Internet of Things Notes

By: Saurabh Kailas

September 21, 2024

Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 What is an IoT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Ubiquitous Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Design Principles for Connected Devices 3

2.1 Calm and Ambient Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 IoT and M2M 3

3.1 What is M2M? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Reasons for Using M2M and IoT: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Generic M2M Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4 Key Application Areas of M2M: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4 Applications of Internet of Things 5

5 Internet of Things Paradigms 5

6 Differences Between M2M and IoT 5

7 Similarities Between M2M and IoT 6

8 M2M Towards IoT - The Global Context 6

8.1 Game Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
8.2 General Technology and Scientific Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.3 Trends in Information and Communication Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

9 M2M To IoT - An Architectural Outline 8

10 An IoT Architecture Outline 8

11 Chapter 5: M2M and IoT Technology Fundamentals 9

11.1 Devices and Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.2 Device Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.3 Deployment Scenarios for Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.4 Basic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.5 Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.5.1 Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.5.2 Device Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.5.3 Local Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.6 Advanced Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.7 Local and Wide Area Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.7.1 Wide Area Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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12 Data Management 12
12.1 Managing M2M Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

13 Smart Waste Management 13

14 Smart Traffic Management 14

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1 Introduction
1.1 What is an IoT?
• It was previously called Ubiquitous Computing.
• IoT contains things that have unique identities and are connected to the Internet. They use the Internet
to send and receive information.
• An object can receive inputs from the world and transform the inputs into data which is sent onto the
Internet for processing.

1.2 Ubiquitous Computing

• Having computational ability in many different objects in our environment.
• Stoves, fridges, cars, and TVs have computational power. The IoT is about having these objects
connected to the Internet.
• These things can produce outputs to the world using actuators.
• Physical Object + Controller, Sensor, and Actuators + Internet = Internet of Things.

2 Design Principles for Connected Devices

• Service Design: Has the broadest view of the service in its entirety.
• Interaction Design: Looks at how different parts of the system interrelate.

2.1 Calm and Ambient Technology

• ”Ubicomp” is also referred to as ”Ambient Computing”.
• But, the word ”ambient” refers to something that is done in the background, not something to which
we actively pay attention.
• Due to this, the term ”Calm Technology” is preferred. They are systems that do not seek attention
but are ready to provide information when we decide to give them attention.
• Calm Technology is a type of information technology where the interaction between the technology
and its user is designed to occur in the user’s periphery rather than constantly at the center of attention.
It is designed to be as unnoticeable as possible.
• Video Conferences are an example of calm technology. Information conveyed through gestures and
facial expressions can be gathered, as opposed to telephone conferences, which do not provide the
peripheral information.

3 IoT and M2M

3.1 What is M2M?
• Stands for machine-to-machine. It is a direct communication between devices using either a wired or
wireless communication.
• There is no human interaction/interference between the communicating devices.
• These devices capture data and share it with other connected devices, creating an intelligent network
of things.
• An example is controlling bulbs or fans using Bluetooth from smartphones.

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3.2 Reasons for Using M2M and IoT:
1. An increased need for understanding the physical environment.
2. The improvement of technology.

3. The improvement networking capabilities.

4. Reduced costs of components and the ability to more cheaply collect and analyse the data they produce.

3.3 Generic M2M Solution

• An M2M solution is used to monitor and control the assets of an enterprise and integrate those assets
into the business processes.
• The components of an M2M solution are listed below.
• M2M Device: This is the device that is attached to the asset of interest and provides sensing and
actuation capabilities.
• Network: Provides remote connectivity between the M2M device and the application-side servers.
• M2M Service Enablement: This component provides generic functionality that is common across
a number of different applications. It reduces the cost of implementation and ease of application
development.

• M2M Application: It is the realization of a highly specific monitor and control process. It is
integrated into the business process system of the enterprise.

3.4 Key Application Areas of M2M:

• Telematics: Used in navigation, remote vehicle diagnostics, road charging, and stolen vehicle recovery.
Used for safety, security, and infotainment.

