“JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

1.1

ALGEBRA 1
(Introduction to algebra)

by

A.J. Hobson

1.1.1 The Language of Algebra

1.1.2 The Laws of Algebra
1.1.3 Priorities in Calculations
1.1.4 Factors
1.1.5 Exercises
1.1.5 Answers to exercises
UNIT 1.1 - ALGEBRA 1 - INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA

DEFINITION
An “Algebra” is any Mathematical system which uses the concepts of Equality (=), Addi-
tion (+), Subtraction (-), Multiplication (× or .) and Division (÷).

Note:
The Algebra of Numbers is what we normally call “Arithmetic” and, as far as this unit is
concerned, it is only the algebra of numbers which we shall be concerned with.

1.1.1 THE LANGUAGE OF ALGEBRA

Suppose we use the symbols a, b and c to denote numbers of arithmetic; then

(a) a + b is called the “sum of a and b”.

Note:
a + a is usually abbreviated to 2a,
a + a + a is usually abbreviated to 3a and so on.

(b) a − b is called the “difference between a and b”.

(c) a × b, a.b or even just ab is called the “product” of a and b.

Notes:
(i)
a.a is usually abbreviated to a2,
a.a.a is usually abbreviated to a3 and so on.

(ii) −1 × a is usually abbreviated to −a and is called the “negation” of a.

(d) a ÷ b or is called the “quotient” or “ratio” of a and b.

a b

1
(e) , [also written a−1], is called the “reciprocal” of a.
a
(f) | a | is called the “modulus”, “absolute value” or “numerical value” of a. It can
be defined by the two statements

| a |= a when a is positive or zero;

| a |= −a when a is negative or zero.

Note:
Further work on fractions (ratios) will appear later, but we state here for reference the rules
for combining fractions together:
1
Rules for combining fractions together

1.
a
bc c+ ad +
=
b d bd
2.
a c
bc − ad −
=
b d bd
3.
a ca.c
.
=
b d b.d
4.
a c a a.d
d =
÷ = × b.c
b d b c

EXAMPLES

1. How much more than the difference of 127 and 59 is the sum of 127 and 59 ?
Solution
The difference of 127 and 59 is 127−59 = 68 and the sum of 127 and 59 is 127+59 =
186. The sum exceeds the difference by 186 − 68 = 118.
2. What is the reciprocal of the number which is 5 multiplied by the difference of 8 and 2
?
Solution
We require the reciprocal of 5.(8 − 2); that is, the reciprocal of 30. The answer is
therefore 301 .
3. Calculate the value of 4 2 − 51
expressing the answer as a fraction.
3 9
Solution
Converting both numbers to a single fraction, we require
14 46
− = 126 − 138 = −12 = −4
3 9 27 .
27 9

2
We could also have observed that the ‘lowest common multiple’ (see later) of the two
denominators, 3 and 9, is 9; hence we could write the alternative solution
42 4
=− .
46 9
—
9 9

3
 4. Remove the modulus signs from the expression | a− 2 | in the cases when (i) a is greater
than (or equal to) 2 and (ii) a is less than 2.
Solution
(i) If a is greater than or equal to 2,
| a − 2 |= a − 2;

(ii) If a is less than 2,

| a − 2 |= −(a − 2) = 2 − a.

1.1.2 THE LAWS OF ALGEBRA

If the symbols a, b and c denote numbers of arithmetic, then the following Laws are obeyed
by them:

(a) The Commutative Law of Addition a+b=b+a

(b) The Associative Law of Addition a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

(c) The Commutative Law of Multiplication a.b = b.a

(d) The Associative Law of Multipication a.(b.c) = (a.b).c

(e) The Distributive Laws a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c and (a + b).c = a.c + b.c

Notes:

(i) A consequence of the Distributive Laws is the rule for multiplying together a pair of
bracketted expressions. It will be encountered more formally later, but we state it here for
reference:

(a + b).(c + d) = a.c + b.c + a.d + b.d

(ii) The alphabetical letters so far used for numbers in arithmetic have been taken from the
beginning of the alphabet. These tend to be reserved for fixed quantities called constants.
Letters from the end of the alphabet, such as w, x, y, z are normally used for quantities
which may take many values, and are called variables.

1.1.3 PRIORITIES IN CALCULATIONS

Suppose that we encountered the expression 5 × 6 − 4. It would seem to be ambiguous,

meaning either 30 − 4 = 26 or 5 × 2 = 10.

4
However, we may remove the ambiguity by using brackets where necessary, together with a
rule for precedence between the use of the brackets and the symbols +, −, × and ÷.

The rule is summarised in the abbreviation

B.O.D.M.A.S.

which means that the order of precedence is

B brackets () First Priority

O of × Joint Second Priority

D division ÷ Joint Second Priority
M multiplication × Joint Second Priority

A addition + Joint Third Priority

S subtraction — Joint Third Priority

Thus, 5 × (6 − 4) = 5 × 2 = 10
but 5 × 6 − 4 = 30 − 4 = 26.

Similarly, 12 ÷ 3 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3
whereas 12 ÷ (3 − 1) = 12 ÷ 2 = 6.

1.1.4 FACTORS

If a number can be expressed as a product of other numbers, each of those other numbers is
called a “factor” of the original number.

EXAMPLES

1. We may observe that

70 = 2 × 7 × 5
so that the number 70 has factors of 2, 7 and 5. These three cannot be broken down into
factors themselves because they are what are known as “prime” numbers (numbers
whose only factors are themselves and 1). Hence the only factors of 70, apart from 70
and 1, are 2, 7 and 5.
2. Show that the numbers 78 and 182 have two common factors which are prime numbers.
The two factorisations are as follows:
78 = 2 × 3 × 13,

5
 182 = 2 × 7 × 13.
The common factors are thus 2 and 13, both of which are prime numbers.

Notes:

(i) If two or more numbers have been expressed as a product of their prime factors, we may
easily identify the prime factors which are common to all the numbers and hence obtain the
“highest common factor”, h.c.f.

For example, 90 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 and 108 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3. Hence the h.c.f = 2 × 3 × 3 = 18

(ii) If two or more numbers have been expressed as a product of their prime factors, we
may also identify the “lowest common multiple”, l.c.m.

For example, 15 = 3 × 5 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5. Hence the smallest number into which both
15 and 20 will divide requires two factors of 2 (for 20), one factor of 5 (for both 15 and 20) and
one factor of 3 (for 15). The l.c.m. is thus 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60.

