CHAPTER 9: PHASE DIAGRAMS

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• When we combine two elements...
• What equilibrium state do we get?
• In particular, if we specify...
--a composition (e.g., wt%Cu - wt%Ni), and
--a temperature (T)
then...
How many phases do we get?
What is the composition of each phase?
How much of each phase do we get?

1
 Importance of Phase Diagrams
• The phase diagram is an important tool for Materials Scientists
and Engineers

• A phase diagram can be used to predict the equilibrium

compositions and proportion of the phases in a material for a
given chemical composition at a particular temperature

• A material’s microstructure can be predicted using information

from the phase diagram and its processing route

• A strong correlation exists between microstructure and

mechanical properties of materials; thus the mechanical
behaviour of materials can be predicted from phase diagrams
2
 Definitions and Basic Concepts
• ALLOY: A metallic substance that is composed of two or more
elements
• COMPONENTS: The pure metals and/or compounds of which
an alloy is composed (or elements which are mixed to form an
alloy). For example: in a copper-zinc brass; the components are
copper and zinc)
• SYSTEM: System has two meanings; it refers to either the
particular body of material being considered, or the possible
alloys of a combination of same alloying components (E.g: the
iron-carbon system)
• SOLUTE and SOLVENT; SUBSTITUIONAL and
INTERSTITIALS positions (already discussed)
• PHASES: A phase is a homogeneous part of the system with
uniform physical and chemical characteristics
3
 THE SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• SOLUBILITY LIMIT:
– Maximum concentration of solute atoms that may be dissolved in the
solvent to form a solid or liquid solution at a specified temperature
– Above this concentration of solute atoms, results in the formation of two
phases (another solid solution or a new compound)

• Ex: Phase Diagram:

Water-Sugar System

Question: What is the

solubility limit at 20C?

Answer: 65wt% sugar.

If Co < 65wt% sugar: syrup
If Co > 65wt% sugar: syrup + sugar.
4
 EFFECT OF T & COMPOSITION (Co)
• Solubility limit increases with T:
e.g., if T = 100C, solubility limit = 80wt% sugar.
• Changing T can change # of phases: path A to B.
• Changing Co can change # of phases: path B to D.

• water-
sugar
system

5
 Phases
• Phase defined earlier must have the following characteristics:
– homogeneous in crystal structure and atomic arrangement
– have same chemical and physical properties throughout
– have a definite interface and able to be mechanically separated
from its surroundings.
• A pure material can be considered to be a phase: H2O has three
different phases possible: Ice, Water and Steam
• In a material regions which differ in structure (H2O in solid form
ice as opposed to H2O in liquid form water, or FCC Vs. BCC) and/or
chemical composition (Syrup Vs. Pure sugar) from another regions
are different phases
• A single phases system are called HOMOGENEOUS and multi-
phase system are HETEROGENEOUS systems

6
 Microstructure
• Microstructure is observed by OPTICAL and ELECTRON
microscopy techniques using appropriate polishing and etching
• Microstructure of an alloy is characterized by (1) number of phases
present, (2) their proportions and (3) manner in which they are
distributed or arranged
• Microstructure of an alloy depend on the elements present, their
concentration, and the heat treatment (I.e. heated to what
temperature, time kept at that temperature and the rate of cooling)

Aluminum-
Copper
Alloy

7
 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
• Graphical representation of the number and quantities of
phases that can exist in an alloy at any given composition,
temperature and Pressure
• The presence of the different phases under the above conditions
is dictated by PHASE EQUILIBRIA, that is, the system
minimizes its energy to reach an equilibrium state (that is the
reason phase diagrams are termed as Equilibrium Diagrams)
• Varieties of phase diagrams are available
• In the present discussion we will focus on Binary Phase
Diagram (for an alloy with two components) with temperature
and compositions as variables (Pressure is kept constant at
1atm)
• We will focus on two simple types of phase diagram Binary
Isomorphous and Binary Eutectic
8
 Binary Isomorphous System
• Simplest phase diagram to understand and interpret,
characterized by Copper Nickel System

• Important parts of the phase

diagram are:
– Temperature Axis
– Composition Axis
– Liquidus Line
– Solidus Line

Liquidus and Solidus Line

Constitute Phase Boundaries Lines

9
 Phase Equilibria

Simple solution system (e.g., Ni-Cu solution)

Crystal electroneg r (nm)

Structure
Ni FCC 1.9 0.1246
Cu FCC 1.8 0.1278

• Both have the same crystal structure (FCC) and have

similar electronegativities and atomic radii (W. Hume –
Rothery rules) suggesting high mutual solubility.
• Ni and Cu are totally miscible in all proportions.

