WHAT IS SYNTAX?

Syntax is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure of sentences. It involves
the set of rules, principles, and processes that dictate how words are combined to form
meaningful sentences in a language. Essentially, syntax governs how phrases and clauses
are organized to convey proper meaning and grammaticality.

EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

NOMINALS - Are words, phrases, or clauses that function like a noun in a sentence. They
can serve roles typically assigned to nouns, such as subjects, objects, or complements.
Nominals are not restricted to simple nouns; they can include pronouns, gerunds, and even
noun phrases or clauses that act as a single unit with a noun-like function.
TWO TYPES OF NOMINALS:

1. NOUN - A noun is a word that refers to a person, concept, place, or thing. Nouns can act
as the subject of a sentence (i.e., the person or thing performing the action) or as the object
of a verb (i.e., the person or thing affected by the action).
SINGULAR NOUN VS. PLURAL NOUN
A singular noun refers to only one person, place, animal, thing etc., and a plural noun refers
to more than one person, place, animal, thing etc. Singular nouns are nouns in the original
form, without any inflexion. Plural nouns are formed with the addition of ‘s’, ‘es’, ‘ies’,
‘oes’, ‘ves’ or by adding a suffix. The verbs change according to the singular or plural form
of the noun used.
2. PRONOUNS - Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns in a sentence, allowing
us to avoid repeating the same nouns. They help make sentences less repetitive and clearer
WHAT IS VERB?
A verb is a word that represents an action, state, or occurrence in a sentence. It's one of the
main components of a sentence, often showing what the subject does or is. Verbs can be
classified based on their function, forms, or meaning.
TYPES OF VERBS:

1. ACTION VERB (DYNAMIC) - An action verb expresses a physical or mental action. It

tells what the subject of the sentence does.
Example: run, jump, think, eat write.

Sentence Example: She runs every morning.

2. STATE VERB (STATIVE) - State verbs, also called stative verbs, describe conditions
or states of being rather than physical or dynamic actions. These verbs typically indicate
possession, senses, emotions, or mental states. They often reflect unchanging situations and
are usually not used in continuous or progressive forms (e.g., "I am loving pizza" is
generally incorrect in standard English, though it can occur informally).
Examples :

Possession: have, own, belong, possess, hold

Sentence Example: She has a beautiful garden.

Sense: see, hear, smell, taste, feel

Sentence Example: I see the mountains from my window.
Emotion: love, like, hate, adore, dislike

Sentence Example: I love reading mystery novels.

Mental state: know, understand, believe, think, remember

Sentence Example: I know the answer to that question.

3. MAIN VERB (LEXICAL) - Is the central action or state word in a sentence that
conveys the primary meaning. It tells what the subject does or describes the subject’s
condition. Main verbs can stand alone or with helping (auxiliary) verbs to complete the
meaning of a sentence.
Example: run, eat, think, jump, sleep

Sentence Example: She runs every morning to stay fit.

4. LINKING VERB - Connect the subject to a subject complement (a word that describes
or identifies the subject).
Examples:

To be verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been

Sensory verbs: look, sound, smell, taste, feel
Other verbs: seem, become, appear, grow, remain, stay

Sentence Examples:
She is a doctor. (is links "she" to "a doctor.")

The flowers smell wonderful. (smell links "flowers" to "wonderful.")

He seems upset today. (seems links "he" to "upset.")

5. HELPING VERB (AUXILIARY) - A helping verb, also known as an auxiliary verb,

works with the main verb in a sentence to give more detail about the action or state. It can
help express aspects like tense, mood, or voice of the main verb. Common helping verbs
include forms of be (am, is, are, was, were), have (have, has, had), and do (do, does, did),
as well as modal helping verbs like can, will, shall, may, might, and must.

Sentence Example :
She is running (“is” helps indicate the continuous aspect).

They have finished (“have” shows the perfect aspect).

He does not understand (“does” assists in forming the negative).
Additional Information: In some cases “be, do, have” can be used as main verb.

Sentence Example: “I have (own) a car.”