(iii) If the numerator and denominator of a fraction have factors in common, then such
factors may be cancelled to leave the fraction in its “lowest terms”.
15 3×5
For example = = 1.
105 3×5×7 7

1.1.5 EXERCISES

1. Find the sum and product of

(a) 3 and 6; (b) 10 and 7; (c) 2, 3 and 6;
(d) 3 and 4 ; (e) 1 2 and 7 3 ; (f) 2 1 and 5 4
.
2 11 5 4 7 21

2. Find the difference between and quotient of

(a) 18 and 9; (b) 20 and 5; (c) 100 and 20;
(d) 3 and 7 ; (e) 3 1 and 2 2 ; (f) 1 2 and 5 5 .
5 10 4 9 3 6

3. Evaluate the following expressions:

(a) 6 − 2 × 2; (b) (6 − 2) × 2;
(c) 6 ÷ 2 − 2; (d) (6 ÷ 2) − 2;
(e) 6 − 2 + 3 × 2; (f) 6 −16(2 + 3) × 2;
(g) (6 − 2) + 3 × 2; (h) ; (i) −24 ; (j) (−6) × (−2).
−2 −3

6
4. Place brackets in the following to make them correct:
(a) 6 × 12 − 3 + 1 = 55; (b) 6 × 12 − 3 + 1 = 68;
(c) 6 × 12 − 3 + 1 = 60; (d) 5 × 4 − 3 + 2 = 7;
(e) 5 × 4 − 3 + 2 = 15; (f) 5 × 4 − 3 + 2 = −5.
5. Express the following as a product of prime factors:
(a) 26; (b) 100; (c) 27; (d) 71;
(e) 64; (f) 87; (g) 437; (h) 899.
6. Find the h.c.f of
(a) 12, 15 and 21; (b) 16, 24 and 40; (c) 28, 70, 120 and 160;
(d) 35, 38 and 42; (e) 96, 120 and 144.
7. Find the l.c.m of
(a) 5, 6, and 8; (b) 20 and 30; (c) 7, 9 and 12;
(d) 100, 150 and 235; (e) 96, 120 and 144.

7
 “JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

1.2

ALGEBRA 2
(Numberwork)

by

A.J. Hobson

1.2.1 Types of number

1.2.2 Decimal numbers
1.2.3 Use of electronic calculators
1.2.4 Scientific notation
1.2.5 Percentages
1.2.6 Ratio
1.2.7 Exercises
1.2.8 Answers to exercises
UNIT 1.2 - - ALGEBRA 2 - NUMBERWORK

1.2.1 TYPES OF NUMBER

In this section (and elsewhere) the meaning of the following types of numerical quantity will
need to be appreciated:

(a) NATURAL NUMBERS

These are the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, .......

(b) INTEGERS
These are the positive and negative whole numbers and zero;
i.e. ......−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ......

(c) RATIONALS
These are the numbers which can be expressed as the ratio of two integers but can also be
written as a terminating or recurring decimal (see also next section)

For example
2
= 0.4
5
and
3
= 0.428714287142871....
7

(d) IRRATIONALS
These are the numbers which cannot be expressed as either the ratio of two integers or a
recurring decimal (see also next section)

Typical examples are numbers like

π ' 3.1415926.....
e ' 2.71828.....
√
2 ' 1.4142135....
√
5 ' 2.2360679....

The above four types of number form the system of “real numbers”.

1
1.2.2 DECIMAL NUMBERS

(a) Rounding to a specified number of decimal places

Most decimal quantities used in scientific work need to be approximated by “rounding”
them (up or down as appropriate) to a specified number of decimal places, depending on the
accuracy required.

When rounding to n decimal places, the digit in the n-th place is left as it is when the one
after it is below 5; otherwise it is taken up by one digit.

EXAMPLES

1. 362.5863 = 362.586 to 3 decimal places;

362.5863 = 362.59 to 2 decimal places;
362.5863 = 362.6 to 1 decimal place;
362.5863 = 363 to the nearest whole number.
2. 0.02158 = 0.0216 to 4 decimal places;
0.02158 = 0.022 to three decimal places;
0.02158 = 0.02 to 2 decimal places.

(b) Rounding to a specified number of significant figures

The first significant figure of a decimal quantity is the first non-zero digit from the left,
whether it be before or after the decimal point.

Hence when rounding to a specified number of significant figures, we use the same
principle as in (a), but starting from the first significant figure, then working to the right.

EXAMPLES

1. 362.5863 = 362.59 to 5 significant figures;

362.5863 = 362.6 to 4 significant figures;
362.5863 = 363 to 3 significant figures;
362.5863 = 360 to 2 significant figures;
362.5863 = 400 to 1 significant figure.
2. 0.02158 = 0.0216 to 3 significant figures; 0.02158 = 0.022 to 2 significant figures;
0.02158 = 0.02 to 1 significant figure.

2
1.2.3 THE USE OF ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS

(a) B.O.D.M.A.S.
The student will normally need to work to the instruction manual for the particular
calculator being used; but care must be taken to remember the B.O.D.M.A.S. rule for
priorities in calculations when pressing the appropriate buttons.

For example, in working out 7.25 + 3.75 × 8.32, the multiplication should be carried out
first, then the addition. The answer is 38.45, not 91.52.

Similarly, in working out 6.95 ÷ [2.43 − 1.62], it is best to evaluate 2.43 − 1.62, then generate
its reciprocal with the 1x button, then multiply by 6.95. The answer is 8.58, not 1.24

(b) Other Useful Numerical Functions

Other useful functions to become
√ familiar with
1
for scientific work with numbers are those
2 y
indicated by labels such as x, x , x and x , using, where necessary, the “shift” control
y

to bring the correct function into operation.

For example:
√
173 ' 13.153;
1732 = 29929;
233 = 12167;
1
233 ' 2.844

(c) The Calculator Memory

Familiarity with the calculator’s memory facility will be essential for more complicated cal-
culations in which various parts need to be stored temporarily while the different steps are
being carried out.

For example, in order to evaluate

(1.4)3 − 2(1.4)2 + 5(1.4) − 3 ' 2.824

we need to store each of the four terms in the calculation (positively or negatively) then
recall their total sum at the end.

3
1.2.4 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

(a) Very large numbers, especially decimal numbers are customarily written in the form
a × 10n
where n is a positive integer and a lies between 1 and 10.

For instance,
521983677.103 = 5.21983677103 × 108.

(b) Very small decimal numbers are customarily written in the form
a × 10−n
where n is a positive integer and a lies between 1 and 10.

For instance,
0.00045938 = 4.5938 × 10−4.