• Metering Applications: Used for remote meter management and data collection for gas, energy,
and water consumption.
• Remote Monitoring: Sensors are attached to assets to track and monitor them in real-time. For
example, we have remote patient monitoring.
• Fleet Management: Track the path through which vehicles go. Used for goods and vehicle position-
ing and security of valuable or hazardous goods.
• Security: Used for home and business security alarms.
• ATM / Point of Sales: These devices are connected to a centralized secure environment.

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4 Applications of Internet of Things
1. Urban Agriculture: Sensors and actuators can monitor and control the environment around a plant
and modify the conditions in the environment based on the needs of the plant. Monitor weather and
light. Crop monitoring, livestock monitoring, and smart irrigation systems. IoT can also be used to
create automatically-triggered blinds in order to shield the plant from excessive UV.
2. Robots: Remotely monitor and control mine sites. Monitor and control heavy machinery, which
reduces accidents involving humans.
3. Food Safety: Monitor farming conditions, such as usage of pesticides and quality of animal food.
4. Military: Autonomous drones for surveillance. Sensors for night vision and thermal imaging. Tracking
military assets, such as vehicles and weapons. Wearable devices to monitor the soldiers’ vitals.

5. Sports: Wearable devices for measuring heart rate, hydration, and movement patterns. Telemetry in
F1 cars for monitoring fuel levels, tire pressure, and engine performance.

5 Internet of Things Paradigms

• Internet of Drones (IoD): Deploying and managing unmanned aerial vehicles. It is used for package
delivery, animal surveillance, rescue operations, military, and photography. IoT can also be used to
allow multiple drones to communicate, coordinate, and collaborate with each other and with ground
stations.
• Internet of Flying Things (IoFT): Allow aerial devices to perform tasks either autonomously or
semi-autonomously. IoFT is a subset of IoD.
• Internet of Medical Things (IoMT): Medical devices and sensors to collect, transmit, and analyze
patient data. Smartwatches, fitness trackers, and wearable ECG monitors. Implantable devices, such
as pacemakers and neuro-stimulators.
• Internet of Vehicles (IoV): Autonomous driving and advanced traffic management. Improve road
safety, optimize the flow of traffic, and reduce emissions.
• Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): Manufacturing, energy, and transportation. Improve the
operational efficiency and optimize the industrial processes. Sensors can be added to machines to
monitor the conditions and performance in real time. Use actuators to open valves and start or stop
equipment.

• Social Internet of Things (SIoT): Devices can form social networks with each other to collaborate
and share information. There can be a parental object relationship (devices that belong to the same
owner or administrator, such as all the smart devices in a home) or a co-location object relationship
(devices in the same location, such as the devices in a shared office space).

• Internet of Nano Things (IoNT): Nano-sensors to detect minute quantities of chemicals. Nano-
actuators to deliver drugs to specific cells or trigger chemical reactions. Monitor soil conditions and
crop health.

6 Differences Between M2M and IoT

1. In IoT, the communicating devices use various sensors and actuators for sending and receiving data over
the Internet. On the other hand, M2M allows devices to connect with each other without necessarily
using the Internet.
2. In IoT, Internet protocols are used, such as HTTP, FTP, and Telnet. In M2M, communication protocols
are used, such as Bluetooth and NFC.

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 3. M2M is a subset of IoT. IoT is a superset of M2M.
4. In IoT, the data can be shared with other external applications to improve the user experience. On
the other hand, in M2M, the data is only shared with the communicating devices.
5. IoT involves the usage of both hardware and software, whereas M2M is mostly hardware-based.

6. IoT devices have high intelligence and interactivity capabilities, which allow them to process data,
make decisions, and respond to changes in the environment. On the other hand, M2M devices have
limited intelligence; they only focus on exchanging data or commands.
7. IoT devices deal with large volumes of data, which requires sophisticated analysis and processing
capabilities. On the other hand, M2M involves simpler data exchange, which requires less complex
data handling.
8. Some applications of IoT are smart thermostats, security cameras, wearable devices, and remote mon-
itoring systems for healthcare. Some applications of M2M are telemetry services in vehicles, smart
meters for tracking energy consumption, and the technology in smartphones that allows them to send
heartbeat data to your smartphone and receive texts and notifications.