10
 Cu-Ni Phase Diagram
The phase diagram is characterized
by:
• Cu and Ni are completely soluble in T(°C)
both liquid and solid solutions 1600 • 2 phases:
(Isomorphous behavior) L (liquid)
1500 L (liquid) 
• The complete solubility is explained
1400
by the fact that both have same
crystal structure (FCC) and satisfy 1300 • 3 phase
fields:
L
other requirements of Hume-Rothery
1200  L+
Rules)
(FCC solid 
1100
• The solid solution is called  and is solution)
substitutional solid solution with 1000
FCC crystal structure
0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni

• For any composition other than pure

components the melting takes place
over a range of temperatures
11
 Reading a Phase Diagram
Given: Composition and Temperature

• What Phases are Present?

– Read off phases from the field
at a given composition and
temperature

• What Are Their Compositions?

– In a two-phase region, use a
horizontal tie-line

• How Much of Each Phase is

Present (or percent fraction of
each phase)?
– In a two-phase region, use the C  C0  S
Lever Rule and the tie-line
C0  CL  R
12
 What are the # and types of phases present?
• Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the # and types of phases present.

Method: Locate the

temperature-composition point on
the diagram and note the phase(s)
with which the corresponding
phase field is labeled Cu-Ni
phase
diagram
• Examples:
A (1100°C, 60 wt% Ni-40wt% Cu):
1 phase: 
B (1250°C, 35 wt% Ni-65wt% Cu):
2 phases: L + 
Adapted from Phase Diagrams of Binary
Nickel Alloys, P. Nash (Ed.), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1991).
13
 Determination of Phase Compositions

Steps to compute the composition includes:

For Single Phase Region:
– The composition of the phase is the same as overall composition of alloy
For Two Phase Region:
– A TIE LINE or isotherm is constructed across the two phase region at
the temperature of the alloy
(A tie line at a given temperature extend across the two-phase region and
terminate at the phase boundary lines on either side)
– The intersections of the tie line and the phase boundaries on either side
are noted
– Perpendiculars are dropped from these intersections to the horizontal
composition axis and the composition of each respective phase is noted

14
What are the composition of phases present?
• Rule 2: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the composition of each phase.
Cu-Ni
system
• Examples:
Co = 35wt%Ni-65wt%Cu
At TA:
Only Liquid (L)
CL = Co ( = 35wt% Ni-65wt%Cu)
At TD:
Only Solid ()
C = Co ( = 35wt% Ni-65wt%Cu)
At TB:
Both  and L
CL = Cliquidus ( = 31.5 wt% Ni-68.5wt% Cu here)
C = Csolidus ( = 42.5 wt% Ni-57.5wt% Cu here)
15
Determination of the Phase Amounts
The relative amount as fractions or as percentage can be calculated
by following steps:
For Single Phase Region:
– The alloys is composed entirely of one phase that is the phase fraction is
1 and percentage 100%
For Two Phase Region Tie Line is constructed and Lever rule used:
– A tie line is constructed across two-phase region at the given temperature
– The overall composition is located on the tie line
– The fraction of one phase is computed by taking the length of tie line
from the overall composition to the phase boundary for the OTHER
phase, and dividing by the total tie line length (This is called Lever Rule
or Inverse Lever Rule)
– The fraction of other phase is determined in the same manner
– Tie Line segments length can be determined by direct measurement (by a
scale) or by subtracting compositions as taken from the composition axis
16
What is the weight fractions of each phase present?
• Rule 3: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the amount of each phase (given in wt%).
Cu-Ni
• Examples: system
Co = 35wt%Ni-65wt%Cu
At TA: Only Liquid (L)
WL = 100wt%, W = 0
At TD: Only Solid ()
WL = 0, W = 100wt%
At TB: Both  and L

S 43  35
WL     73wt %
R S 43  32
R C  C0  S
W   = 27wt%
Please note: C0  C L  R
R S
C  C L  R  S
17
 THE LEVER RULE: A PROOF
• Sum of weight fractions: WL  W  1
• Conservation of mass (Ni): Co  WL CL  WC
• Combine above equations:

• A geometric interpretation:
moment equilibrium:
WLR  WS

1 W
solving gives Lever Rule

18
 Development of Microstructure in
Isomorphous Alloys
EQUILIBRIUM COOLING:
• Cooling occurs very slowly
• Phase equilibrium is continuously maintained
• Consider binary Cu-Ni system with isomorphous behavior, i.e.,
complete solubility of one component in another;  phase field
extends from 0 to 100 wt% Ni
• Consider cooling the alloy of composition 35 wt% Ni-65 wt%
Cu as it is cooled from 1300°C, that is, moving down a vertical
line at the above composition
• See Figure on next page

19
• Point A (1300C): alloy completely
Cu-Ni
liquid of composition 35 wt% Ni system
• Point B (~1260C): The first solid
begins to form with the composition
dictated by tie line
• With cooling the composition of
liquid and  phase will follow the
liquidus and solidus lines,
respectively
• The overall composition of alloy
remains the same as it is cooled
• The fraction of liquid and  phase
will change as we go from B to D
(fraction of  will increase)
• Point D (~1220C): Last remaining
liquid solidify.
• Final Product: Polycrystalline
solid solution with uniform
composition of 35 wt% Ni
20
CORED VS EQUILIBRIUM PHASES
• C changes as we solidify.
• Cu-Ni case: First  to solidify has C = 46wt%Ni.
Last  to solidify has C = 35wt%Ni.
• Fast rate of cooling: • Slow rate of cooling:
Cored structure Equilibrium structure
Uniform C:
First  to solidfy:
46wt%Ni 35wt%Ni
Last  to solidfy:
35wt%Ni

21
 Non-Equilibrium Cooling
• Cooling rates are often too high to
prevent coring or segregation, that is,
distribution of two elements within
grains are non-uniform
• The Diffusion Rate in solids are low,
and decrease with temperature.
Normal cooling rates are too high to
allow compositional readjustment of
solid phase and maintenance of
equilibrium
• Equilibrium is not maintained between
the solid and liquid, except at the
solid/liquid interface, and the
composition of the solid is not
homogeneous
• Coring is removed by the process of
annealing

22
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Cu-Ni System
• Solid Solution Strengthening: An increase in the strength
and hardness of an alloy by addition of other component

--Tensile strength (TS) --Ductility (%EL,%AR)

--Passes through maximum --Show a minimum as a

as a function of Co function of Co 23
24
 BINARY-EUTECTIC SYSTEMS (1)
has a special composition
2 components with a minimum melting Temperature
Example: Cu-Ag system

• 3 single phase regions

(L, , b)
• Three two phase regions
• Limited solubility:
: mostly Cu
b: mostly Ag
• TE: No liquid below TE
• CE: Min. melting T
composition
25
 BINARY-EUTECTIC SYSTEMS (2)
• Important Feature: Limited
Solubility
• -Phase:
– A solid solution rich in Cu
– Silver is the solute component
Liquidus
– Only a limited concentration of Ag will
Eutectic Point
dissolve in Cu Solidus
• b-Phase:
– A solid solution rich in Ag
– Copper is the solute component Eutectic Isotherm
Solvus
• Both  and b have FCC Crystal Structure
• Solubility limit of -phase correspond
to the boundary line CBA (max.
solubility is at 779°C at point B)
• Limited solubility is possibly due to
different crystal structure of pure
elements, atom size, valency,
electronegativity…... )
26
 Eutectic Point/Reaction
• As Silver (Ag) is added to Copper (Cu) the liquidus line temperature
decreases (Line AE), that is, the melting point of Cu is lowered by Ag
addition. The same is true for Ag (Line FE)
• The two liquidus lines meet at point E; Point E is called the Eutectic
Point or Invariant Point (Eutectic Temperature TE=779°C and
Eutectic Composition CE=71.9 wt% Ag)
• Eutectic means easy melting
• Eutectic Reaction takes place at point E: L(CE) =  (C E) + b (CbE)
• Upon cooling, liquid phase of concentration CE transformed in two
solid phases  and b at the temperature TE
• Thus for Cu-Ag system Eutectic reaction is:
L (71.9% Ag)=  (8% Ag) + b (91.2% Ag) at 779°C
• Eutectic reaction is similar to solidification and melting of pure
components
27
 EX: Pb-Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM (1)