Note:
An electronic calculator will allow you to enter numbers in scientific notation by using the
EXP or EE buttons.

EXAMPLES

1. Key in the number 3.90816 × 1057 on a calculator.

Press 3.90816 EXP 57
In the display there will now be 3.90816 57 or 3.90816×1057.
2. Key in the number 1.5 × 10−27 on a calculator
Press 1.5 EXP 27 +/-
In the display there will now be 1.5 - 27 or 1.5×10−27.

Notes:

(i) On a calculator or computer, scientific notation is also called floating point notation.

(ii) When performing a calculation involving decimal numbers, it is always a good idea to
check that the result is reasonable and that a major arithmetical error has not been made
with the calculator.

4
For example,
69.845 × 196.574 = 6.9845 × 101 × 1.96574 × 103.
This product can be estimated for reasonableness as:
7 × 2 × 1000 = 14000.
The answer obtained by calculator is 13729.71 to two decimal places which is 14000 when
rounded to the nearest 1000, indicating that the exact result could be reasonably expected.

(iii) If a set of measurements is made with an accuracy to a given number of significant

figures, then it may be shown that any calculation involving those measurements will be
accurate only to one significant figure more than the least number of significant figures in
any measurement.

For example, the edges of a rectangular piece of cardboard are measured as 12.5cm and
33.43cm respectively and hence the area may be evaluated as
12.5 × 33.43 = 417.875cm2.

Since one of the edges is measured only to three significant figures, the area result is accurate
only to four significant figures and hence must be stated as 417.9cm2.

1.2.5 PERCENTAGES

Definition
A percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100. We use the per-cent symbol, %, to
represent a percentage.
17
For instance, the fraction may be written 17%
100

EXAMPLES

1. Express 2 as a percentage.
5
Solution
2 2 20 40

= × = = 40%
2. Calculate 27% of 90. 5 5 20 100
Solution
27 27
27% of 90 = × 90 = × 9 = 24.3
100 10
5
 3. Express 30% as a decimal.
Solution

30
30% = = 0.3
100

1.2.6 RATIO

Sometimes, a more convenient way of expressing the ratio of two numbers is to use a
colon (:) in place of either the standard division sign (÷) or the standard notation for
fractions.
For instance, the expression 7:3 could be used instead of either 7÷ 3 or 7 . It denotes that
3
two quantities are “in the ratio 7 to 3” which implies that the first number is seven thirds
times the second number or, alternatively, the second number is three sevenths times the
first number. Although more cumbersome, the ratio 7:3 could also be written 7 :1 or 1: 3 .
3 7

EXAMPLES

1. Divide 170 in the ratio 3:2

Solution
We may consider that 170 is made up of 3 + 2 = 5 parts, each of value 170
5
= 34.
Three of these make up a value of 3 × 34 = 102 and two of them make up a value of
2 × 34 = 68.
Thus 170 needs to be divided into 102 and 68.
2. Divide 250 in the ratio 1:3:4
Solution
This time, we consider that 250 is made up of 1 + 3 + 4 = 8 parts, each of value
250
8 = 31.25. Three of these make up a value of 3 × 31.25 = 93.75 and four of them
make up a value of 4 × 31.25 = 125.
Thus 250 needs to be divided into 31.25, 93.75 and 125.

6
1.2.7 EXERCISES

1. Write to 3 s.f.
(a) 6962; (b) 70.406; (c) 0.0123;
(d) 0.010991; (e) 45.607; (f) 2345.
2. Write 65.999 to
(a) 4 s.f. (b) 3 s.f. (c) 2 s.f.
(d) 1 s.f. (e) 2 d.p. (f) 1 d.p.
3. Compute the following in scientific notation:
(a) (0.003)2 × (0.00004) × (0.00006) × 5, 000, 000, 000;
(b) 800 × (0.00001)2 ÷ (200, 000)4 .
4. Assuming that the following contain numbers obtained by measurement, use a calculator
to determine their value and state the expected level of accuracy:
(a)
(13.261)0.5(1.2)
;
(5.632)3
(b)
(8.342)(—9.456)3
.
(3.25)4
5. Calculate 23% of 124.
6. Express the following as percentages:
(a) 9 ; (b) 15 ; (c) 9 ; (d) 45 ; (e) 75 .
11 20 10 50 90

7. A worker earns £400 a week, then receives a 6% increase. Calculate the new weekly
wage.
8. Express the following percentages as decimals:
(a) 50% (b) 36% (c) 75% (d) 100% (e) 12.5%
9. Divide 180 in the ratio 8:1:3
10. Divide 930 in the ratio 1:1:3
11. Divide 6 in the ratio 2:3:4
12. Divide 1200 in the ratio 1:2:3:4
13. A sum of £2600 is to be divided in the ratio 23
4
: 112 : 2 14 . Calculate the amount of
money in each part of the division.

7
8
 “JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

1.3

ALGEBRA 3
(Indices and radicals (or surds))

by

A.J.Hobson

1.3.1 Indices
1.3.2 Radicals (or Surds)
1.3.3 Exercises
1.3.4 Answers to exercises
UNIT 1.3 - ALGEBRA 3 - INDICES AND RADICALS (or Surds)

1.3.1 INDICES

(a) Positive Integer Indices

It was seen earlier that, for any number a, a2 denotes a.a, a3 denotes a.a.a, a4 denotes a.a.a.a
and so on.

Suppose now that a and b are arbitrary numbers and that m and n are natural numbers (i.e.
positive whole numbers)

Then the following rules are the basic Laws of Indices:

Law No. 1
am × an = am+n

Law No. 2

am ÷ an = am−n
assuming, for the moment, that m is greater than n.

Note:
It is natural to use this rule to give a definition to a0 which would otherwise be meaningless.
m
Clearly a = 1 but the present rule for indices suggests that a
a
m
= am−m = a0.
a m
m
Hence, we define a0 to be equal to 1.

Law No. 3
(am)n = amn
ambm = (ab)m

EXAMPLE

Simplify the expression,

x2y3 xy
÷ .
z z5
Solution

The expression becomes

x2y3 z5 2 4

1
 × = xy z .
z xy

2
(b) Negative Integer Indices

Law No. 4
1
a−1 =
a

Note:
It has already been mentioned that a−1 means the same as 1a ; and the logic behind this
statement is to maintain the basic Laws of Indices for negative indices as well as positive
ones.
m
a
For example is clearly the same as 1
a but, using Law No. 2 above, it could also be
a m+
1 m−[m+1]
thought of as a = a−1.