7 Similarities Between M2M and IoT

• Both M2M and IoT involve connecting devices to communicate and exchange data without any human
intervention.

• Both M2M and IoT involve embedded systems with sensors, actuators, and micro-controllers.
• In both M2M and IoT, the devices collect, transmit, and receive data.
• They both support remote control and management.

8 M2M Towards IoT - The Global Context

A megatrend is a trend or pattern that will have a fundamental and global impact on society at the macro
level over several generations. Something that will have a significant impact in the future.

8.1 Game Changers

Some significant game changers and their relationship with IoT are listed below.
• Natural Resource Constraints: The world needs to do more with less. There is an increase in global
population but a decrease in raw materials, such as food, water, and energy, which places constraints
on these resources. Here, IoT can be used to increase yields, improve productivity, and reduce loss in
the global supply chains.
• Economic Shifts: There is a move in the economy from the post-industrial era to a digital economy.
There is a shift from product-oriented to service-oriented economies. The products need to be connected
and embedded with technologies that allow them to collect data and information. M2M and IoT create
new jobs and industries.
• Changing Demographics: Many countries need to deal with the aging population without increas-
ing economic expenditure. Here, IoT can be used to provide assisted living and reduce the costs of
healthcare and wellness systems.
• Socioeconomic Expectations: Technology will increasingly improve the convenience and lifestyle
in people’s lives and homes.

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 • Climate Change and Environmental Impacts: IoT, along with other technologies, can be used
to reduce the impact of human activity on Earth.
• Safety and Security: Technology can be used to reduce fatalities, improve health, and prevent crime.
• Urbanization: There is an increase in urban population, so there is a higher demand for city infras-
tructures. IoT provides support for decision-makers in cities.

8.2 General Technology and Scientific Trends

Below are listed some of the main advances in science and technology that have a direct relevance to IoT.

• Material Sciences: It has an impact across a vast range of industries, from pharmaceutical and
cosmetics to electronics. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) can be used to create advanced
micro-sized sensors, such as accelerators and gyroscopes. There are a lot of new materials which
provide different methods to manufacture sensors and actuators. So, there is an increase in the range
of applications of sensors.

• Complex and Advanced Machinery: They can be autonomous or semi-autonomous. Robots can
be used in harsh environments, such as deep sea exploration and mining industry. They automate the
tasks that are normally performed by humans.
• Energy Production and Storage: Secure the availability of electricity while reducing the environ-
mental impacts. Smart Grids involve the micro-generation of electricity using affordable photovoltaic
panels. EVs require efficient battery and energy storage technologies. IoT can be used in scenarios
that require a long battery life.

8.3 Trends in Information and Communication Technologies

• Sensors, Actuators, and Tags: They are the digital interfaces to the physical world. Small and
cheap sensors and actuators can be produced. Tags using RFID technologies can put electronic iden-
tities on any object and can be cheaply produced.
• Embedded Processing: There is a growing market for 8, 16, and 32-bit micro-controllers with on-
chip RAM, I/O capabilities, and networking interfaces. They provide small devices with low power
consumption that can host an entire TCP/IP stack.
• Instant Access to the Internet: The Internet is available everywhere thanks to wireless and cellular
technologies. They provide cheap connectivity with low latency. They can handle large amounts of
data with high reliability. There is also a rapid deployment of 3G, 4G, and LTE systems globally.
• Software Architecture: Previously closed environments are now moving towards open platforms.
There is no more lock-in between platform owners and platform developers.
• Web Paradigms and Service-Oriented Approach: Web paradigm has been extended to IoT
devices. IoT devices and their services can be easily integrated with the businesses of an organization
that is based on the SOA (uses web services or RESTful interfaces).

• OpenAPIs: OpenAPIs allow components to be combined in multiple different ways by multiple

different vendors with little to no interaction with those who developed the platform. It provides a
more fluid industrial platform.
• Cloud Computing: It provides a virtualized and independent execution environment. Avoids in-
house installations and the necessity of a dedicated IT staff for maintenance. Offers more elasticity.

