unemployed men to serve as their advisers and court assis-
tants. Lively debate often resulted as these strategists proposed policies and
refuted opponents, and new schools of thought emerged. Many of these schools
directly opposed the ideas of Confucius and his followers . Most notable were the
Daoists, who believed that the act of striving to improve society only made it
worse, and the Legalists, who argued that a strong government depended not so
much on moral leadership as on effective laws and procedures.

Daoism
Confucius and his followers believed in moral action. They thought men of virtue
should devote themselves to making the government work to the benefit of the
people. Those who came to be labeled Daoists disagreed. They thought striving
to make things better generally made them worse. They sought to go beyond

How was China How did advances in What ideas did Confucius How did the teachings
governed, and what military technology teach, and how were they of Daoism, Legalism,
l':ii LearningCurve
Check wh at you know,
was life like during the contribute to the ris e of spread after his death? and other schools differ
Zhou Dynasty? independent states? from Confucianism?
107
 everyday concerns and to let their minds wander freely. Rather than making
human beings and human actions the center of concern, they focused on the
Dao larger scheme of things, the whole natural order identified as the Way, or Dao .
► The Way, a term used by Early Daoist teachings are known from two surviving books, the Laozi and
Daoists to refer to the natural
the Zhuangzi, both dating to the third century B.c.E. Laozi, the putative author of
order and by Confucians to refer
to the moral order.
the Laozi, may not be a historical figure, but the text ascribed to him has been of
enduring importance. A recurrent theme in this brief, aphoristic text is the mys-
tical superiority of yielding over assertion and silence over words . Because pur-
poseful action is counterproductive, the ruler should let people return to a natural
state of ignorance and contentment. In the philosophy of the Laozi, the people
would be better off if they knew less, gave up tools, renounced writing, stopped
envying their neighbors, and lost their desire to travel or engage in war.
Zhuangzi (369-286 s.c.E.), the author of the book of the same name, shared
many of the central ideas of the Laozi. The Zhuangzi is filled with parables, flights
of fancy, and fictional encounters between historical figures, including Confucius
and his disciples. A more serious strain of Zhuangzi's thought concerned death.
He questioned whether we can be sure life is better than death. People fear what
they do not know, the same way a captive girl will be terrified when she learns
she is to become the king's concubine. Perhaps people will discover that death
has as many delights as life in the palace.
Zhuangzi was similarly iconoclastic in his political philosophy. In one parable
a wheelwright insolently tells a duke that books are useless because all they con-
tain are the dregs of men long dead. The duke, offended, threatens execution
unless the wheelwright can explain his remark. The wheelwright responds by
arguing that truly skilled craftsmen respond to situations spontaneously; they
do not analyze or reason or even keep in mind the rules they have mastered.
The most important truths they know cannot be written down or even explained
to others . They are simply the result of experience. This strain of Daoist thought
denies the validity of verbal reasoning and the sorts of knowledge conveyed
through words.
Daoism can be seen as a response to Confucianism, a rejection of many of its
basic premises. Nevertheless, over the course of Chinese history, many people
felt the pull of both Confucian and Daoist ideas and studied the writings of both
schools. Even Confucian scholars who had devoted much of their lives to public
service might find that the teachings of the Laozi or Zhuangzi helped to put their
frustrations in perspective.

Legalism
Over the course of the fourth and third centuries s.c.E. , one small state after
another was conquered, and the number of surviving states dwindled. Rulers
fearful that their states might be next were ready to listen to political theorists
who claimed expertise in the accumulation of power. These theorists, labeled
Legalists Legalists because of their emphasis on the need for rigorous laws, argued that
► Political theorists who strong government depended not on the moral qualities of the ruler and his offi-
emphasized the need for
cials, as Confucians claimed, but on establishing effective laws and procedures.
rigorous laws and laid the basis
for China's later bureaucratic
Legalism, though eventually discredited, laid the basis for China's later bureau-

l
government. cratic government.