Law No. 5
1
a−n =
an
Note:
m
a
This time, we may observe that a m+ is clearly the same as 1
; but we could also use Law
n a
n
m−[m+n]
No. 2 to interpret it as a =a −n

Law No. 6
a−∞ = 0

Note:
Strictly speaking, no power of a number can ever be equal to zero, but Law No. 6 asserts
that a very large negative power of a number a gives a very small value; the larger the
negative power, the smaller will be the value.

EXAMPLE

Simplify the expression,

x5y2z−3 z2x2 .
÷
x−1y4z5 y−1

Solution

The expression becomes

x5y2z−3xy−4z−5y−1z−2x−2 = x4y−3z−10.

3
(c) Rational Indices
1
(i) Indices of the form n where n is a natural number.
1
In order to preserve Law No. 3, we interpret a n to mean a number which gives the value a
when it is raised to the power n. It is called an “n-th Root of a” and, sometimes there is
more than one value.

ILLUSTRATION

1 1
814 = ±3 but (−27)3 = −3 only.

m
(ii) Indices of the form where m and n are natural numbers with no common
n
factor.
m 1
The expression y n may be interpreted in two ways as either (ym) n or y n )m. It may be shown
1 (
that both interpretations give the same result but, sometimes, the arithmetic is shorter with
one rather than the other.

ILLUSTRATION

2 2 1
2
273 = 3 = 9 or 273 = 7293 = 9.

Note:
It may be shown that all of the standard laws of indices may be used for fractional indices.

1.3.2 RADICALS (or Surds)

√
The symbol “ ” is called a “radical” (or “√surd ”). It is √use d to indicate the positive
or
“principal” square root of a number. Thus 16 = 4 and 25 = 5.

The number under the radical is called the “radicand”.

Most of our work on radicals will deal with square roots, but we may have occasion to use
other
√ n roots of a number. For instance the principal n-th root of a number a is denoted
n
by a, and is a number x such that x = a. The number n is called the index of the
radical but, of course, when n = 2 we usually leave the index out.

4
ILLUSTRATIONS
√
3
1. 64 = 4 since 43 = 64.
√
3
2. −64 = −4 since (−4)3 = −64.
√
4
3. 81 = 3 since 34 = 81.
√
5
4. 32 = 2 since 25 = 32.
√
5
5. −32 = −2 since (−2)5 = −32.

Note:
If the index of the radical is an odd number, then the radicand may be positive or negative;
but if the index of the radical is an even number, then the radicand may not be negative
since no even power of a negative number will ever give a negative result.

(a) Rules for Square Roots

In preparation for work which will follow in the next section, we list here the standard rules
for square roots:
√
(i) ( a)2 = a
√
(ii) a2 = |a|
√ √ √
(iii) qab = √ a b
a a
(iv) =
√
b b
assuming that all of the radicals can be evaluated.

ILLUSTRATIONS
√ √ √ √
1. q9 × 4 =√ 36 = 6 and
√ 9 × 4 = 3 × 2 = 6.
144 144 12
2. = 4 = 2 and = = 2.
√
36 36 6

5
(b) Rationalisation of Radical (or Surd) Expressions.

It is often desirable to eliminate expressions containing radicals from the denominator of a

quotient. This process is called

rationalising the denominator.

The process involves multiplying numerator and denominator of the quotient by the same
amount - an amount which eliminates the radicals in the denominator (often using the fact
that√the square root of a number multiplied by itself gives just the number;
i.e. √a. a = a). We illustrate with examples:

EXAMPLES

5
1. Rationalise the surd form √
4 3
Solution
√
We simply multiply numerator and denominator by 3 to give
√ √
5 5 3 5 3
√ = √ ×√ = .
4 3 4 3 3 12
3
√
2. Rationalise the surd form 3
√a
b
Solution
Here we observe that, if we can convert the denominator into the cube root of bn, where
n is a whole multiple of 3, then the square root sign will disappear.
We have √ √ √
3 3
√ 3
ab2 3
ab2
a

√
3
a b2
√ = √ × √ = √ = .
3
b 3 √b 3√ b2 3
b3 b
If the denominator is of the
√ form
√ a + b, we multiply the numerator and the denom-
inator by the expression a − b because
√ √ √ √
( a + b)( a − b) = a − b.

4√
3. Rationalise the surd form √ .
5+ 2
Solution
√ √
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 5 − 2 gives
√ √ √ √
4 5− 2 4 5−4 2
6
√ √ ×√ √ = .
5+ 2 5− 2 3

7
 4. Rationalise the surd form √1 .
3−1
Solution
√
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 3 + 1 gives
√ √
1 3+1 3+1
√ ×√ = .
3−1 3+1 2

(c) Changing numbers to and from radical form

m
The modulus of any number of the form a n can be regarded as the principal n-th root of
am; i.e. m
n√
| a n |= am.

If a number of the type shown on the left is converted to the type on the right, we are said
to have expressed it in radical form.

If a number of the type on the right is converted to the type on the left, we are said to have
expressed it in exponential form.

Note:
The word “exponent” is just another word for “power” or “index” and the standard
rules of indices will need to be used in questions of the type discussed here.

EXAMPLES

2
1. Express the number x 5 in radical form.
Solution
The answer is just √
5
x2.
√
2. Express the number 3 a5b4 in exponential form.
Solution
Here we have √ 1 5 4
3 5 4 5 4 3
a b = (a b ) = a b 3 . 3

8
1.3.3 EXERCISES

1. Simplify
(a) 57 × 513; (b) 98 × 95; (c) 112 × 113 × 114.
2. Simplify
3 18 20
(a) 15 ; (b) 4
; (c) 5
.
152 49 519
3. Simplify
(a) a7a3; (b) a4a5;
(c) b11b10b; (d) 3x6 × 5x9.
4. Simplify
(a) (73)2; (b) (42)8; (c) (79)2.
5. Simplify
(a) (x2y3)(x3y2); (b) (2x2)(3x4);
2 3
6c d
(c) (a2bc2)(b2ca); (d) 3cd2.

6. Simplify
(a) (4−3)2 (b) a13a−2;
(c) x−9x−7; (d) x−21x2x;
2 1
x y
−
z2
(e) z3
÷ x−1y3
.
7. Without
−8
using−5 a calculator, evaluate the following:
(a) 4 ; (b) 3 .
4−6 3−8

8. Evaluate the following:

1 1
(a) 643 ; (b) 1442 ;
1 1
(c) 16−4 ; (d) 25−2 ;
3 2
(e) 162 ; (f) 125−3 .
9. Simplify the following radicals:
√ √ q
2
(a) −3 −8; (b) 36x4; (c) 36b9a2 .
10. Rationalise the following surd forms:
3
√ √
√ √
(a) √2;
18 2+ 5
; a√ .
√ ; (c) √
a+3 b
(b)
3 3
2
(d)
√
3−2
11. Change the following to exponential form:

9
 √ √ √
(a) 4
72; (b) 5
a2b; (c) 3
95.