• Big Data: There is an increasing number and size of datasets. With Big Data, we can aggregate the
massive data that is produced by IoT devices and sensors.

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9 M2M To IoT - An Architectural Outline
• Architecture refers to the conceptual and actual elements, how they relate to each other, and the
principles of design.
• Conceptual Elements: Functions, Piece of Data, or Service.
• Actual Elements: Technology Building Blocks or Protocols.

• Reference Architecture: It is a generalized

model that contains the richest elements and re-
lations that are of relevance to IoT. It is used as
an aid to design an applied architecture.

• Applied Architecture: It is an instance cre-

ated out of a subset of the reference architecture.
It is a blueprint that is used to develop the ac-
tual system.

10 An IoT Architecture Outline

• Asset Layer: This is the lowest level. The assets of interest are the real-world objects that are
subject to being controlled and monitored. Examples include vehicles, machinery, homes, buildings,
and people. There are also virtual assets, such as the routes followed by trucks.

• Resource Layer: This layer provides the main functional capabilities of sensing, actuation, and
embedded entities. Examples are the sensors and actuators in smartphones and M2M devices like
smart meters.
• Communication Layer: This layer provides connectivity between the resources on one end and the
computing infrastructure that hosts and executes the service support logic and the application logic
on the other end. Can use LAN or WAN.
• Service Support Layer: This layer provides support services that can handle the underlying devices
and network while hiding the complexities of the resource and communication layers. These services are
executed in data centers and server farms. An example is remote device management, which performs
remote software upgrades, remote diagnostics, and remote recovery.

• Data and Information Layer: This layer captures knowledge and provides advanced control logic
support. It focuses on the organization of information.
• Application Layer: This layer provides the specific IoT applications. For example, we have smart
metering in Smart Grid, vehicle tracking, and building automation.

• Business Layer: This is the final level. This layer supports the business or operations of organizations
that are interested in IoT applications. Here, the IoT applications are integrated into the business
processes.
• We also have 3 functional groups across the different layers, which are Security, Management, and IoT
Data and Services.

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11 Chapter 5: M2M and IoT Technology Fundamentals
11.1 Devices and Gateways
A device has several properties, which are listed below:
• Micro-controllers: An 8-, 16-, or 32-bit working memory and storage.

• Power Source: Fixed, battery, energy harvesting, or hybrid.

• Sensors and Actuators: Circuitry that allows them to be connected and controlled.
• Communication: Cellular, wired, or wireless for LAN and WAN.
• Operating System: Main-loop, event-based, real-time, and full-features OS.

• Applications: Simple sensor sampling or more advanced applications.

• User Interface: Display, buttons, and functions for managing the user interaction.
• Device Management: Provisioning, firmware, bootstrapping, and monitoring.

• Execution Environment: Application lifecycle management and Application Programming Interface

(API).
One or more of these functions can be hosted on a gateway for several reasons. One reason is that battery
power can be saved by letting the gateway handle heavy functions, such as WAN connectivity. Another
reason is to reduce complexity by having a central node (gateway) that handles functionalities such as device
management and advanced applications while letting the devices focus on sensing and actuating.

11.2 Device Types

There are two categories of devices.

1. Basic Devices: Devices that provide basic services of sensing and actuation. They may have limited
support for user interaction. LAN communication is provided through wired or wireless technology, so
a gateway is needed to provide the WAN connection.
2. Advanced Devices: Devices that also host the application logic and a WAN connection. They
may also feature device management and execution environments for hosting multiple applications.
Gateways fall in this category.

11.3 Deployment Scenarios for Devices

• The deployment can vary for basic and advanced deployment scenarios.

