1 M E AS U R E M E N T AN D U N CE R TAI N TI E S

Te ream o pysics  rane o manitudes o

quantities in our universe
ORDERS Of MAgNITUDE  RANgE Of MASSES RANgE Of lENgThS
INClUDINg ThEIR RATIOS Mass / kg Size / m
Physics seeks to explain nothing less than the 10 52 total mass of observable radius of observable Universe
10 26
Universe itself. In attempting to do this, the 10 48 Universe
range of the magnitudes of various quantities
10 24
10 44 10 22
will be huge. mass of local galaxy radius of local galaxy (Milky Way)
10 40 10 20
If the numbers involved are going to mean (Milky Way)
anything, it is important to get some feel 10 36 10 18
for their relative sizes. To avoid getting lost 10 32 distance to nearest star
mass of Sun 10 16
among the numbers it is helpful to state them 10 28
to the nearest order of magnitude or power
10 14
10 24 mass of Earth
of ten. The numbers are just rounded up or 10 12
10 20 total mass of oceans distance from Earth to Sun
down as appropriate. total mass of atmosphere 10 10
10 16 distance from Earth to Moon
Comparisons can then be easily made because 10 8
working out the ratio between two powers of 10 12 radius of the Earth
10 6 deepest part of the
ten is just a matter of adding or subtracting 10 8 laden oil supertanker
whole numbers. The diameter of an atom,
10 4 ocean / highest mountain
10 4 elephant tallest building
1 0 - 1 0 m, does not sound that much larger human 10 2
than the diameter of a proton in its nucleus, 10 0 10 0
mouse
1 0 - 1 5 m, but the ratio between them is 1 0 5 or 10 -4 10 - 2 length of ngernail
1 00,000 times bigger. This is the same ratio as 10 -8 grain of sand thickness of piece of paper
between the size of a railway station (order blood corpuscle 10 - 4 human blood corpuscle
10 - 12 10 - 6
of magnitude 1 0 2 m) and the diameter of the bacterium
Earth (order of magnitude 1 0 7 m) . 10 - 16 10 - 8 wavelength of light
electrons 10 - 20 10 - 10
haemoglobin molecule diameter of hydrogen atom
10 - 24 10 - 12
proton wavelength of gamma ray
10 - 28 10 - 14
electron diameter of proton
10 - 32 10 - 16
protons
RANgE Of TIMES RANgE Of ENERgIES
Time / s
Carbon atom 10 20 Energy / J
age of the Universe 10 44 energy released in a supernova
railway 10 18
station 10 16 age of the Earth
10 34
10 14 age of species  Homo
sapiens 10 30
Earth 10 12 energy radiated by Sun in 1 second
For example, you would probably feel very 10 10 10 26
typical human lifespan
pleased with yourself if you designed a new, 10 8 10 22
environmentally friendly source of energy 1 year energy released in an earthquake
10 6
that could produce 2.03  1 0 3 J from 0.72 kg 1 day 10 18
10 4 energy released by annihilation of
of natural produce. But the meaning of these
numbers is not clear  is this a lot or is it a 10 2 10 14 1 kg of matter
little? In terms of orders of magnitudes, this 10 0 heartbeat
10 10 energy in a lightning discharge
new source produces 1 0 3 joules per kilogram 10 - 2
of produce. This does not compare terribly period of high-frequency 10 6 energy needed to charge a car
10 - 4 sound battery
well with the 1 0 5 joules provided by a slice of
bread or the 1 0 8 joules released per kilogram
10 - 6 10 2
passage of light across kinetic energy of a tennis ball
of petrol. 10 - 8 during game
a room 10 - 2
You do NOT need to memorize all of the 10 - 10 energy in the beat of a ys wing
values shown in the tables, but you should 10 - 12 10 - 6
vibration of an ion in a solid
try and develop a familiarity with them. 10 - 14 10 - 10
period of visible light
10 - 16
10 - 14
10 - 18
10 - 20 passage of light across 10 - 18 energy needed to remove electron
an atom from the surface of a metal
10 - 22 10 - 22
10 - 24 passage of light across
a nucleus
10 - 26