1
0
12. Change the following to radical form:
3 5 7
(a) b 5 ; (b) r 3 ; (c) s 3 .

1.3.4 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1. (a) 520; (b) 913; (c) 119.

2. (a) 15; (b) 49; (c) 5.
3. (a) a10; (b) a9; (c) b22; (d) 15x15.
4. (a) 76; (b) 416; (c) 718.
5. (a) x5y5; (b) 6x6; (c) a3b3c3; (d) 2cd.
6. (a) 4−6; (b) a11; (c) x−16; (d) x−18; (e) xy2z−5.
1
7. (a) 16
; (b) 27.
8. (a) 4; (b) ±12; (c) ± 12 ;
(d) ± 15; (e) ±64; (f) 1
25
;
a
9. (a) 2; (b) 6x2; (c) 2 .
√ 3
√ √
b √ √ √
6 72 a−3 ab
10. (a) ; (b) = 3 9; (c) −(2 + 5)(2 + 3); (d) .
3 2 a−9b
1 2 1 5
11. (a) 7 2 ; (b) a 5 b 5 ; (c) 9 3
√ . √ √
12. (a) b ; (b) 3 r5; (c) 3 s7.
5 3

1
1
 “JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

1.4

ALGEBRA 4
(Logarithms)

by

A.J.Hobson

1.4.1 Common logarithms

1.4.2 Logarithms in general
1.4.3 Useful Results
1.4.4 Properties of logarithms
1.4.5 Natural logarithms
1.4.6 Graphs of logarithmic and exponential functions
1.4.7 Logarithmic scales
1.4.8 Exercises
1.4.9 Answers to exercises
UNIT 1.4 - ALGEBRA 4 - LOGARITHMS

1.4.1 COMMON LOGARITHMS

The system of numbers with which we normally count and calculate has a base of 10; this
means that each of the successive digits of a particular number correspond to that digit
multiplied by a certain power of 10.

For example
73, 520 = 7 × 104 + 3 × 103 + 5 × 102 + 2 × 101.

Note:
Other systems (not discussed here) are sometimes used - such as the binary system which
uses successive powers of 2.

The question now arises as to whether a given number can be expressed as a single power
of 10, not necessarily an integer power. It will certainly need to be a positive number since
powers of 10 are not normally negative (or even zero).

It can easily be verified by calculator, for instance that

1.99526 ' 100.3
and
2 ' 100.30103.

DEFINITION
In general, when it occurs that
x = 10y,
for some positive number x, we say that y is the “logarithm to base 10” of x
(or “ common logarithm” of x) and we write
y = log10 x.

EXAMPLES

1. log10 1.99526 = 0.3 from the illustrations above.

2. log10 2 = 0.30103 from the illustrations above.
3. log10 1 = 0 simply because 100 = 1.

1
1.4.2 LOGARITHMS IN GENERAL

In practice, with scientific work, only two bases of logarithms are ever used; but it will be
useful to include here a general discussion of the definition and properties of logarithms to
any base so that unnecessary repetition may be avoided. We consider only positive bases of
logarithms in the general discussion.

DEFINITION
If B is a fixed positive number and x is another positive number such that
x = By,
we say that y is the “logarithm to base B” of x and we write
y = logB x.

EXAMPLES

1. logB 1 = 0 simply because B0 = 1.

2. logB B = 1 simply because B1 = B.
3. logB 0 doesn’t really exist because no power of B could ever be equal to zero. But,
since a very large negative power of B will be a very small positive number, we usually
write

logB 0 = −∞.

1.4.3 USEFUL RESULTS

In preparation for the general properties of logarithms, we note the following two results
which can be obtained directly from the definition of a logarithm:

(a) For any positive number x,

x = BlogB x.
In other words, any positive number can be expressed as a power of B without necessarily
using a calculator.

We have simply replaced the y in the statement x = By by logB x in the equivalent statement
y = logB x.
(b) For any number y,
y = logB By.
2
In other words, any number can be expressed in the form of a logarithm without necessarily
using a calculator.

We have simply replaced x in the statement y = logB x by By in the equivalent statement

x = By.

1.4.4 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

The following properties were once necessary for performing numerical calculations before
electronic calculators came into use. We do not use logarithms for this purpose nowadays;
but we do need their properties for various topics in scientific mathematics.

(a) The Logarithm of Product.

logB p.q = logB p + logB q.

Proof:
We need to show that, when p.q is expressed as a power of B, that power is the expression
on the right hand side of the above formula.

From Result (a) of the previous section,

p.q = BlogB p.BlogB q = BlogB p+logB q,

by elementary properties of indices.

The result therefore follows.

(b) The Logarithm of a Quotient

p
logB = logB p − logB q.
q
Proof:
The proof is along similar lines to that in (i).

From Result (a) of the previous section,

p
p BlogB
= = BlogB p−logB q,
q BlogB
q

by elementary properties of indices.

The result therefore follows.

3
(c) The Logarithm of an Exponential

logB pn = n logB p,
where n need not be an integer.

Proof:
From Result (a) of the previous section,
n
pn = BlogB p = Bn logB p,

by elementary properties of indices.

(d) The Logarithm of a Reciprocal

1
logB = − logB q.
q
Proof:
This property may be proved in two ways as follows:

Method 1.
The left-hand side = logB 1 − logB q = 0 − logB q = − logB q.
Method 2.
The left-hand side = logB q−1 = − logB q.
(e) Change of Base

log
logA x
B x = log B .
A

Proof:
Suppose y = logB x, then x = By and hence
logA x = logA By = y logA B.

Thus,
logA x
y = log B
A
and the result follows.

Note:
The result shows that the logarithms of any set of numbers to a given base will be directly
4
proportional to the logarithms of the same set of numbers to another given base. This is
simply because the number logA B is a constant.

1.4.5 NATURAL LOGARITHMS

It was mentioned earlier that, in scientific work, only two bases of logarithms are ever
used. One of these is base 10 and the other is a base which arises naturally out of
elementary calculus when discussing the simplest available result for the “derivative” (rate
of change) of a logarithm.