• Example deployment scenarios for basic devices include:

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 – Home Alarms: Such as motion, magnetic, and smoke detectors. A central unit handles the
application logic that calls security and sounds an alarm if a sensor is activated. The central unit
also handles the WAN connection towards the alarm.
– Smart Meters: Measure the consumption of electricity and gas in households. There is a
concentrator gateway that collects the data, performs aggregation on it, and sends the aggregated
data to a server over a cellular connection.
– Building Automation Systems: Devices such as thermostats, fans, boilers, and motion detec-
tors that are controlled by local facilities.
– Standalone Smart Thermostats: They use Wi-Fi to communicate with web services.
• Example deployment scenarios for advanced devices include:

– Onboard Units In Cars that perform remote monitoring and configuration over a cellular
connection.
– Robots and Autonomous Vehicles: Such as unmanned aerial vehicles that can work au-
tonomously or by remote control using a cellular connection.
– Video Cameras: For remote monitoring over a cellular network,
– Oil Well Monitoring and collection of data points from remote devices.
– Connected Printers that can be upgraded and serviced remotely.
• The devices and gateways today use legacy technologies, such as ZigBee. Still, ideally, in the future,
they should all have an IP address and be directly or indirectly connected to the Internet.

11.4 Basic Devices

• These devices only have a single purpose.
• In some cases, several functions can be deployed on a single device, such as monitoring humidity,
temperature, and light levels.
• They have low hardware requirements, processing power, and memory.
• They focus on keeping the Bill of Materials (BOM) as low as possible by using inexpensive microcon-
trollers with built-in memory and storage.

• They also focus on enabling battery as a power source, with a lifespan of 1 year and upwards, by using
ultra-low energy microcontrollers.
• The microcontroller has several ports that allow it to be integrated with sensors and actuators.
• Since low-power operation is needed for battery-powered devices, the microcontroller has functions
that allow it to sleep and interrupt in case of events.

11.5 Gateways
• A gateway serves as a translator between different protocols.

• There are many different gateways that can work on different levels of the protocol layers.
• Most often, a gateway refers to a device that performs translation of the physical and link layer, but
application layer gateways are also common.
• An example of an application layer gateway is ZigBee Gateway Device, which translates from ZigBee
to SOAP and IP.

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 • Gateways can also be used for the inclusion and exclusion of devices. First, the gateway is activated
into inclusion or exclusion mode. Then, a button is pressed on a device to be added or removed from
the network.
• An IoT gateway is a centralized hub that connects IoT devices to cloud-based computing and data
processing. They allow the bidirectional flow of data between the cloud and IoT devices.

• Gateways are also used for data management, device management, and local applications.

11.5.1 Data Management

Perform sensor reading, caching the data, performing filtering, concentrating, and aggregating it, and finally
transmitting it to the servers.

11.5.2 Device Management

• Includes tasks such as:

– Provisioning: Activation of devices and feature enabling.

– Device Configuration: Management of device settings and parameters.
– Software Upgrades: Installation of software and applications.
– Fault Management: Error reporting.

• In a simple deployment, the devices communicate directly with the Device Management (DM). How-
ever, this is not optimal due to network and protocol constraints. In such cases, gateway functions act
as a mediator between the server and the devices.
• The gateway functions can act in three different ways:

1. If the devices are visible to the DM server, then the gateway simply forwards the messages between
them.
2. If the devices are not visible to the DM server but understand the protocol that is being used,
then the gateway acts as a proxy; that is, it acts as a DM server for the device and as a DM client
for the server.
3. If the devices use a different DM protocol than the server, the gateway translates between the
different protocols.

11.5.3 Local Applications

• Some local applications that can be hosted on a gateway include closed loops, home alarm logic, and
ventilation control.
• The advantage of hosting this logic on the gateway instead of the network is to avoid downtime.

• An execution environment is also included, which manages the lifecycle of the applications, such as
installation, pausing, stopping, configuration, and uninstallation.

11.6 Advanced Devices

• Some features that can characterize advanced devices are:
– A powerful CPU or microcontroller with enough memory and storage to host advanced applica-
tions.
– An advanced user interface, such as display and advanced user input with either touch screen or
keypad.
– Video or other high bandwidth functions.

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11.7 Local and Wide Area Networking
• A network is created when two or more computing devices exchange information with each other.
• The devices are the ”nodes” of the network, and they communicate over ”links”.

• The figure on the right shows the simplest form

of a network.

• If node A wants to communicate with node C, it

must do so through node B.