M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S 1
The SI system o undamenta and deried units
fUNDAMENTAl UNITS been developed. In science we use the International System o
Any measurement and every quantity can be thought o as units (SI) . In SI, the fundamental or base units are as ollows
being made up o two important parts:
Quantity SI unit SI symbol
1. the number and
Mass kilogram kg
2. the units.
Without both parts, the measurement does not make sense. Length metre m
For example a persons age might be quoted as seventeen Time second s
but without the years the situation is not clear. Are they
1 7 minutes, 1 7 months or 1 7 years old? In this case you would Electric current ampere A
know i you saw them, but a statement like
Amount o substance mole mol
length = 4.2
Temperature kelvin K
actually says nothing. Having said this, it is really surprising to
see the number o candidates who orget to include the units in (Luminous intensity candela cd)
their answers to examination questions. You do not need to know the precise defnitions o any o these
In order or the units to be understood, they need to be defned. units in order to use them properly.
There are many possible systems o measurement that have

DERIvED UNITS are so large that the SI unit (the metre) always involves large
Having fxed the undamental units, all other measurements orders o magnitudes. In these cases, the use o a dierent
can be expressed as dierent combinations o the undamental (but non SI) unit is very common. Astronomers can use the
units. In other words, all the other units are derived units. For astronomical unit (AU) , the light-year (ly) or the parsec (pc)
example, the undamental list o units does not contain a unit as appropriate. Whatever the unit, the conversion to SI units is
or the measurement o speed. The defnition o speed can be simple arithmetic.
used to work out the derived unit. 1 AU = 1 .5  1 0 1 1 m
distance
Since speed = _ 1 ly = 9.5  1 0 1 5 m
time
1 pc = 3.1  1 0 1 6 m
units o distance
Units o speed = __
units o time There are also some units (or example the hour) which are so
common that they are oten used even though they do not orm
= _metres
(pronounced metres per second) part o SI. Once again, beore these numbers are substituted
seconds
m into equations they need to be converted. Some common unit
= _s conversions are given on page 3 o the IB data booklet.
= m s 1 The table below lists the SI derived units that you will meet.
O the many ways o writing this unit, the last way (m s 1 ) is the SI derived unit SI base unit Alternative SI unit
best.
newton (N) kg m s - 2 -
Sometimes particular combinations o undamental units
pascal (Pa) kg m- 1 s - 2 N m- 2
are so common that they are given a new derived name. For
example, the unit o orce is a derived unit  it turns out to be hertz (Hz) s- 1 -
kg m s - 2 . This unit is given a new name the newton (N) so that joule (J) kg m2 s - 2 Nm
1 N = 1 kg m s - 2 . watt (W) kg m s 2 -3
J s- 1
The great thing about SI is that, so long as the numbers that are coulomb (C) As -
substituted into an equation are in SI units, then the answer
volt (V) kg m2 s - 3 A- 1 WA- 1
will also come out in SI units. You can always play sae by
converting all the numbers into proper SI units. Sometimes, ohm () kg m2 s - 3 A- 2 VA- 1
however, this would be a waste o time. weber (Wb) kg m s 2 -2
A -1
Vs
There are some situations where the use o SI becomes tesla (T) kg s - 2 A- 1 Wb m- 2
awkward. In astronomy, or example, the distances involved becquerel (Bq) s- 1 -

PREfIxES
To avoid the repeated use o scientifc notation, an alternative is to use one o the list o agreed prefxes given on page 2 in the IB data
booklet. These can be very useul but they can also lead to errors in calculations. It is very easy to orget to include the conversion actor.
For example, 1 kW = 1 000 W. 1 mW = 1 0 - 3 W (in other words, ____
1W
1 000
)