This other base turns out to be a non-recurring, non-terminating decimal quantity (irrational
number) which is equal to 2.71828.....and clearly this would be inconvenient to write into
the logarithm notation.

We therefore denote it by e to give the “natural logarithm” of a number, x, in the form

loge x, although most scientific books use the alternative notation ln x.

Note:
From the earlier change of base formula we can say that
log
loge x and log x = log10 x .
10 x= e
log e 10 log 10 e

EXAMPLES

1. Solve for x the indicial equation

43x−2 = 26x+1.

Solution
The secret of solving an equation where an unknown quantity appears in a power (or
index or exponent) is to take logarithms of both sides first.
Here we obtain
(3x − 2) log10 4 = (x + 1) log10 26;
(3x − 2)0.6021 = (x + 1)1.4150;
1.8063x − 1.2042 = 1.4150x + 1.4150;
(1.8603 − 1.4150)x = 1.4150 + 1.2042;
0.3913x = 2.6192;
2.6192
x= ' 6.6936
0.3913
5
2. Rewrite the expression
1
4x + log10 (x + 1) − log10 (x3 + 2x2 − x)
x−
log102
as the common logarithm of a single mathematical expression.
Solution
The secret here is to make sure that every term in the given expression is converted,
where necessary, to a logarithm with no multiple in front of it or behind it. In this case,
1
we need first to write 4x = log10 104x and2 1 log10(x3 + 2x2 − x) = log10 (x3 + 2x2 − x ) 2 .
We can then use the results for the logarithms of a product and a quotient to give
104x(x + 1)
log10
. x (x3 + 2x2 − x)
q
3. Rewrite without logarithms the equation
2x + ln x = ln(x − 7).

Solution
This time, we need to convert both sides to the natural logarithm of a single mathe-
matical expression in order to remove the logarithms completely.

2x + ln x = ln e2x + ln x = ln xe2x.
Hence,

xe2x = x − 7.
4. Solve for x the equation

6 ln 4 + ln 2 = 3 + ln x.
Solution
In view of the facts that 6 ln 4 = ln 46 and 3 = ln e3, the equation can be written
ln 2(46) = ln xe3.
Hence,
2(46) = xe3,
so that
2(46)
x= ' 407.856
e3

6
1.4.6 GRAPHS OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

In the applications of mathematics to science and engineering, two commonly used “func-
tions” are y = ex and y = loge x. Their graphs are as follows:

y = ex
ˆ

O )x

y = loge x
ˆ

1 )x
O

They are closely linked with each other by virtue of the two equivalent statements:

P = loge Q and Q = eP

for any number P and any postive number Q.

Because of these statements, we would expect similarities in the graphs of the equations

y = loge x and y = ex.

7
1.4.7 LOGARITHMIC SCALES

In a certain kind of graphical work (see Unit 5.3), some use is made of a linear scale along
which numbers can be allocated according to their logarithmic distances from a chosen origin
of measurement.

Considering firstly that 10 is the base of logarithms, the number 1 is always placed at the
zero of measurement (since log10 1 = 0); 10 is placed at the first unit of measurement (since
log10 10 = 1), 100 is placed at the second unit of measurement (since log10 100 = 2), and so
on.

Negative powers of 10 such as 10 −1 = 0.1, 10−2 = 0.01 etc. are placed at the points
corresponding to −1 and −2 etc. respectively on an ordinary linear scale.

The logarithmic scale appears therefore in “cycles”, each cycle corresponding to a range of
numbers between two consecutive powers of 10.

Intermediate numbers are placed at intervals which correspond to their logarithm values.

An extract from a typical logarithmic scale would be as follows:

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 1 2 3 4 10

Notes:
(i) A given set of numbers will determine how many cycles are required on the logarithmic
scale. For example .3, .6, 5, 9, 23, 42, 166 will require four cycles.

(ii) Commercially printed logarithmic scales do not specify the base of logarithms; the change
of base formula implies that logarithms to different bases are proportional to each other and
hence their logarithmic scales will have the same relative shape.

8
1.4.8 EXERCISES

1. Without using tables or a calculator, evaluate

(a) log10 27 ÷ log10 3;

(b) (log10 16 − log10 2) ÷ log10 2.
2. Using properties of logarithms where possible, solve for x the following equations:
(a) log10 27 + 2 log1034 − log10457 = 1 + log10 x;
(b) 2 log10 6 − (log10 4 + log10 9) = log10 x.
(c) 10x = 5(210).
3. From the definition of a logarithm or the change of base formula, evaluate the following:

(a) log2 7;
(b) log3 0.04;
(c) log5 3;
(d) 3 log3 2 − log3 4 + log3 21 .
4. Obtain y in terms of x for the following equations:
(a) 2 ln y = 1 − x2;
(b) ln x = 5 − 3 ln y.
5. Rewrite the following statements without logarithms:
(a) ln x = − 21 ln(1 − 2v3) + ln C;
(b) ln(1 + y) = 21 x2 + ln 4;
(c) ln(4 + y2) = 2 ln(x + 1) + ln A.
6. (a) If I0I = 10ac, find c in terms of the other quantities in the formula.
(b) If yp = Cxq, find q in terms of the other quantities in the formula.

9
1.4.9 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1. (a) 3; (b) 3.
2. (a) 4; (b) 1; (c) 3.70927
3. (a) 2.807; (b) −2.930; (c) 0.683; (d) 0
4. (a)
1 2
y = e 2 (1−x );
(b)
s
y= 3 e5 .
x
5. (a)
C
x= √ ;
1 − 2v3
(b)
x2
1 + y = 4e 2 ;
(c)
4 + y2 = A(x + 1)2.

6. (a)
1 I0
c=
log10 I;
a
(b)

p log y − log C
q= log x ,

using any base.

10
 “JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

1.5

ALGEBRA 5
(Manipulation of algebraic expressions)

by

A.J.Hobson

1.5.1 Simplification of expressions

1.5.2 Factorisation
1.5.3 Completing the square in a quadratic expression
1.5.4 Algebraic Fractions
1.5.5 Exercises
1.5.6 Answers to exercises
UNIT 1.5 - ALGEBRA 5
MANIPULATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

1.5.1 SIMPLIFICATION OF EXPRESSIONS

An algebraic expression will, in general, contain a mixture of alphabetical symbols together

with one or more numerical quantities; some of these symbols and numbers may be bracketted
together.