• So, node B should be able to communicate with both node A and node C. It should also advertise that
it can act as an intermediary.
• Each node in a network is identified by an IP address, and the links are managed using routing tables.
• A Local Area Network (LAN) covers a small geographical region, such as a commercial building, an
office block, or a home. LANs cover distances of tens to hundreds of meters. The most popular wired
LAN technology is Ethernet. The most popular wireless LAN technology is Wi-Fi.
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) covers longer distances, such as regional areas or metropolitan
locations. WANs cover distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers. The most popular WAN technology
is the cellular network.

11.7.1 Wide Area Networking

• WANs provide bi-directional communication links between services and devices.
• WANs provide a proxy that allows information to traverse heterogeneous networks.
• This proxy consists of an M2M Gateway Device, which has multiple communication interfaces and
computational capabilities.
• Functions of the WAN in M2M context:
– CONTINUE!!!

12 Data Management
Some of the key characteristics of M2M data include:
• Big Data: Huge amounts of data are generated, capturing the entire processes where the devices are
involved.
• Heterogeneous Data: The M2M data is generated by various different devices and is highly hetero-
geneous.
• Real-World Data: The M2M data relates to real-world processes and is dependent on the environ-
ment they interact with.
• Real-Time Data: The M2M data is generated in real-time.
• Temporal Data: The majority of M2M data is of temporal nature.
• Spatial Data: The assessment of M2M data may vary dynamically based on the location.
• Polymorphic Data: The data used by M2M processes is complex and may have different meanings.
• Proprietary Data: Most M2M data is stored and captured in proprietary formats.
• Security and Privacy Data Aspects: The analysis of M2M data has a risk of leaking private
information.

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12.1 Managing M2M Data
Dealing with M2M data can be decomposed into several stages, which are described below.
1. Data Generation: This is the first stage. Here, data is generated actively or passively from the
device, system, or as a result of its interactions. Not all the generated data is communicated; in some
cases, the data is assessed and discarded, and the results are communicated.
2. Data Acquisition: This stage deals with collecting the data, either actively or passively, from the
device, system, or as a result of its interactions. The data acquisition systems communicate with the
devices over wired or wireless links to acquire the needed data. The nature of acquisition varies; it can
be continuous monitoring, interval-poll, or event-based. The data acquired can be different from the
data generated since the devices may perform filtering.
3. Data Validation: Here, the acquired data is checked for correctness and meaningfulness. This is
done using rules, semantic annotations, or other logic. If the acquired data does not conform to the
expectations, it means that it was corrupted during transmission or is not related to the current context.
Here, fallback actions can be used, where the data is requested again if the checks fail. It may also try
to repair the data.
4. Data Storage: The data generated by M2M interactions is referred to as Big Data. The machines
generate large amounts of data that need to be captured and stored for further processing. Due to
the large size, only a fraction of the data that is relevant to the current context may be stored. Due
to the large amounts of M2M data, specialized technologies may be used, such as parallel processing
databases, distributed file systems, and cloud computing platforms.
5. Data Processing: Here, the data is operated at a low level and enhanced for future needs. This
includes normalization, filling in missing values, and re-ordering the data. Aggregation may also be
performed on two or more data streams. It also includes transformations, such as converting from
Celsius to Fahrenheit.
6. Data Remanence: When the data is removed, some residues may still be found, which are known as
data remanence. To deal with this, overwriting, degaussing, encryption and physical destruction can
be performed.
7. Data Analysis: The data that is available in the repositories is analyzed to obtain information and
use it in the decision-making processes. Descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis, confirmatory
data analysis, and data mining can be used.