2 M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S
Estimation
ORDERS Of MAgNITUDE 1 kelvin 1 K is a very low temperature. Water reezes at 273 K
It is important to develop a eeling or some o the numbers and boils at 373 K. Room temperature is about 300 K
that you use. When using a calculator, it is very easy to make 1 mol 1 2 g o carbon1 2. About the number o atoms o
a simple mistake (eg by entering the data incorrectly) . A good carbon in the lead o a pencil
way o checking the answer is to rst make an estimate beore The same process can happen with some o the derived units.
resorting to the calculator. The multiple-choice paper (paper 1 )
1 m s- 1 Walking speed. A car moving at 30 m s - 1 would be ast
does not allow the use o calculators.
1 ms -2
Quite a slow acceleration. The acceleration o gravity
Approximate values or each o the undamental SI units are
is 1 0 m s - 2
given below.
1 N A small orce  about the weight o an apple
1 kg A packet o sugar, 1 litre o water. A person would be
about 50 kg or more 1 V Batteries generally range rom a ew volts up to 20 or
so, the mains is several hundred volts
1 m Distance between ones hands with arms outstretched
1 Pa A very small pressure. Atmospheric pressure is about
1 s Duration o a heart beat (when resting  it can easily
1 0 5 Pa
double with exercise)
1 J A very small amount o energy  the work done
1 amp Current fowing rom the mains electricity when a
liting an apple o the ground
computer is connected. The maximum current to a
domestic device would be about 1 0 A or so

POSSIblE REASONAblE ASSUMPTIONS

Everyday situations are very complex. In physics we oten simpliy a problem by making simple assumptions. Even i we know
these assumptions are not absolutely true they allow us to gain an understanding o what is going on. At the end o the calculation
it is oten possible to go back and work out what would happen i our assumption turned out not to be true.
The table below lists some common assumptions. Be careul not to assume too much! Additionally we oten have to assume that
some quantity is constant even i we know that in reality it is varying slightly all the time.

Assumption Example
Object treated as point particle Mechanics: Linear motion and translational equilibrium
Friction is negligible Many mechanics situations  but you need to be very careul
No thermal energy (heat) loss Almost all thermal situations
Mass o connecting string, etc. is negligible Many mechanics situations
Resistance o ammeter is zero Circuits
Resistance o voltmeter is innite Circuits
Internal resistance o battery is zero Circuits
Material obeys Ohms law Circuits
Machine 1 00% ecient Many situations
Gas is ideal Thermodynamics
Collision is elastic Only gas molecules have perectly elastic collisions
Object radiates as a perect black body Thermal equilibrium, e.g. planets

SCIENTIfIC NOTATION SIgNIfICANT fIgURES

Numbers that are too big or too small or decimals are oten Any experimental measurement should be quoted with its
written in scientifc notation: uncertainty. This indicates the possible range o values or
a  1 0b the quantity being measured. At the same time, the number
o signifcant fgures used will act as a guide to the amount
where a is a number between 1 and 1 0 and b is an integer.
o uncertainty. For example, a measurement o mass which
e.g. 1 53.2 = 1 .532  1 0 2 ; 0.00872 = 8.72  1 0 - 3 is quoted as 23.456 g implies an uncertainty o  0.001 g
(it has ve signicant gures) , whereas one o 23.5 g implies
an uncertainty o  0.1 g (it has three signicant gures) .
A simple rule or calculations (multiplication or division) is to
quote the answer to the same number o signicant digits as
the LEAST precise value that is used.
For a more complete analysis o how to deal with uncertainties
in calculated results, see page 5.