Using the Language of Algebra and the Laws of Algebra discussed earlier, the method of
simplification is to remove brackets and collect together any terms which have the same
format

Some elementary illustrations are as follows:

1. a + a + a + 3 + b + b + b + b + 8 ≡ 3a + 4b + 11.
2. 11p2 + 5q7 − 8p2 + q7 ≡ 3p2 + 6q7.
3. a(2a − b) + b(a + 5b) − a2 − 4b2 ≡ 2a2 − ab + ba + 5b2 − a2 − 4b2 ≡ a2 + b2.

More frequently, the expressions to be simplified will involve symbols which represent
both the constants and variables encountered in scientific work. Typical examples in pure
math- ematics use symbols like x, y and z to represent the variable quantities.

Further illustrations use this kind of notation and, for simplicity, we shall omit the full-stop
type of multiplication sign between symbols.

1. x(2x + 5) + x2(3 − x) ≡ 2x2 + 5x + 3x2 − x3 ≡ 5x2 + 5x − x3.

2. x−1(4x − x2) − 6(1 − 3x) ≡ 4 − x − 6 + 18x ≡ 17x − 2.

We need also to consider the kind of expression which involves two or more brackets multi-
plied together; but the routine is just an extension of what has already been discussed.

For example consider the expression

(a + b)(c + d).

Taking the first bracket as a single item for the moment, the Distributive Law gives

(a + b)c + (a + b)d.

1
Using the Distributive Law a second time gives
ac + bc + ad + bd.

In other words, each of the two terms in the first bracket are multiplied by each of the two
terms in the second bracket, giving four terms in all.

Again, we illustrate with examples:

EXAMPLES

1. (x + 3)(x − 5) ≡ x2 + 3x − 5x − 15 ≡ x2 − 2x − 15.
2. (x3 − x)(x + 5) ≡ x4 − x2 + 5x3 − 5x.
3. (x + a)2 ≡ (x + a)(x + a) ≡ x2 + ax + ax + a2 ≡ x2 + 2ax + a2.
4. (x + a)(x − a) ≡ x2 + ax − ax − a2 ≡ x2 − a2.

The last two illustrations above are significant for later work because they incorporate,
respectively, the standard results for a “perfect square” and “the difference between
two squares”.

1.5.2 FACTORISATION

Introduction
In an algebraic context, the word “factor” means the same as “multiplier”. Thus, to
factorise an algebraic expression, is to write it as a product of separate multipliers or factors.

Some simple examples will serve to introduce the idea:

EXAMPLES

1.
3x + 12 ≡ 3(x + 4).

2.
8x2 − 12x ≡ x(8x − 12) ≡ 4x(2x − 3).

3.
5x2 + 15x3 ≡ x2(5 + 15x) ≡ 5x2(1 + 3x).

2
 4.
6x + 3x2 + 9xy ≡ x(6 + 3x + 9y) ≡ 3x(2 + x + 3y).

Note:
When none of the factors can be broken down into simpler factors, the original expression
is said to have been factorised into “irreducible factors”.

Factorisation of quadratic expressions

A “quadratic expression” is an expression of the form

ax2 + bx + c,
where, usually, a, b and c are fixed numbers (constants) while x is a variable number. The
numbers a and b are called, respectively, the “coefficients” of x2 and x while c is called
the “constant term”; but, for brevity, we often say that the quadratic expression has
coefficients a, b and c.

Note:
It is important that the coefficient a does not have the value zero otherwise the expression
is not quadratic but “linear”.

The method of factorisation is illustrated by examples:

(a) When the coefficient of x2 is 1

EXAMPLES

1.
x2 + 5x + 6 ≡ (x + m)(x + n) ≡ x2 + (m + n)x + mn.

This implies that 5 = m + n and 6 = mn which, by inspection gives m = 2 and n =

3. Hence
x2 + 5x + 6 ≡ (x + 2)(x + 3).
2.
x2 + 4x − 21 ≡ (x + m)(x + n) ≡ x2 + (m + n)x + mn.

This implies that 4 = m + n and −21 = mn which, by inspection, gives m = −3 and

n = 7. Hence
x2 + 4x − 21 ≡ (x − 3)(x + 7).

3
Notes:
(i) In general, for simple cases, it is better to try to carry out the factorisation entirely
by inspection. This avoids the cumbersome use of m and n in the above two examples as
follows:

x2 + 2x − 8 ≡ (x+?)(x+?).

The two missing numbers must be such that their sum is 2 and their product is −8. The
required values are therefore −2 and 4. Hence

x2 + 2x − 8 ≡ (x − 2)(x + 4).

(ii) It is necessary, when factorising a quadratic expression, to be aware that either a perfect
square or the difference of two squares might be involved. In these cases, the factorisation
is a little simpler. For instance:

x2 + 10x + 25 ≡ (x + 5)2
and

x2 − 64 ≡ (x − 8)(x + 8).

(iii) Some quadratic expressions will not conveniently factorise at all. For example, in the
expression

x2 − 13x + 2,
we cannot find two whole numbers whose sum is −13 while, at the same time, their product
is 2.

(b) When the coefficient of x2 is not 1

Quadratic expressions of this kind are usually more difficult to factorise than those in the
previous paragraph. We first need to determine the possible pairs of factors of the coefficient
of x2 and the possible pairs of factors of the constant term; then we need to consider the
possible combinations of these which provide the correct factors of the quadratic expression.

EXAMPLES

1. To factorise the expression

2x2 + 11x + 12,
4
 we observe that 2 is the product of 2 and 1 only, while 12 is the product of either 12
and 1, 6 and 2 or 4 and 3. All terms of the quadratic expression are positive and hence
we may try (2x +1)(x +12), (2x +12)(x +1), (2x +6)(x +2), (2x +2)(x +6), (2x +4)(x
+3)
and (2x + 3)(x + 4) . Only the last of these is correct and so
2x2 + 11x + 12 ≡ (2x + 3)(x + 4).

2. To factorise the expression

6x2 + 7x − 3,
we observe that 6 is the product of either 6 and 1 or 3 and 2 while 3 is the product
of 3 and 1 only. A negative constant term implies that, in the final result, its two
factors must have opposite signs. Hence we may try (6x + 3)(x − 1), (6x − 3)(x +
1), (6x + 1)(x − 3), (6x − 1)(x + 3), (3x + 3)(2x − 1), (3x − 3)(2x + 1), (3x + 1)(2x −
3)
and (3x − 1)(2x + 3). Again, only the last of these is correct and so
6x2 + 7x − 3 ≡ (3x − 1)(2x + 3).

Note:
The more factors there are in the coefficients considered, the more possibilities there are to
try of the final factorisation.