6. MODAL VERB - Modal verbs are a special type of auxiliary (helping) verb in English
that express necessity, possibility, permission, ability, or obligation. They work with the
main verb in a sentence to add meaning and cannot function independently.
Example:

Can/Could: ability or possibility (e.g., "She can swim." / "They could come later.")
May/Might: possibility or permission (e.g., "It may rain." / "You may leave.")
Must: obligation or necessity (e.g., "You must finish your work.")
Should/Ought to: advice or recommendation (e.g., "You should study more.")
Will/Would: intention or willingness (e.g., "I will help you." / "Would you like tea?")
7. REGULAR VERB - A regular verb is a verb that follows a standard pattern when
forming its past tense and past participle. In English, regular verbs typically add “-ed” or “-
d” to the base form of the verb for these forms. This consistency in conjugation is what
makes them "regular."
Examples:

Walk: walk → walked (past tense) → walked (past participle)

Play: play → played (past tense) → played (past participle)
Start: start → started (past tense) → started (past participle)
8. IRREGULAR VERB - An irregular verb is a verb that does not follow the standard
pattern of adding “-ed” to form its past tense and past participle. Instead, irregular verbs
have unique and often unpredictable forms for these tenses, which must be memorized
individually.

Examples:
Go: go → went (past tense) → gone (past participle)

Eat: eat → ate (past tense) → eaten (past participle)

Bring: bring → brought (past tense) → brought (past participle)

See: see → saw (past tense) → seen (past participle)

9. TRANSITIVE VERB - A transitive verb is a type of verb that requires a direct object
to complete its meaning in a sentence. This means that the action of the verb is done to
someone or something, and without the object, the sentence would be incomplete or
unclear. To identify the direct object, you can ask “What?” or “Whom?” after the verb.
Examples: hit, give, carry, climb, make, kiss, take
Sentence Example: She kissed Pablo (She kissed who? Pablo.)

10. INTRANSITIVE VERB - An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require a direct
object to complete its meaning in a sentence. The action or state expressed by an
intransitive verb is complete by itself, so there is no need for a direct object.

Examples: live, die, laugh, cry, run, sleep, sit, stand

Sentence Example: The old man laughed loudly
WHAT IS MODIFIER?
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that provides additional information about another
word or phrase, usually to add detail, clarify, or describe it more fully. Modifiers can
change or "modify" the meaning of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other parts of a sentence.

TWO TYPES OF MODIFIERS:

1. ADJECTIVE - An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives can be used to describe the qualities of someone or something independently or
in comparison to something else.

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES:
1. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives describe the quality, color, size,
shape, age, condition, quantity, texture, personality of a noun or pronoun. They are the most
commonly taught and help students provide more detail in their writing.
Color: red, blue, green, yellow

Sentence Example: "The red apple gleamed in the sunlight."

Size: small, large, tiny, enormous
Sentence Example: "The small kitten curled up in my lap."

Shape: round, square, oval, triangular

Sentence Example: "The ball was round and bounced easily."

Age: old, young, ancient, new

Sentence Example: "The old house creaked in the wind."

Condition: clean, dirty, fresh, worn

Sentence Example: "The fresh flowers smelled amazing in the vase."

Quantity: few, many, several, numerous

Sentence Example: "There were several books on the table."

Texture: smooth, rough, soft, sticky

Sentence Example: "The rough surface of the rock scratched my hand."
Personality: friendly, angry, shy, thoughtful
Sentence Example: "His shy nature made him avoid the crowd."
2. QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives describe how much or how many
of something there is.

Examples: many, few, some, all, several.

Sentence Example: There are many books on the shelf.
3. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives are used to point out specific
nouns. They include words like this, that, these, and those.
Examples: this, that, these, and those
Sentence Example: This book is really interesting.

4. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives show ownership or possession. They

are commonly used to indicate who owns or has something.

Examples: my, yours, his, hers, our, their.

Sentence Example: My brother is coming over tomorrow.
5. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives are used to ask questions about
nouns. They include words like which, what, and whose.
Examples: which, what, and whose.
Sentence Examples: What color do you like?

6. COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives are used to compare two nouns.

They often end in -er or use the word more or less.
Examples: larger, smaller, faster, higher, smarter, taller, more interesting, less expensive

Sentence Example: She smarter than my brother.

7. SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES - These adjectives are used to compare three or more
nouns and show the extreme or highest degree of a quality. They often end in -est or use
most or least.
Examples: tallest, most beautiful, least expensive.

