Notes: (Topic 1.

11) Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions

f ( x)
Recall: Let h ( x ) = . If g ( c ) = 0 then h ( x ) has a vertical asymptote or a hole at x = c .
g ( x)

x2 - 4
Example 1: Let h ( x ) = . Write an equation for h ( x ) in factored form and find any values of x where
x 2 + 7 x + 10
h ( x ) has a hole or a vertical asymptote.

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2)
Factored form: h ( x ) = =
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 + 5)
Hole: 𝑥 = −2 because there is a common zero in the numerator and denominator.

Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = −5 because there is a zero in the denominator that is not in the numerator.

Example 2: Find the domain of h ( x ) from Example 1. (−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞)

x 2 - x - 12
Example 3: Let k ( x ) = .
x3 + x 2 - 20 x
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 3)
a) Write an equation for k ( x ) in factored form: =
𝑥 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 5)
b) Find any zeros of the function k ( x ) : 𝑥 = −3 because there is a zero in the numerator that is not in the denominator.

c) Find any values of x where k ( x ) has a hole: 𝑥 = 4 because there is a common zero in the numerator and
denominator.
d) Find any vertical asymptotes of k ( x ) : 𝑥 = −5,0 because there are zeros in the denominator that are not in the
numerator.
e) Find any horizontal asymptotes of k ( x ) : 𝑦 = 0 because the degree in the denominator is greater than the degree in the
numerator.
f) Find the domain of k ( x ) : (−∞, −5) ∪ (−5,0) ∪ (0,4) ∪ (4, ∞)

g) Use a graphing calculator to help sketch the graph of k ( x ) .

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Example 4: The graph of the rational function f ( x ) is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for f ( x ) .

Hole: 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ numerator common factor ⇒ (𝑥 − 4) Zero: 𝑥 = 3 ⇒ numerator factor (𝑥 − 3)

Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ denominator factor ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)
Horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = −1 ⇒ numerator and denominator are same degree and leading coefficient ratio
−1.
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑓(𝑥) = −
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)

Example 5: The graph of the rational function g ( x ) is shown above. Write an equation, in factored form, for g ( x ) .

Hole: 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ numerator common factor ⇒ (𝑥 − 2) Zero: 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ numerator factor (𝑥 − 1)

Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 0,3 ⇒ denominator factors ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
Horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ denominator is higher degree. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0% ⇒ leading coefficient ratio
!→#$
−1.
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑔(𝑥) = −
𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Recall: Given a rational function, if the degree of the numerator is one greater than the degree of the denominator, then
the rational function has a slant asymptote.

x3 - 4 x x ( x - 2 )( x + 2 )
The function k ( x ) = 2 = , graphed above, has a hole at x = 2 and a vertical asymptote of
x -x-2 ( x - 2 )( x + 1)
x = -1 . The graph of k ( x ) does not have a horizontal asymptote, but k ( x ) does have the slant asymptote y = x + 1.

Since the degree of the numerator (3) is one greater than the degree of the denominator (2), we knew that k ( x ) would
have a slant asymptote. To find the equation of a slant asymptote, we will use long division.

Long Division
𝑓(𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials, then = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥),
𝑔(𝑥 )
where 𝑞 is the quotient, 𝑟 is the remainder, and the degree of 𝑟 is less than the degree of 𝑔.

32 4 3𝑥 + 2 4
4 4 4
32 + = 32 (3𝑥 + 2) +
21 21 2𝑥 + 1

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
 6 x2 + x + 5
Example 6: Let h ( x ) = . Use long division to find an equation for the slant asymptote of h ( x ) .
2x +1
3" − 1 &
ℎ(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − 1) + ⇒ slant asymptote 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1
2" + 1 6" !
+"+5 '!%(
!
6" + 3"
−2" + 5
−2" − 1
6

x3 + 4 x 2 - 12 x
Example 7: Let g ( x ) = . Find the equations for any asymptotes to the graph of g ( x ) .
x2 + 7 x + 6
𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 6) 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
Factored Form: 𝑔(𝑥) = =
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 6) (𝑥 + 1)
Type equation here.
Vertical Asymptotes: 𝑥 = −1 because there is a zero in the denominator that is not in the numerator.
Horizontal Asymptotes: none because the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator.
Slant Asymptotes: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 0−3
0 + 1 0 ! − 20
0! + 0
−30 − 3
−30
3
2 x ( x + 4 )( x - 1)
Example 8: Let d ( x ) = . Which of the following about the graph of d ( x ) is correct?
x2 - 2x + 1
a) The graph of d ( x ) has one horizontal asymptote, one hole, and one vertical asymptote.
b) The graph of d ( x ) has one horizontal asymptote and two vertical asymptotes.
c) The graph of d ( x ) has one slant asymptote, one hole, and one vertical asymptote.
d) The graph of d ( x ) has one slant asymptote no holes, and one vertical asymptote.
2𝑥(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1) 2𝑥(𝑥 + 4) Slant asymptote: ratio of leading coefficients is 2𝑥
𝑑(𝑥) = = Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 1 zero of multiplicity 2 in denominator, but only
(𝑥 − 1)' (𝑥 − 1)
multiplicity of 1 in numerator.