M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S 3
Uncertainties and error in experimenta measurement
ERRORS  RANDOM AND SySTEMATIC (PRECISION Systematic and random errors can oten be recognized rom a
graph o the results.
AND ACCURACy)

quantity A
An experimental error just means that there is a dierence
between the recorded value and the perect or correct value.
Errors can be categorized as random or systematic.
Repeating readings does not reduce systematic errors.
Sources o random errors include perfect results
random error
 The readability o the instrument. systematic error
 The observer being less than perect.
 The eects o a change in the surroundings. quantity B
Sources o systematic errors include Perect results, random and systematic errors o two
proportional quantities.
 An instrument with zero error. To correct or zero error the
value should be subtracted rom every reading.
 An instrument being wrongly calibrated.
 The observer being less than perect in the same way every
ESTIMATINg ThE UNCERTAINTy RANgE
An uncertainty range applies to any
measurement.
experimental value. The idea is that,
An accurate experiment is one that has a small systematic
instead o just giving one value that cm 3
error, whereas a precise experiment is one that has a small
implies perection, we give the likely
100
random error. 90
range or the measurement.
true value measured true measured 1. Estimating rom frst principles 80
value value value 70
All measurement involves a readability
probability error. I we use a measuring cylinder to 60
that result has a
fnd the volume o a liquid, we might 50
certain value
think that the best estimate is 73 cm3 , 40
but we know that it is not exactly this
value (73.000 000 000 00 cm3 ) .
30
Uncertainty range is  5 cm3 . We say
20
value value volume = 73  5 cm3 . 10
(a) (b)
Normally the uncertainty range due to
Two examples illustrating the nature o experimental results:
readability is estimated as below.
(a) an accurate experiment o low precision
(b) a less accurate but more precise experiment. Device Example Uncertainty
Analogue Rulers, meters with  (hal the smallest
scale moving pointers scale division)
gRAPhICAl REPRESENTATION Of UNCERTAINTy Digital scale Top-pan balances,  (the smallest scale
In many situations the best method o presenting and digital meters division)
analysing data is to use a graph. I this is the case, a neat way 2. Estimating uncertainty range rom several repeated
o representing the uncertainties is to use error bars. The measurements
graphs below explains their use.
I the time taken or a trolley to go down a slope is measured fve
Since the error bar represents the uncertainty range, the best- times, the readings in seconds might be 2.01 , 1 .82, 1 .97, 2.1 6 and
ft line o the graph should pass through ALL o the rectangles 1 .94. The average o these fve readings is 1 .98 s. The deviation o
created by the error bars. the largest and smallest readings can be calculated (2.1 6 - 1 .98
= 0.1 8; 1 .98 - 1 .82 = 0.1 6). The largest value is taken as the
quantity A

quantity C

uncertainty range. In this example the time is 1 .98 s  0.1 8 s. It

would also be appropriate to quote this as 2.0  0.2 s.

SIgNIfICANT fIgURES IN UNCERTAINTIES

In order to be cautious when quoting uncertainties, fnal values
rom calculations are oten rounded up to one signifcant
quantity B quantity D fgure, e.g. a calculation that fnds the value o a orce to
be 4.264 N with an uncertainty o  0.362 N is quoted as
quantity E

4.3  0.4 N. This can be unnecessarily pessimistic and it is also

acceptable to express uncertainties to two signifcant fgures.
mistake The best ft line is
For example, the charge on an electron is 1 .6021 76565  1 0 - 1 9 C
assumed included by all the error
 0.000000035 1 0 - 1 9 C. In data booklets this is sometimes
expressed as 1 .6021 76565(35)  1 0 - 1 9 C.
bars in the upper two
graphs. This is not true in
quantity F the lower graph.