1.5.3 COMPLETING THE SQUARE IN A QUADRATIC EXPRESSION

The following work is based on the standard expansions

(x + a)2 ≡ x2 + 2ax + a2
and
(x − a)2 ≡ x2 − 2ax + a2.

Both of these last expressions are called “complete squares” (or “perfect squares”) in
which we observe that one half of the coefficient of x, when multiplied by itself, gives the
constant term. That is 1
( × 2a)2 = a2.
2

ILLUSTRATIONS

1.
x2 + 6x + 9 ≡ (x + 3)2.
5
 2.
x2 − 8x + 16 ≡ (x − 4)2.

3.
1 2
4x2 — 4x + 1 ≡ —x+ ≡4 x− .
1 2
4
2
x 4

Of course it may happen that a given quadratic expression is NOT a complete square; but,
by using one half of the coefficient of x, we may express it as the sum or difference of a
complete square and a constant. This process is called “completing the square”, and the
following examples illustrate it:

EXAMPLES

1.
x2 + 6x + 11 ≡ (x + 3)2 + 2.

2.
x2 − 8x + 7 ≡ (x − 4)2 − 9.

3.
5
4x2 − 4x + 5 ≡ 4 x2 − x + 4
" #
1 2 1 5
≡4 x− − +
"
2 4 4
#
2
≡4 x 1 +1
2
−
2
1
2 +
≡ x−
4.
4
1.5.4 ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

We first recall the basic rules for combining fractions, namely

6
a c ad ± bc a c ac a c ad
± = , × = , ÷ = .
b d bd b d b d bc
bd

7
We also note that a single algebraic fraction may sometimes be simplified by the cancellation
of common factors between the numerator and the denominator.

EXAMPLES

1.
5 5
1 , assuming that x — .
25 + ≡ 5+ 3
3x /=
15x
2.
4x 1
4 , assuming that x /= 0 or — .
3x2 + x ≡ 3x + 3
1
3.
x+2 x+2 1
2
x + 3x + ≡ (x + 2)(x + ≡ x + , assuming that x /= —1 or — 2.
2 1) 1

These elementary principles may now be used with more advanced combinations of algebraic
fractions

EXAMPLES

1. Simplify the expression

3x + 6 x+1
2 × 2x + 8 .
x + 3x +
Solution 2
Using factorisation where possible, together with the rule for multiplying fractions, we
obtain
3(x + 2)(x + 1) 3
≡ ,
2(x + 4)(x + 1)(x + 2(x + 4)
2)
assuming that x /= —1, —2 or —4.
2. Simplify the expression
3 ÷ x
.
x+ 2x + 4
Solution 2
Using factorisation where possible together with the rule for dividing fractions, we
obtain
3 2x + 4 3 2(x + 2) 6
× ≡8 × ≡ ,
 x+2 x x+2 x x
assuming that x /= 0 or —2.

9
 3. Express
4 3
x+ y—y
as a single fraction.
Solution
From the basic rule for adding and subtracting fractions, we obtain
4y — 3(x + y) y — 3x
(x + y)y ≡ (x + y)y ,

assuming that y /= 0 and x /= —y.

4. Express
x 4 — x2
+
x+1 x2 — x — 2
as a single fraction.
Solution
This example could be tackled in the same way as the previous one but it is worth
noticing that x2 — x — 2 ≡ (x + 1)(x — 2). Consequently, it is worth putting both
fractions over the simplest common denominator, namely (x + 1)(x — 2). Hence we
obtain, if x /= 2 or — 1,
x(x — 2) 2
+ 4 — x2 2
(x + 1)(x — 2) ≡ x — 2x2 + 4 — ≡ 2(2 — x) ≡— .
(x + 1)(x — 2) x (x + 1)(x — x+1
(x + 1)(x — 2) 2)

1.5.5 EXERCISES

1. Write down in their simplest forms

(a) 5a — 2b — 3a + 6b; (b) 11p + 5q — 2q + p.
2. Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 3x2 — 2x + 5 — x2 + 7x — 2; (b) x3 + 5x2 — 2x + 1 + x — x2.
3. Expand and simplify the following expressions:
(a) x(x2 — 3x) + x2(4x + 7); (b) (2x — 1)(2x + 1) — x2 + 5x;
(c) (x + 3)(2x2 — 5); (d) 2(3x + 1)2 + 5(x — 7)2.
4. Factorise the following expressions:
(a) xy + 4x2y; (b) 2abc — 6ab2;

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(c) πr2 + 2πrh; (d) 2xy2z + 4x2z.

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 5. Factorise the following quadratic expressions:
(a) x2 + 8x + 12; (b) x2 + 11x + 18; (c) x2 + 13x — 30;
(d) 3x2 + 11x + 6; (e) 4x2 — 12x + 9; (f) 9x2 — 64.
6. Complete the square in the following quadratic expressions:
(a) x2 — 10x — 26; (b) x2 — 5x + 4; (c) 7x2 — 2x + 1.
7. Simplify the following:
(a) 2+4x+4 x2—1
x2
x +5x+6
; (b) 2
x +2x+1
,
assuming the values of x to be such that no denominators are zero.
8. Express
3
each of4the following as a single fraction:
(a) + 4 ; (b) — 6 ;
x y x 2x
1
(c) + 1
; (d) 3
— ,
5x
x+1 x+2 x 2+5x+4 x+4
assuming that the values of x and y are such that no denominators are zero.

1.5.6 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1. (a) 2a + 4b; (b) 12p + 3q.

2. (a) 2x2 + 5x + 3; (b) x3 + 4x2 — x + 1.
3. (a) 5x3 + 4x2; (b) 3x2 + 5x — 1.
(c) 2x3 + 6x2 — 5x — 15; (d) 23x2 — 58x + 247.
4. (a) xy(1 + 4x); (b) 2ab(c — 3b);
(c) πr(r + 2h); (d) 2xz(y2 + 2x).
5. (a) (x + 2)(x + 6); (b) (x + 2)(x + 9); (c) (x — 2)(x + 15;
(d) (3x + 2)(x + 3); (e) (2x — 3)2; (f) (3x — h8)(3x + 8). i
6. (a) (x — 5)2 — 51; (b) (x — 5)2 — 9 ; (c) 7 (x — 1)2 + 6
.
2 4 7 49
x+2 x—1
7. (a) ; (b) .
x+3 x+1
3y+4x 1
8. (a) ; (b) ;
xy x
2x+3 2x—3
(c) ( x+1)(x+2) ; (d) x2+5x+4 .

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