Example 9: Sketch a picture of the rational function f ( x ) with the following properties:

1. lim f ( x ) = -¥ 2. lim f ( x ) = ¥ 3. lim- f ( x ) = -¥ 4. lim+ f ( x ) = -¥

x ®¥ x ®-¥ x ®-1 x ®-1

Sketches may vary.

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem
Expanding expressions of the form ( a + b ) can be tedious. Let’s expand the expressions ( x + 3) and ( x + 3) .
n 2 3

( x + 3) = ( x + 3)( x + 3) = 𝑥 ' + 6𝑥 + 9
2

( x + 3) = ( x + 3)( x + 3)
3 2
= (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 ' + 6𝑥 + 9) = 𝑥 ) + 6𝑥 ' + 9𝑥 + 3𝑥 ' + 18𝑥 + 27 = 𝑥 ) + 9𝑥 ' + 27𝑥 + 27

What if we wanted to expand the expression ( x + 3) ? As you can imagine, this would be very tedious and time-
7

consuming using the method from above. Fortunately, there is a great mathematical property and tool to make this
process much easier for us!

The Binomial Theorem

ænö ænö ænö æ n ö 1 n -1 æ n ö n

( a + b)
n
= ç ÷ a n + ç ÷ a n -1b1 + ç ÷ a n -2b 2 + ... + ç ÷ a b + ç ÷b
0
è ø 1
è ø 2
è ø è n - 1 ø è nø

At first glance, the binomial theorem may look intimidating and complicated. But, in reality, it is easy to use and
understand if you can remember a few important details:

1. When expanding a binomial expression, the “ a ” begins with degree n and “ b ” term begins with a degree of 0.

2. As we expand the binomial expression, the degree of “ a ” decreases by one each term while the degree of “ b ”
increases by one each term (until the “ b ” term has degree n ).

ænö ænö ænö

3. We can use Pascal’s Triangle to find the values of the coefficients ç ÷ , ç ÷ , ç ÷ , ... in our expansion.
è 0ø è1ø è 2ø

ænö
Note: The value of ç ÷ corresponds with the 𝑟th element of the 𝑛th row in Pascal’s triangle.
èrø
The first number in each row is the 0th element of that row!

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]
In the Pascal’s triangle above, the 5th Row is circled. In the 5th row, the (first) number 10 has also been circled. The
æ5ö
circled 10 is the 2nd element of row 5 and ç ÷ = 10 .
è 2ø

ænö ænö n!
The notation çr÷ represents a “combination”, where ç ÷= .
è ø è r ø r !( n - r ) !
You will NOT need to know this formula for the AP Precalculus Exam!
ænö
Additional notation: ç ÷ = n Cr = C ( n, r )
èrø

Example 10: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand ( x + 2) .

5

( x + 2)
5
= 𝑥 * + 5𝑥 + 2( + 10𝑥 ) 2' + 10𝑥 ' 2) + 5𝑥( 2+ + 2* = 𝑥 * + 10𝑥 + + 40𝑥 ) + 80𝑥 ' + 80𝑥 + 32

Example 11: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand ( 2 x - 1) .

4

(2𝑥 − 1)+ = (2𝑥)+ + 4(2𝑥)) (−1)( + 6(2𝑥)' (−1)' + 4(2𝑥)( (−1)) + (−1)+
= 16𝑥 + − 32𝑥 ) + 24𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 1

Example 12: What is the coefficient of the term containing x when the expression ( x + 5) is expanded?
4 6

15𝑥 + 5' = 375𝑥 + ⇒ coefficient is 375

Example 13: What is the coefficient of the term containing x when the expression ( x - 3) is expanded?
3 8

8 8! 8∙7∙6
S T 𝑥 ) (−3)* ⇒ (−243) = (−243) = 56(−243) = −13608
5 5! 3! 6

Notes: Topic 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Functions Created by Bryan Passwater
Solutions by Ted Gott [email protected]