4 M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S
Uncertainties in cacuated resuts
MAThEMATICAl REPRESENTATION Of UNCERTAINTIES Then the ractional uncertainty is
For example i the mass o a block was measured as 1 0  1 g _p
and the volume was measured as 5.0  0.2 cm3 , then the ull p ,
calculations or the density would be as ollows. which makes the percentage uncertainty
p
_
Best value or density = ______
mass
volume
= __
10
5
= 2.0 g cm- 3 p  1 00% .
In the example above, the ractional uncertainty o the density is
The largest possible value o density = ___
11
4.8
= 2.292 g cm- 3
0.1 5 or 1 5%.
The smallest possible value o density = ___
9
5.2
= 1 .731 g cm- 3 Thus equivalent ways o expressing this error are
density = 2.0  0.3 g cm- 3
Rounding these values gives density = 2.0  0.3 g cm -3

OR density = 2.0 g cm- 3  1 5%

We can express this uncertainty in one o three ways  using
absolute, fractional or percentage uncertainties. Working out the uncertainty range is very time consuming.
There are some mathematical short-cuts that can be used.
I a quantity p is measured then the absolute uncertainty would
These are introduced in the boxes below.
be expressed as p.

ab
In symbols, i y = _
MUlTIPlICATION, DIvISION OR POwERS c
y _ a b + _c [note this is ALWAYS added]
Whenever two or more quantities are multiplied or divided Then y = a + _
_
c
and they each have uncertainties, the overall uncertainty b
Power relationships are just a special case o this law.
is approximately equal to the addition o the percentage
(ractional) uncertainties. I y = an

Using the same numbers rom above,

y
Then ___
y = n a
_ | |
a (always positive)

m =  1 g For example i a cube is measured to be 4.0  0.1 cm in length

along each side, then
m
_ _1 g
m =  10 g ( ) =  0.1 =  1 0% % Uncertainty in length =  _0.1
4.0
=  2.5 %
Volume = (length) = (4.0) = 64 cm3
3 3
V =  0.2 cm3
% Uncertainty in [volume] = % uncertainty in [(length) 3 ]
_
V (
5 cm3 )
0.2 cm3 =  0.04 =  4%
V =  _
= 3  (% uncertainty in [length] )
= 3  ( 2.5 % )
The total % uncertainty in the result =  (1 0 + 4) %
=  7.5 %
=  14 %
Absolute uncertainty = 7.5% o 64 cm3
1 4% o 2.0 g cm- 3 = 0.28 g cm- 3  0.3 g cm- 3
= 4.8 cm3  5 cm3
So density = 2.0  0.3 g cm- 3 as beore.
Thus volume o cube = 64  5 cm3

OThER MAThEMATICAl OPERATIONS Oter unctions

I the calculation involves mathematical operations other than There are no short-cuts possible. Find the highest and lowest
multiplication, division or raising to a power, then one has to values.
fnd the highest and lowest possible values.
e.g. uncertainty o sin  i  = 60  5
Addition or subtraction
sin 

Whenever two or more quantities are added or subtracted and

they each have uncertainties, the overall uncertainty is equal to 1
the addition o the absolute uncertainties. 0.91
0.87
In symbols 0.82
I y = a  b
y = a + b (note ALWAYS added)
uncertainty of thickness in a pipe wall 55 60 65 

external radius of pipe i  = 60  5

= 6.1  cm  0.1  cm ( 2% ) best value to sin  = 0.87
max. sin  = 0.91

internal radius of pipe min. sin  = 0.82

= 5.3 cm  0.1  cm ( 2% )  sin  = 0.87  0.05
thickness o pipe wall = 6.1 - 5.3 cm worst value used
= 0.8 cm
uncertainty in thickness = (0.1 + 0.1 )  cm
= 0.2 cm
= 25%