CHAPTER LOCATOR Whal was life like during

I
Wlrnt was the im pact
of China's geography the Sh ang Dynasty. and
on the deve lopm ent of l1o w did writi ng affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese soc ieties? Chinese cultur e?
108 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
 In the fourth century s.c.E. the state of Qin radically reformed itself along
Legalist lines. The king of Qin abolished the aristocracy. Social distinctions were
to be based on military ranks determined by the objective criterion of the number
of enemy heads cut off in battle. In place of the old fiefs, the Qin king created
counties and appointed officials to govern them according to the laws he decreed
at court. To increase the population, Qin recruited migrants from other states. To
encourage farmers to work hard and improve their land, they were allowed to buy
and sell it. Ordinary farmers were thus freed from serf-like obligations to the local
nobility, but direct control by the state could be even more onerous. Taxes and
labor service obligations were heavy. Travel required a permit, and vagrants could
be forced into penal labor service. All families were grouped into mutual responsi-
bility groups of five and ten families; whenever anyone in the group committed a
crime, all the others were equally liable unless they reported it.
Legalism found its greatest exponent in Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 s.c.E.) . In his
writings he warned rulers of the political pitfalls awaiting them. They had to be
careful where they placed their trust, for "when the ruler trusts someone, he falls
under that person's control." Given subordinates' propensities to pursue their
own selfish interests, the ruler should keep them ignorant of his intentions and
control them by manipulating competition among them. Warmth, affection, or can-
dor should have no place in his relationships with others.
In Han Feizi's view, the Confucian notion that government could be based on
virtue was nai:ve. If rulers would make the laws and prohibitions clear and the
rewards and punishments automatic, then the officials and common people would
be easy to govern. Uniform laws get people to do things they would not otherwise
be inclined to do , such as work hard and fight wars; such laws are thus essential
to the goal of establishing hegemony over all the other states.
The laws of the Legalists were designed as much to constrain officials as to
regulate the common people. The third-century-s .c.E. tomb of a Qin official has
yielded statutes detailing the rules for keeping accounts, supervising subordinates,
managing penal labor, conducting investigations, and many other responsibilities
of officials. Infractions were generally punishable through the imposition of fines.
Legalism saw no value in intellectual debate or private opinion. Divergent
views of right and wrong lead to weakness and disorder. The ruler should not
allow others to undermine his laws by questioning them. In Legalism, there were
no laws above or independent of the wishes of the rulers, no laws that might set
limits on rulers ' actions.

Yin and Yang

Confucians, Daoists, and Legalists had the greatest long-term impact on Chinese
civilization, but the Hundred Schools of Thought also included everyone from logi-
cians, hedonists, and utopians to natural philosophers who analyzed the workings
of nature.
A key idea developed by the natural philosophers was the concept of yin yin and yang
► A concept of complementary
and yang, first described in the divination manual called the Book of Changes
poles, one of which represents
(ca. 900 s .c.E.), and developed into much more elaborate theories by late Zhou the feminine, dark, and receptive ,
theorists. Yin is the feminine, dark, receptive , yielding, negative, and weak ; yang and the other the masculine,
is the masculine, bright, assertive, creative, positive, and strong. Yin and yang are bright, and assertive.

~ Lea rnin,JCurve
How wns Chinn How did advance~ in W ha t id eas cl icl Co nfuciu~ How did the teachings
,Jo vo11 1NI. ,111 cl wl1 a t 1rnli li 11 y tccl111ol o9y tc c, cll . rn 1cl l1 ow w cm tlw y of Daoism, Legalism,
Cher.I< w h;it you know.
wa" li fe like du, i11q the contii buto lo the rise,~ o f "l"'" " I ;,lier 111s cJ call1'' and other schools differ
1 1lou Dync1 sly? 111 c.l opellC.lc nt stntcs ? from Confucianism?
109
 complementary poles rather than distinct entities or
opposing forces. The movement of yin and yang accounts
for the transition from day to night and from summer to
winter. These models based on observation of nature
were extended to explain not only phenomena we might
classify as natural, but also social phenomena, such as
the rise and fall of states and conflict in families. In all
these realms, unwanted things happen when the balance
between yin and yang gets disturbed.
In recent decades archaeologists have further com-
plicated our understanding of early Chinese thought by
unearthing records of the popular religion of the time -
astrological manuals, handbooks of lucky and unlucky
days, medical prescriptions, exercises, and ghost stories.
The tomb of an official who died in 316 B.C.E., for example,
has records of divinations showing that illness was seen
as the result of unsatisfied spirits or malevolent demons,
best dealt with through performing exorcisms or offering
sacrifices to the astral god Taiyi (Grand One).

Phoenix and Tigers

> Competing Views of Politics and Government in Chinese Philosophy:
Divine animals, such as dragons
and phoenixes, are often portrayed Confucianism: Men of virtue should devote themselves to making government work to the
in the art of the Warring States benefit of all people.
Period, especially in the south, Daoism: Political reforms generally made things worse and individuals should avoid
where the art of lacquered wood participation in government.
was perfected. (Werner Forman/ Legalism: Strong government did not depend on the moral qualities of rulers and
akg-images) officials, but on clear, effective laws and procedures.

- QUICK REVIEW
How did ideas about human nature shape
Daoism and Legalism?

CHAPTER SUMMARY
After several thousand years of Neolithic cultures, beginning after 2000 B.c.E.,
Bronze Age civilization developed in China, with cities, writing, and sharp social
distinctions. Shang kings led armies and presided at sacrifices to the high god Di
and the imperial ancestors. The Shang armies' bronze-tipped weapons and chari-
ots gave them technological superiority over their neighbors.
The Zhou Dynasty, which overthrew the Shang in about 1050 B.c.E., parceled
out its territory to hereditary lords. The earliest Chinese books date to this period.
The Book of Documents provides evidence of the belief in the Mandate of Heaven,