Sentence Example: Sarah is the tallest person in our class.

8. PROPER ADJECTIVES - These adjectives are derived from proper nouns and are
capitalized. They are used to describe something or someone from a specific place or
culture.
Examples: American, French, Japanese.

Sentence Example: I love French cuisine, especially pastries.

2. ADVERB - An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It
often provides more information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action
occurs. Adverbs typically answer questions like how, when, where, and to what extent.

TYPES OF ADVERBS:
1. ADVERB OF MANNER - An adverb of manner describes how an action is performed
or how something happens. In most cases, adverbs of manner occur after the main verb.

Examples: quietly, loudly, quickly, slowly, carefully, happily

Sentence Example: Jessie read quietly.

2. ADVERB OF DEGREE - Adverbs of degree are used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or

adverbs by expressing extent or degree.
Examples: very, most, enough, intensely, extremely, highly

Sentence Example: The medication had a very positive effect.

3. ADVERB OF PLACE - An adverb of place provides information about the location of
an action (e.g., position, distance, and direction). Adverbs of place typically occur after the
main verb of a sentence.

Examples: here, there, everywhere, outside, nearby

Sentence Example: Confetti was thrown everywhere.

4. ADVERB OF TIME - Adverbs of time (e.g., “yesterday,” “today,” “tomorrow”)

describe when something happens. They are typically placed at the end of a sentence.
Examples: yesterday, today, tomorrow

Sentence Example: Dylan has a dentist appointment, so he will be late for school today.
5. ADVERB OF FREQUENCY - Adverbs of frequency describe how often something
happens. They can be divided into two categories based on how specific they are.
Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g., “always,” “sometimes,” “never”) give an idea of
how often something occurs, but they don’t give an exact timeframe. Adverbs of indefinite
frequency are usually placed before the main verb.
Example Sentence: Ana always works on Saturday.

Adverbs of definite frequency (e.g., “hourly,” “daily,” “weekly”) give a more precise
description of how often something happens. They typically occur at the end of a sentence.
Example Sentence: I check my email hourly.

PREPOSITION - A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or

pronoun and other parts of a sentence. Prepositions often indicate direction, location, time,
or introduce an object, helping to clarify the meaning of a sentence.
TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS:

1. PREPOSITION OF TIME – Indicate when something happens.

Examples: in, on, at, before, during, after, since, by

Sentence Example: The meeting is at 5PM

2. PREPOSITION OF PLACE/LOCATION - Indicate the place or position of
something.

Examples: under, above, in, on, at, over, behind, between, among, beside
Sentence Example: I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.

3. PREPOSITION OF DIRECTION/MOVEMENT - Indicate movement or direction.

Examples: to, into, onto, toward, across, through
Sentence Example: She walked to the store.
4. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE - A prepositional phrase is a group of words that starts
with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition.
This type of phrase gives additional information about time, location, direction, reason, or
manner in a sentence. Prepositional phrases can act as adjectives or adverbs, modifying
nouns or verbs.
Structure: Preposition + Object of the Preposition (a noun or pronoun)
The object may be accompanied by modifiers (adjectives or determiners) that describe it.
Examples:
On the table (on = preposition, the table = object of the preposition)
Under the big, old tree (under = preposition, the big, old tree = object with modifiers)
FUCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE:

Adjective Phrase - Modify a noun or pronoun, answering which one or what kind.
The book on the desk is mine (on the desk describes book.)

Adverb Phrase - Modify a verb, adjective, or adverb, answering how, when, where, why,
or to what extent.
She arrived after the meeting. (after the meeting describes arrived.)

CONJUNCTIONS - Conjunctions are words that connect phrases, clauses, or words

within a sentence. They are used to link different parts of a sentence to make it more
cohesive and structured. Conjunctions help in joining thoughts, ideas, or actions, making
communication smoother and more logical.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS:
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - These conjunctions connect words, phrases, or
independent clauses that are of equal importance. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are remembered by the acronym FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet,
So.

Sentence Example : I want to go to the party, but I have a lot of work to do.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - These conjunctions connect an independent
clause with a dependent clause, creating a relationship between them. They show cause,
time, condition, contrast, and other relationships.
Examples: because, although, though, if, when, while, unless, since, before, after.