M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S 5
Uncertainties in graphs
ERROR bARS UNCERTAINTy IN SlOPES
Plotting a graph allows one to visualize all the readings at I the gradient o the graph has been used to calculate a
one time. Ideally all o the points should be plotted with quantity, then the uncertainties o the points will give rise
their error bars. In principle, the size o the error bar could to an uncertainty in the gradient. Using the steepest and the
well be dierent or every single point and so they should be shallowest lines possible (i.e. the lines that are still consistent
individually worked out. with the error bars) the uncertainty range or the gradient is
obtained. This process is represented below.
quantity a

steepest gradient

quantity a
best t line
shallowest
gradient

quantity b
quantity b
A ull analysis in order to determine the uncertainties in the
gradient o a best straight-line graph should always make
use of the error bars for all of the data points.
UNCERTAINTy IN INTERCEPTS
In practice, it would oten take too much time to add all the I the intercept o the graph has been used to calculate a
correct error bars, so some (or all) o the ollowing short-cuts quantity, then the uncertainties o the points will give rise
could be considered. to an uncertainty in the intercept. Using the steepest and the
 Rather than working out error bars or each point  use the shallowest lines possible (i.e. the lines that are still consistent
worst value and assume that all o the other error bars are with the error bars) we can obtain the uncertainty in the
the same. result. This process is represented below.
 Only plot the error bar or the worst point, i.e. the point
quantity a

that is urthest rom the line o best ft. I the line o best ft
is within the limits o this error bar, then it will probably be
within the limits o all the error bars.
maximum value
 Only plot the error bars or the frst and the last points. of intercept
These are oten the most important points when
considering the uncertainty ranges calculated or the
gradient or the intercept (see right) . best value minimum value
 Only include the error bars or the axis that has the worst for intercept of intercept
uncertainty.
quantity b

6 M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S
vectors and scaars
DIffERENCE bETwEEN vECTORS AND SCAlARS REPRESENTINg vECTORS
I you measure any quantity, it must have a number AND a In most books a bold letter is used to represent a vector
unit. Together they express the magnitude o the quantity. whereas a normal letter represents a scalar. For example F
Some quantities also have a direction associated with them. A would be used to represent a orce in magnitude AND
quantity that has magnitude and direction is called a vector direction. The list below shows some other recognized methods.
quantity whereas one that has only magnitude is called a F, 
 F or F
scalar quantity. For example, all orces are vectors.
Vectors are best shown in
The table lists some common quantities. The frst two quantities pull
diagrams using arrows:
in the table are linked to one another by their defnitions (see
 the relative magnitudes
page 9). All the others are in no particular order.
o the vectors involved
Vectors Scalars are shown by the relative friction
Displacement Distance length o the arrows
normal
Velocity Speed  the direction o the reaction
Acceleration Mass vectors is shown by the weight
direction o the arrows.
Force Energy (all orms)
Momentum Temperature
Electric feld strength Potential or potential ADDITION / SUbTRACTION Of vECTORS
dierence I we have a 3 N and a 4 N orce, the overall orce (resultant
Magnetic feld strength Density orce) can be
anything between 3N
Gravitational feld strength Area = 7N
1 N and 7 N 4N
Although the vectors used in many o the given examples are depending on 3N 5N
orces, the techniques can be applied to all vectors. the directions
involved. =
4N
The way to take 3N
COMPONENTS Of vECTORS 3N
the directions
It is also possible to split one vector into two (or more) vectors. =
into account 4N
This process is called resolving and the vectors that we get are
is to do a scale
called the components o the original vector. This can be a very
diagram and use 3N 4N
useul way o analysing a situation i we choose to resolve all the = 1N
the parallelogram
vectors into two directions that are at right angles to one another.
law o vectors.
b
This process is the same as
adding vectors in turn  the
F Fvertical F tail o one vector is drawn a+b
starting rom the head o
a
the previous vector.
Parallelogram o vectors
Fhorizontal
Splitting a vector into components
These mutually perpendicular directions are totally
TRIgONOMETRy
Vector problems can always be solved using scale diagrams,
independent o each other and can be analysed separately. I
but this can be very time consuming. The mathematics
appropriate, both directions can then be combined at the end
o trigonometry oten makes it much easier to use the
to work out the fnal resultant vector.
mathematical unctions o sine or cosine. This is particularly
forces Push appropriate when resolving. The diagram below shows how to
calculate the values o either o these components.
Surface Av
force A
A v = Asin 

Weight
components
 AH
PV
A H = Acos 
PH SH
SV See page 1 4 or an example.