13 Smart Waste Management

• Solid waste management has a negative impact on society’s health and environment.
• The traditional waste management process starts with the waste being created by the residents and
disposed of in garbage bins at the source. Municipal department trucks collect the garbage and move
it to recycling centers. It is difficult to determine when to clean the outdoor containers or when they
are full. Manually inspecting these bins is time-consuming and requires human labor.
• This work proposes an IoT-enabled solid waste management system. It uses two sensor nodes that
track bins in public and residential areas (one for each). These sensors measure the unfilled level of
the trash bin and its location data, process it and transmit it to a central station. Then, a GUI allows
the municipal authorities to view this information.
• This work proposes a hybrid network architecture to monitor the household and public trash bins,
solar energy harvesting to extend the lifetime of the sensor nodes, a GPS module embedded in the
nodes, and a GUI to view the status of every trash bin.
• Network Architecture:

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 – There are two sensor nodes, the Public Bin Level Monitoring Unit (PBLMU) and the Home Bin
Level Monitoring Unit (HBLMU). They are used for monitoring the trash bins in public places
and residential areas, respectively.
– A LoRaWAN networking architecture is used for deploying the PBLMUs, and Wi-Fi-based com-
munication is used for HBLMUs since these trash bins are associated with homes.
– The data from the PBLMUs are collected by the LoRaWAN gateway and uploaded to the server
for storage and visualization. A Wi-Fi module is integrated in the HBLMUs that allows them to
be connected with the home routers and upload the data to the server.
– The data is published into the server through the MQTT broker, which follows a publish-subscribe
architecture. The PBLMUs and HBLMUs are the publishers, and the server is the subscriber.
– MQTT protocol is attractive because it has low power consumption, rapid data transmission, and
ease of implementation.
– Through the GUI, the personnel can monitor the data.
• Design of the PBLMU:

– It has an ultrasonic sensor and a GPS module. It also has a LoRa module to connect with the
LoRaWAN gateway.
– A power management unit is included to provide a voltage supply to all the components.
– A solar panel is attached for energy harvesting and self-powering.
– Ultrasonic Sensor: Generates high-frequency sound waves and evaluates the received echo.
– GPS Module: This module provides the geolocation coordinates for easy localization by the
garbage trucks. It is in a power-saving mode to minimize the power consumption.
– LoRa Module: Used to send data over long distances using minimal power.
– Host Microcontroller: Controls all the functions of the PBLMU. Uses a RISC-based architec-
ture.
– Power Management Unit: Sensor requires 5 V voltage, and the other components require 3.3
V voltage. This unit includes a solar panel, a battery, and a circuit for energy harvesting and
battery charging.
– LoRaWAN Gateway: Gathers data, wraps it in a JSON format, and transmits it to the
Ethernet controller. The Ethernet controller adds a UDP header to the packets and sends them
to the server.
• Design of the HBLMU:
– Wi-Fi Module: Has an ARM Cortex Microcontroller. Supports DNS, UDP, HTTP, and HTTPS.
– Home Router: Establishes connectivity between the central monitoring station and the sensing
nodes in the HBLMU.

• Server and GUI:

– Intel Core i7 processor, 16 GB RAM, and 500 GB hard drive running Ubuntu.
– GUI is designed using C Sharp on the .NET platform.

• SEE DIAGRAMS ON PAPER!!!

14 Smart Traffic Management

• ML and IoT approaches are combined to provide an intelligent traffic signal control solution for inter-
sections.

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• Reinforcement Learning techniques are used, where the RL agent learns the best control policy by
collaborating with the environment.
• The observations at each intersection are distributed to obtain an optimal global schedule for the whole
system.

• Shiraz is one of Iran’s most crowded cities, with 63 junctions. Here, the traffic light systems use a
predefined schedule, which causes increased waiting time, fuel consumption, and pollution.
• An area with 6 intersections and 4 bridges was chosen because it has high traffic congestion.
• Multi-Agent RL (MARL) was used, which overcomes the scalability issues of RL. So more intersections
can be controlled. Distributed MARL was installed in the traffic light system so that an RL agent was
located at each intersection. IoT sensors (surveillance cameras) were used to capture the queue lengths
of the vehicles. The RL agent gathered local traffic data tracked by these cameras and stored it in an
IoT database.
• The RL agents also gathered information from neighbors by exchanging information. Neighbor data
was also kept in the same database.

• Based on the data in the database, the actor-critic algorithm selects the most optimal control action,
and the IoT actuator, such as a traffic light, applies the selected action to the environment.

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