Sentence Example: I stayed home because it was raining

3. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS - These conjunctions work in pairs to join equal
sentence elements, such as two nouns, verbs, adjectives, or clauses.

Examples: Both...and, Either...or, Neither...nor, Not only...but also, Whether...or

Sentence Example: Either you come with me, or I will go alone.
INTERJECTIONS - Interjections are words or phrases used to express strong emotions,
reactions, or sudden feelings. They stand alone as brief expressions and aren’t
grammatically connected to other parts of a sentence. Interjections often convey surprise,
joy, frustration, or excitement, and they are commonly found at the beginning of a sentence.
Interjections can be a single word or a short phrase and are typically followed by an
exclamation mark to convey emphasis, though they can also end with a comma or period
in softer contexts.
TYPES OF INTERJECTIONS:

1. VOLATILE INTERJECTIONS - These are often spontaneous expressions that don’t

necessarily reflect logical thought but are automatic reactions. They typically respond to
sudden stimuli and are commonly used in emotional outbursts.

Examples: Ouch! (pain), Wow! (surprise), Oops! (mistake), Yikes! (shock)

2. COGNITIVE INTERJECTIONS - Cognitive interjections are more thoughtful or
reflective expressions. They often convey understanding, realization, or contemplation and
may relate to thought processes rather than emotional outbursts.

Examples: Hmm... (thinking), Aha! (realization), Oh! (understanding or awareness)

3. EMOTIVE INTERJECTIONS - Emotive interjections express emotions and feelings
more directly, often linked to personal feelings like happiness, sadness, anger, or
excitement.

Examples: Yay! (joy), Alas! (sadness), Ugh! (disgust), Oh no! (distress)

PHRASE AND CLAUSES

PHRASE - Is a group of words without a subject-verb combination.
TYPES OF PHRASES:

1. NOUN PHRASE - A noun phrase is a group of words that includes a noun and any
modifiers (like adjectives, articles, or other words) that provide more information about the
noun. Noun phrases act as a single unit in a sentence, often as the subject or object.
Sentence Example : "The small, fluffy cat" - Here, "The small, fluffy cat" is a noun
phrase where "cat" is the main noun, and "the," "small," and "fluffy" are modifiers
describing the cat.
2. VERB PHRASE - A verb phrase is a group of words that includes a main verb along
with any auxiliary (helping) verbs, modifiers, or objects. Verb phrases act as the action or
state of being in a sentence and provide details about what the subject is doing or
experiencing.
Sentence Example: “She is going to the market” - Here, "is going" is a verb phrase, with
"is" as a helping verb and "going" as the main verb.
3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE - An adjective phrase is a group of words that describes a noun
or pronoun in a sentence, with an adjective as the main word in the phrase. Adjective
phrases provide more details about the noun, often making the meaning clearer or more
specific.

Sentence Example: “The car with the red paint is fast” - "With the red paint" is an
adjective phrase describing the noun "car."
4. ADVERB PHRASE - An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb,
modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb in a sentence. Adverb phrases often provide
additional information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action takes place.
Sentence Example: “He completed the task with remarkable speed” - The adverb
phrase "with remarkable speed" describes how he completed the task.

5. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE - A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and

ends with a noun or pronoun (the "object" of the preposition). It can function as an
adjective or adverb.
Sentence Example: “The book on the shelf is mine.” - "On the shelf" is a prepositional
phrase, providing information about the location of the "book."
CLAUSE - is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate (verb) and functions
as a part of a sentence.

TWO TYPES OF CLAUSE:

1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE - Also called main clauses, these clauses can stand alone as
a complete sentence because they express a complete thought. They contain a subject and a
verb and can convey a full idea.

Sentence Example: “She went to the store”

2. DEPENDENT CLAUSE - Also known as subordinate clauses, these cannot stand alone
as a complete sentence because they do not express a complete thought. They need to be
connected to an independent clause to form a complete sentence. Dependent clauses usually
start with a subordinating conjunction (like "because," "although," "if") or a relative
pronoun (like "who," "which," "that").
Sentence Example: Although she went to the store (incomplete on its own; needs an
independent clause, like she couldn’t find what she needed).
SENTENCES (SUBJECT AND PREDICATE)
SUBJECT - The subject tells who or what the sentence is about. It typically contains a
noun or pronoun, and sometimes modifiers.