W
Pushing a block along a rough surace

M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S 7
Ib Questions  measurement and uncertainties
1. An object is rolled rom rest down an inclined plane. The 3. A stone is dropped down a well and hits the water 2.0 s ater
distance travelled by the object was measured at seven dierent it is released. Using the equation d = __12 g t2 and taking
times. A graph was then constructed o the distance travelled g = 9.81 m s - 2 , a calculator yields a value or the depth d o
against the (time taken) 2 as shown below. the well as 1 9.62 m. I the time is measured to 0.1 s then
the best estimate o the absolute error in d is
9
distance travelled/ (cm)

A. 0.1 m C. 1 .0 m
8 B. 0.2 m D. 2.0 m

7 4. In order to determine the density o a certain type o wood,

the ollowing measurements were made on a cube o the
6 wood.

5 Mass = 493 g
Length o each side = 9.3 cm
4
The percentage uncertainty in the measurement o mass is
3 0.5% and the percentage uncertainty in the measurement
o length is 1 .0% .
2
The best estimate or the uncertainty in the density is
1 A. 0.5% C. 3.0%
0 B. 1 .5% D. 3.5%
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 5. Astronauts wish to determine the gravitational acceleration
(time taken) 2 / s 2
on Planet X by dropping stones rom an overhanging cli.
a) (i) What quantity is given by the gradient o such Using a steel tape measure they measure the height o the
a graph? [2] cli as s = 7.64 m  0.01 m. They then drop three similar
(ii) Explain why the graph suggests that the collected stones rom the cli, timing each all using a hand-held
data is valid but includes a systematic error. [2] electronic stopwatch which displays readings to one-
(iii) Do these results suggest that distance is proportional hundredth o a second. The recorded times or three drops are
to (time taken) 2 ? Explain your answer. [2] 2.46 s, 2.31 s and 2.40 s.

(iv) Making allowance or the systematic error, calculate a) Explain why the time readings vary by more
the acceleration o the object. [2] than a tenth o a second, although the stopwatch
gives readings to one hundredth o a second. [1 ]
b) The ollowing graph shows that same data ater the uncertainty
ranges have been calculated and drawn as error bars. b) Obtain the average time t to all, and write it in
the orm (value  uncertainty) , to the appropriate
9
distance travelled/ ( cm)

number o signifcant digits. [1 ]

8 c) The astronauts then determine the gravitational
acceleration a g on the planet using the ormula ag = __
2s
.
7 t 2

Calculate ag rom the values o s and t, and determine the

6 uncertainty in the calculated value. Express the result in
the orm
5 ag = (value  uncertainty) ,
to the appropriate number o signifcant digits. [3]
4
3 HL
2
6. This question is about fnding the relationship between the
1 orces between magnets and their separations.

0 In an experiment, two magnets were placed with their North-

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 seeking poles acing one another. The orce o repulsion, f,
(time taken) 2 / s 2 and the separation o the magnets, d, were measured and the
Add two lines to show the range o the possible results are shown in the table below.
acceptable values or the gradient o the graph. [2] Separation d/m Force o repulsion f/N
2. The lengths o the sides o a rectangular plate are measured, and 0.04 4.00
the diagram shows the measured values with their uncertainties.
0.05 1 .98
50  0.5 mm 0.07 0.74
0.09 0.32

25  0.5 mm a) Plot a graph o log (orce) against log (distance) . [3]

b) The law relating the orce to the separation is
o the orm
Which one o the ollowing would be the best estimate o the
f = kdn
percentage uncertainty in the calculated area o the plate?
(i) Use the graph to fnd the value o n. [2]
A.  0.02% C.  3%
(ii) Calculate a value or k, giving its units. [3]
B.  1 % D.  5%

8 I B Q U E S T I o N S  M E A S U R E M E N T A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S