• -phase: A solid solution of

Tin in Lead
Pb: Solvent Sn: Solute

• b-phase: A solid solution of

Lead in Tin
Sn: Solvent Pb: Solute

• Eutectic Invariant Point:

61.9 wt% Sn and 183°C

• The solder materials commonly

used in electronics is 60 wt% Sn For a 40wt%Sn-60wt%Pb alloy at 150C, find...
+ 40 wt% Pb , the composition is --the phases present
chosen because it melts at very --the compositions of the phases
low temperature 185°C (very --the relative amount of each phase interms of
close to the eutectic point) mass fraction
28
EX 9.2: Pb-Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM (2)
• For a 40wt%Sn-60wt%Pb alloy at 150C, find...
--the phases present:  + b Pb-Sn
--the compositions of T(°C) system
the phases:
C = 10wt%Sn 300
L (liquid)
Cb = 98wt%Sn
--the relative amounts 200  L +  L+b b
183°C
of each phase: 18.3 61.9 97.8
150
W  58 
66wt%
R S
100
88 b
 30 
Wb 34wt%
88 0 10 20 40 60 80 98100
Co
C b  C0  S  98  40  58 Co, wt% Sn
C0  C  R  40  10  30
C b  C  R  S  98  10  88 29
Pb-Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM

30
 Microstructures in Eutectic Systems-I
• Different microstructures are
possible depending on
composition even for slow rate
of cooling
• Consider Pb-Sn Phase Diagram
• for Composition:
0 < Co < 2wt%Sn
(pure to maximum solid solubility
at room temperature)
• Microstructure development
similar to the binary
isomorphous system
• Result:
--polycrystal of  grains
31
 Microstructures in Eutectic Systems-II
• for Composition: Pb-Sn
system
2wt%Sn < Co < 18.3wt%Sn
(solubility limit at RT to maximum
solid solubility at the eutectic
temperature)
• Alpha phase solidifies first and
then precipitates beta phase; as
the alpha solid solubility is
exceeded
• On further cooling the beta
particles grow in size because
fraction of beta phase increases
slightly
• Result:
--a polycrystal with fine
b crystals 32
 Microstructures in Eutectic Systems-III
• for Composition Co = CE (The Eutectic
Composition)
• Eutectic Reaction:
L (61.9% Sn)=  (18.3% Sn) + b (97.8% Sn) at 183°C
all composition are different so atomic diffusion should
take place for redistribution of Pb and Sn
• Result: Eutectic microstructure
--alternating layers of  and b crystals Alternating layer or Lamellar
configuration
Pb-Sn
system

160mm
Micrograph of Pb-Sn
eutectic microstructure
33
 Microstructures in Eutectic Systems-IV
• for Composition: 18.3wt%Sn < Co < 97.8wt%Sn
(along the eutectic isotherm except eutectic point)
• The primary alpha phase solidifies first and the last liquid solidifies as
the eutectic structure (alpha in eutectic structure is called eutectic
alpha)
• Result:  crystals and a eutectic microstructure
• Just above TE :
C = 18.3wt%Sn
C L = 61.9wt%Sn
S
W = =50wt%
R+S
W L = (1- W ) =50wt%

• Just below TE :
C = 18.3wt%Sn
Cb = 97.8wt%Sn
W = S =73wt%
R+S
W b = 27wt% 34
 HYPOEUTECTIC & HYPEREUTECTIC

(Figs. 9.12 and

9.15 from Metals
Handbook, 9th ed.,
Vol. 9,
Metallography and
Microstructures,
American Society
for Metals,
Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

35
 Intermetallic Compounds

Adapted from
Fig. 9.20, Callister 7e.

Mg2Pb

Note: intermetallic compound forms a line - not an area -

because stoichiometry (i.e. composition) is exact. 36
 Eutectoid & Peritectic
• Eutectic - liquid in equilibrium with two solids
L cool  + b
heat

• Eutectoid - solid phase in equation with two solid phases

S2 S1+S3
intermetallic compound -
  + Fe3C (727ºC)
cementite
cool
heat

• Peritectic - liquid + solid 1  solid 2 (Fig 9.21)

S1 + L S2
cool
 + L heat  (1493ºC)

37
 Eutectoid & Peritectic
Peritectic transition  + L 
Cu-Zn Phase diagram

Adapted from
Fig. 9.21, Callister 7e.
Eutectoid transition  +
38
IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM

Four one phase

regions:
, ,  and L
A compound Fe3C
Two phases
regions?