CHAPTER LOCATOR Wl1at was the impact What was life like during
of China's geography the Shang Dynasty, and
on the development of 11ow did writing affect
CHAPTER 4 Chinese societies? Chinese culture?
110 CHINA'S CLASSICAL AGE
which justified Zhou rule . The Book of Songs offers glimpses into what life was
like for elites and ordinary people alike in the early Zhou.
By the Warring States Period, which began in 403 B.c.E., the old domains had
become independent states. As states destroyed each other, military technology
made many advances, including the introduction of cavalry, infantry armies, and
the crossbow. Despite its name, the Warring States Period was the golden age of
Chinese philosophy. Confucius and his followers promoted the virtues of sincerity,
loyalty, benevolence, filial piety, and duty. Mencius urged rulers to rule through
goodness and argued that human nature is good. Xunzi stressed the power of
ritual and argued that human nature is selfish and must be curbed through edu-
cation. Daoists and Legalists rejected all these ideas . The Daoists Laozi and
Zhuangzi looked beyond the human realm to the entire cosmos and spoke of the
relativity of concepts such as good and bad and life and death. Legalists heaped
ridicule on the Confucian idea that a ruler could get his people to be good by
being good himself and proposed instead rigorous laws with strict rewards and
punishments. Natural philosophers explained the changes of seasons and health
and illness in terms of the complementary forces of yin and yang.

China's transition from Neolithic

CONNECTIONS farming villages to a much more
advanced civilization occurred
centuries later than in Mesopotamia or India, but by the Warring States Period
China was at much the same stage of development as other advanced societies in
Eurasia. Although many elements of China's civilization were clearly invented in
China-such as its writing system, its method of casting bronze, and its Confu-
cian philosophy-it also adopted elements that diffused across Asia, such as the
cultivation of wheat, the horse-driven chariot, and riding horseback.
Greece, the subject of the next chapter, is located very close to the ancient Near
Eastern civilizations, so its trajectory was quite different from China's. It was also
much smaller than China, yet in time had enormous impact on the wider world.
With India and China in mind, the originality of the political forms and ideas of early
Greece will stand out more clearly. We return to China's history in Chapter 7, after
looking at Greece and Rome.

ONLINE DOCUMENT PROJECT

The Limits of Loyalty
How did rulers and their subordinates interact during the Warring
States Period?
Read a selection of stories from the Warring States Period, and then
complete a quiz and writing assignment based on the evidence and
details from this chapter. See inside front cover to learn more.

How was China

governed , and wl1 at
How did advances in
military teclmology
What ideas did Confucius
teac h, and how were they
How did th e teachings of
Daoism, Legalism, and rill LearningCurve
j w as life lik e during t11e
Zho u Dynasty?
contribute to the ri se of
inde pendent states?
sp, ead after his death? oth er schools differ from
Confuc ianism?
Check what you know.

111
• CHAPTER 4 STUDY GUIDE
GET
STARTED
ONLINE
PJ LearningCurve
Now that you've read the chapter, make it stick by completing the LearningCurve
• activity.

EXPLAIN
Put your reading into practice. Identify each term below, and then explain why it
WHYIT matters in world history.
MATTERS
TERM WHO OR WHAT & WHEN WHY IT MATTERS
loess (p. 90)

Anyang (p. 93)

taotie (p. 95)

logographic (p. 95)

Book of Documents (p. 97)

Mandate of Heaven (p. 98)

shi (p. 98)

Book of Songs (p. 98)

Warring States Period (p. 102)

crossbow (p. 102)

ren (p. 105)

filial piety (p. 106)

Dao (p. 108)

Legalists (p. 108)

yin and yang (p. 109)

To demonstrate a more advanced understanding of the three philosophical

MOVE traditions that originated during China's Classical Age, fill in the chart below with
BEYOND descriptions of three key aspects of these philosophies: core beliefs, social and
THE BASICS ethical teachings, and vision of politics and public life. What problems and
tensions in Chinese society did each of these philosophies attempt to remedy?

Social and Vision of Politics

Core Beliefs Ethical Teachings and Public Life

Confucianism

Daoism

Legalism

112
 PUT ITALL Now, take a step back and try to explain the big picture. Remember to use specific
TOGETHER examples from the chapter in your answers.

DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHINESE ZHOU DYNASTY AND THE WARRING STATES

SOCIETY PERIOD

► How did geography shape the way Chinese ► What innovations did the Zhou introduce into
culture spread and developed? Chinese society and politics? What were there
► What role did the Shang king play in Shang consequences?
society? What was the source of his power and ► What were the social and cultural consequences
legitimacy? of political decentralization during the Warring
States Period?

CHINESE PHILOSOPHY IN THE CLASSICAL AGE LOOKING BACK, LOOKING AHEAD

► What role do hierarchical ► What similarities and differences do you see

relationships play in between Chinese society and government under
Confucian's philosophy? the Shang and society and government in the early
What light does this shed on kingdoms of Mesopotamia? How would you
Chinese beliefs and values explain the similarities and differences you
in the Classical Age? note?
► How would you explain the ► How would you explain the long-term
fact that the Warring States influence of Confucianism on Chinese society
period, a time of unrest and and culture? What elements of Confucianism
conflict, was also the golden might explain
age of Chinese philosophy? its enduring
appeal?

> IN YOUR
Imagine that you must give an oral report to the class answering the following question: How did
OWN war and conquest shape China's development in the Classical Age? What would be the
WORDS most important points and why?