Example: The cat (subject) is sleeping on the couch.

PREDICATE - The predicate tells what the subject does or what happens to the subject. It
includes the verb and any other words that complete the sentence's meaning.

Example: The cat is sleeping (predicate) on the couch.

TYPES OF SUBJECTS:

1. SIMPLE SUBJECT - The main noun or pronoun.

Example: The boy is running.
2. COMPLETE SUBJECT - The simple subject and its modifiers

Example: The tall boy in the blue shirt is running.

3. COMPOUND SUBJECT - Two or more subject joined by a conjunction.

Example: The boy and his sister are running.

TYPES OF PREDICATES:

1. SIMPLE PREDICATE - The main verb or verb phrase.

Example: She dances

2. COMPLETE PREDICATE – The verb and all its modifiers, objects, or complements.
Example: She dances gracefully on stage.
3. COMPOUND PREDICATE – Two or more verbs or verb phrases joined by a
conjunction.
Example: She dances and sings.

KINDS OF SENTENCES (ACCORDING TO USE AND ACCORDING

TO PURPOSE)
1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES - is a simple statement used to communicate a fact, an
opinion, an observation, or an explanation. Declarative sentences always end in a period.
Examples:
 • Bears don’t eat when they hibernate.
• He didn’t like the movie as much as his partner did.
• In my opinion, James Joyce’s Ulysses is too long.

2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES - Questions are known formally as interrogative

sentences. These sentences request more information in the form of answers, usually to
confirm something or fill in missing information. Interrogative sentences can be tricky
because they sometimes require putting the verb before the subject or using an auxiliary
verb like do. Interrogative sentences end with a question mark.

Examples:

• What is your next class?

• Did you see the fireworks last night?
• We’re going in the right direction, aren’t we?

3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES - Imperative sentences are commands, instructions, or

advice you give to others to tell them what to do. In imperative sentences, the subject is
often assumed. It’s usually obvious that the subject is whomever the sentence is directed at,
so the subject can be dropped and the reader can assume the missing subject is you.
Imperative sentences usually end in a period, but they can also use an exclamation point if
they’re emphatic.

Examples:

• Sweep the floor before you mop it.

• Please type these notes and then email me a copy.
• Don’t hang up!

4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES - Usually, exclamatory sentences behave just like

declarative sentences, except with more emotion or urgency. Exclamatory sentences also
include interjections like “Ouch!” or “Yippee!” to convey sudden emotion.We show this
extra emotion with an exclamation mark, also known as an exclamation point, at the end of
the sentence. Consider the difference between these two sentences:

Examples:

• I ate a snail.
• I ate a snail!

Another Examples:
 • Myra had the baby!
• Thanks! You save our wedding!
• Yikes! That’s a giant spider!

TYPES OF SENTENCES BASED ON STRUCTURE

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE - A simple sentence consists of just one independent clause—a

group of words that contains at least one subject and at least one verb and can stand alone
as a complete sentence—with no dependent clauses.

Example: My partner loves to hike.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCE - A compound sentence is a sentence that connects two or

more independent clauses, typically with a coordinating conjunction like and, or, but.

Example: I wanted to go out, but it started raining.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCE - A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent

clause and at least one dependent clause. It works best when you need to provide more
information to explain or modify your sentence’s main point. Complex sentences are easy
to spot as they often use subordinating conjunctions like although, because, since, or until
to connect clauses.

Example: Although it was raining, we decided to walk.

4. COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCE - A compound–complex sentence consists of

at least two independent clauses joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction or a
semicolon and at least one dependent clause. As the name suggests, compound-complex
sentences incorporate elements of both a compound sentence and a complex sentence, two
of the other sentence structures in English.

Example: If Ellen doesn’t want to go, I can ask Patrick, or I can just go alone.

SENTENCE PATTERNS

1. SUBJECT + VERB (S-V) - The simplest sentence pattern with just a subject and an
action verb.

Example:
 • Birds (S) fly (V)
• The baby (S) cried (V)

2. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT (S-V-O) - This pattern includes a subject, an action

verb, and a direct object.