39
Important Concepts to Understand Fe-C Phase
Diagram (also called Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram)
• Compounds:
– Compounds have distinct chemical formula (fixed composition) as
opposed to a range of compositions observed in single phases
– Compounds appear as straight line on phase diagrams e.g: Fe3C
(Cementite or Iron Carbide)
• Fe-C phase diagram show three distinct invariant reactions:
– Eutectic reaction: LiquidTwo Solid Phases
• L =  + Fe3C at 4.3 wt% Carbon at 1147°C
– Eutectoid reaction: One solid phase Two other solid phases
•  =  + Fe3C at 0.76 wt% Carbon at 727°C
– Peritectic reaction: One solid phase One Liquid +another solid phase
•  =  + L at 1493 °C
• Fe-C phase diagram only extends from 0 to 6.7 wt %Carbon
because all steels and cast irons have carbon content below it 40
Important Features of Fe-C Phase Diagram
• Fe C phase diagram very important since Steels and Cast Iron, the most
important structural materials, are both alloys of Iron and Carbon
• Pure Iron goes through the following transformations as it is heated (see the
left vertical axis on phase diagram):
– At room temperature it is -iron or Ferrite (a BCC crystal structure)
– At 912°C -iron  -iron or Austenite (a FCC crystal structure)
a Polymorphic Transformation
– At 1394°C -iron -iron (a BCC crystal structure)
– At 1538 °C melting of Iron takes place -iron Liquid
• Carbon is interstitial impurity in iron and forms a solid solution with ,  and
-iron
• Solubility of C is very high in -iron (2.14%) as compared to  (0.022%) and
-iron due to the different crystal structures (BCC)
• Above the solubility limit of C in  and  iron, Cementite or Fe3C is produced
• Cementite is very hard and brittle so increases the strength of steels
41
 Types of Steels and Cast Iron
• Classification of Ferrous Alloys Based on Carbon Content:
• Pure Iron: Containing less than 0.008 wt% C. Not used
commonly because it is soft
• Steels: Containing 0.008 to 2.14 wt% C. Composition rarely
goes above 1%. Types are:
– Low Carbon Steels: <0.25 wt%C, used in car body panels, beams,
sheet, tubes
– Medium Carbon Steels: 0.25-0.6 wt%C, used in shafts, gears, bolts
– High Carbon Steels: 0.6-1.4wt%C, used in wire, springs, knives, chisels
• Cast Iron: Containing 2.14 to 6.7 wt% C. Composition
normally 4.5 wt% C. Used in making machine body, cylinder
blocks
42
 Development of Microstructure in Fe-C alloys
• Consider slow cooling, i.e., equilibrium is continuously maintained
• Consider the eutectoid reaction at eutectoid composition of 0.76 wt% C

Result: Pearlite
alternating layers of  and Fe3C phases
43
 Carbon Steels
• The important phases in carbon steels

Pearlite
(Ferrite+Carbide Eutectoid)
Ferrite Austenite
(BCC) (FCC) Pearlie has mechanical properties
between soft ductile ferrite and
hard brittle cementite
(Grains are also called colonies)
44
 Carbon Steels

• Carbon controls the amount of

pearlite

45
 HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
Consider a composition Co to the left of eutectoid point, i.e., hypoeutectoid (or
less than eutectoid) alloy between 0.022 - 0.76 wt %;

Ferrite present in pearliete is called

eutectoid ferrtie and the one formed
above 727C is called proeutectoid 46 ferrite
 HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL
Composition between 0.76-2.14 wt %; Cementite produced above 727C
is called proeutectoid cementite

47
 Example: Phase Equilibria
For a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.40 wt% C at a temperature just below the
eutectoid, determine the following
a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite ()
b) the amount of carbide (cementite) in grams that forms per 100 g
of steel
c) the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite ()

48
 Chapter 9 – Phase Equilibria
Solution: a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite ()
b) the amount of carbide (cementite) CO = 0.40 wt% C
in grams that forms per 100 g of C = 0.022 wt% C
steel CFe C = 6.70 wt% C
3
1600

Fe3C Co  C 1400 L
 x100 T(°C)
Fe3C   CFe 3C  C   +L
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe C (cementite)
(austenite)
0.4  0.022
 x 100  5.7g 1000
6.7  0.022  + Fe3C
800 727°C
R S
Fe3C  5.7 g 600  + Fe3C
  94.3 g 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
C CO Co , wt% C CFe
3C