Example:

• She (S) reads (V) books (O)

• The dog (S) chased (V) the ball (O)

3. SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + DIRECT OBJECT (S-V-IO-DO) - An

indirect object appears before the direct object and shows to whom or for whom the action
is done.

Example:

• He (S) gave (V) her (IO) flowers (DO)

• The teacher (S) told (V) us (IO) a story (DO)

4. SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT (S-V-C) - A complement gives more

information about the subject (predicate nominative or predicate adjective).

Predicate Nominative - A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a

linking verb and renames or identifies the subject.

Linking Verbs Commonly Used: is, are, was, were, seem, become, appear

Questions Answered: Who is the subject? or What is the subject?

Example: She (S) is (V) a doctor (C)

Predicate Adjective - A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and
describes the subject.

Questions Answered: What is the subject like?

Sentence: The sky (S) looks (V) blue (C)

5. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT (S-V-O-C) - The object is
followed by a complement that describes or renames it.

Example:

• They (S) elected (V) her (O) president (C)

• We (S) painted (V) the walls (O) blue (C)

6. SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERBIAL (S-V-A) - The verb is followed by an adverb or

adverbial phrase that provides additional details.

Example:

• The children (S) played (V) outside (A)

• He (S) went (V) to the market (A)

7. SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + COMPLEMENT (S-LV-C) - A linking verb (like is,

seem, become) connects the subject with a complement that describes it.

Example:

• She (S) seems (LV) tired (C)

• The soup (S) smells (LV) delicious (C)

SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

WHAT IS SEMANTICS?

Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of language, how it's
constructed, and how it's interpreted. It's concerned with how words and phrases convey
information and how that information is understood.

WHAT IS PRAGMATICS?

Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context to convey meaning, and how
people interpret that meaning. It's a branch of linguistics that focuses on how language is
used in social situations, and how people understand communication beyond the literal
words used.
WORD AND SENTENCE MEANING

WHAT IS WORD?

A “word” is a string of characters that can have different meanings (jaguar: car or animal?;
driver: one who drives a vehicle or the part of a computer?; rows, the plural noun or the
third singular person of the verb to row?).

The word "set" is a great example of a word whose meaning can vary significantly based on
its usage.

Noun: A collection of things, such as a set of tools or a set of rules.

Verb: To place something somewhere, such as "set the table" or "set a goal."

WHAT IS SENTENCE?

A “sentence” is a group of words that express a complete thought. To fully capture the
meaning of a sentence, we need to understand how words relate to other words.

Write a sentence using the word “because”

I couldn't go to the park because it was raining.

Because of the heavy rain, the game was postponed.

CONNOTATIVE VS. DENOTATIVE MEANING

WHAT IS DENOTATIVE MEANING?

The literal or dictionary definition of a word. It is straightforward, without any subjective or

symbolic meaning.

Example: The word snake denotes a type of reptile.

WHAT IS CONNOTATIVE MEANING?

A subjective description of a word, often incorporating emotion upon it. It depends on

personal or societal expectation.

Example: The word snake connotes deceit, treacherous, and betrayal.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
1. METAPHOR - A direct comparison between two unrelated things implying they are
alike in some way.

Example: Her voice is music to my ear.

2. SIMILE - A comparison using “like” or “as”

Example: He runs as fast as a cheetah.

3. PERSONIFICATION - Giving human qualities to non-human things.

Example: The wind whispered through the trees.

4. HYPERBOLE - An extreme exaggeration for emphasis or effect.

Example: I’ve told you a million times!

5. ALITERATION - Repetition of initial consonant sounds in nearby words.

Example: Peter, piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

6. ONOMATOPOEIA - A word that imitates the natural sounds of a thing.

Example: The bees buzzed in the garden.

7. IRONY - A contrast between expectation and reality. Often highlighting an opposite

outcome.

Example: The fire stationed burned down.

8. SYMBOLISM - Using an object, person, or event to represent a deeper meaning.

Example: The dove symbolizes peace.

9. OXYMORON - A combination of contradictory terms.

Example: It was a bittersweet moment.

10. PUN - A play on words that exploits multiple meanings for humor or effect.

Example: Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.