49
 Chapter 9 – Phase Equilibria
c. the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite ()
note: amount of pearlite = amount of  just above TE
Co = 0.40 wt% C
C = 0.022 wt% C 1600
Cpearlite = C = 0.76 wt% C 
1400 L
T(°C)
 Co  C   +L
 x 100  51.2 g 1200 1148°C L+Fe3C
   C C

Fe C (cementite)
(austenite)
1000
 + Fe3C
800 727°C
RS
pearlite = 51.2 g 600  + Fe3C
proeutectoid  = 48.8 g 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
C CO C Co , wt% C

50
 ALLOYING STEEL WITH MORE ELEMENTS
• In the above discussion slow or equilibrium cooling is assumed, the real cooling rates
sometimes lead to non-equilibrium phases (Discussed in next Chapter)
• Additions of other alloying components in addition to Carbon bring drastic changes in the
Fe-C Phase diagram

• Teutectoid changes: • Ceutectoid changes:

51
 SUMMARY
• Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine
for a given T and composition of the system:
-- the number and types of phases,
-- the composition of each phase,
-- and the wt% or fraction of each phase present

• Alloying to produce a solid solution usually

--increases the tensile strength (TS)
--decreases the ductility.

• Binary eutectics and binary eutectoids allow for

a range of microstructures.

52
 Home Work # 4
ME 207: Engineering Metallurgy

Problem 1: A lead-tin alloy of composition 30 wt% Sn-70 wt% Pb is slowly

heated from a temperature of 150ºC.

(a) At what temperature does the first liquid phase form?

(b) What is the composition of this liquid phase?
(c) At what temperature does complete melting of the alloy occur?
(d) What is the composition of the last solid remaining prior to
complete melting? (Text Problem 9.20)

Problem 2: A 50 wt% Ni-50 wt% Cu alloy is slowly cooled from 1400ºC to

1200ºC.

(a) At what temperature does the first solid phase form?

(b) What is the composition of this solid phase?
(c) At what temperature does the liquid solidify?
(d) What is the composition of this last remaining liquid phase?
(Text Problem 9.21)

Problem 3: A 65 wt% Ni-35 wt% Cu alloy is heated to a temperature within the

 + liquid phase region. If the composition of the  phase is 70 wt%
Ni, determine:

(a) The temperature of the alloy.

(b) The composition of the liquid phase.
(c) The weight fraction of both phases. (Text Problem 9.22)

Problem 4: At 700ºC what is the maximum solubility of (a) Cu in Ag, and of (b)
Ag in Cu? (Text Problem 9.29) 53
Problem 5: Make schematic sketches of the microstructure that would be
observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following
temperatures, 1200ºC, 800ºC, and 200ºC for the following
compositions: (a) 4 wt% Ag-96 wt% Cu (b) 20 wt% Ag-80 wt% Cu
(c) 90 wt% Ag-10 wt% Cu and (d) 98 wt% Ag-2 wt% Cu.

Problem 6: For an iron-carbon alloy of composition 3 wt% C-97 wt% Fe, make
schematic sketches of the microstructure that would be observed
for condition of very slow cooling at the following temperatures:
1250ºC, 1145ºC, and 700ºC. Label the phases and indicate their
composition (approximate). (Text Problem 9.66)

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 Mini Project 2
Heat treatment/Surface Hardening is a potent tool used by Materials Engineers to change
the properties of metals according to the special requirements of any application. The
material kingdom is very vast, and in the metals category, there are numerous alloys
available from both ferrous and non-ferrous classes. The heat treatments techniques and
parameters are thus countless as each alloy will require different set of parameters for its
heat treatments. To aid this several handbooks are available to help select proper heat
treatment for any specific requirements. This mini-project will help you to get familiarize with
these handbooks and the procedure for selecting proper heat treatment.

You have to perform the following tasks:

• Select a specific part made of a metal from any applications like automobile.
• Identify the critical property which has to be enhanced by heat treatment.
• Select proper heat treatment using a relevant handbook. The handbook used has to be
clearly specified.
• List all the steps in heat treatment in context of the phase and ITT diagrams.
• Illustrate how the heat treatment is changing the microstructure to attain the required
properties.
• Compare the merits and any drawbacks of the proposed heat treatment.

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