Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Chapter Three
3. Classification & Site configuration of Hydropower Developments
3.1. Classification and Basis
Hydropower plants could be classified based on
The hydraulic features of the plant
Location & topographical features
Presence or absence of storage
Installed capacity of the plant
The range of operating heads
Operating features etc.
A complete understanding of the type requires information under all such categories. The entire above
classification basis is not mutually exclusive.
Classification based on hydraulic features
The basic hydraulic principle governs the type.
1. Conventional Hydro-plants
 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
 Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
2. Pumped storage plants
 Use the concept of recycling the same water.
 Normally used with areas with a shortage of water
 It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods, water is pumped back for
future use.
 A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system, which increases the
load factor of other systems and provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
3. Unconventional Hydro-plants
i) Tidal power plant
 Use the tidal energy of the seawater.
 Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.
ii) Wave power plant
iii) Depression power plant
 HP generated by diverting an ample source of water in the natural depression
 Water level in the depression is controlled by evaporation
Classification based on operation
Based on actual operation in meeting the demand one can have:
 Isolated plant - operating independently (not common now a days)
 Interconnected in to grids

Page 1 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Thus in a grid system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load plant or peak load plant.
Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load plants, because hydropower plants can start relatively
quickly and can thus accept load quickly.

Figure 3-1: - Place of hydropower in a power system

Classification based on plant capacity
Classification based on plant capacity changes with time as technology improves. Thus, we have the
following classification according to Mossonyi, and present day trend classification.
According to Mossonyi Present day classification
Midget plant up to 10 KW Micro hydropower < 5 MW
Low capacity < 1000KW Medium plant 5 to 100 MW
Medium capacity < 10,000KW High capacity 100 to 1,000 MW
High capacity > 10,000KW Super plant above 1,000 MW
Thus, hydropower plants in Ethiopia may be classified as medium to high.
Table 3-1: - Range Hydropower developments in Ethiopia

Power Stations Production [MW] Classification

Koka 43.20 High/Medium
Soar [SCS] 5 Medium
Awash 2 32 High/Medium
Awash 3 32 High/Medium
Dembi [SCS] 0.80 Low/Micro
Fincha 100 High
Yadot [SCS] 0.35 Low/Micro
Melka Wakena 153 High
Tis Abay 1 12 High/Micro
Tia Abay 2 73 High
Gilgel Gibe 184 High
Tekeze 300 High
Note: Power Supply system can be -
 ICS [Interconnected system]: all energy produce will be connected to central grid system.
 SCS [Self-contained system]: all energy produce will be supplied directly to the community.

Page 2 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Classification based on head

The most popular & convenient classification is the one based on head on turbine. On this basis:
 Low head plants < 15m
 Medium head plants 15-50m
 high head plants 50-250m
 very high head plants > 250m
Classification based on constructional features (layouts)
1. Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)

Block power plant Twin block plant Island plant pier head plant Submersible plant
Figure 3-2: - Run-off-River Plant Arrangement
2. Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)

Figure 3-3: - Valley Dam Plant Arrangement

3. Diversion canal plant

Figure 3-4: - Diversion Canal Plant Arrangement

Page 3 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

4. High head diversion plants

Figure 3-5: - High Head Plant Arrangement

5. Pumped Storage Plant

Figure 3-6: - Pumped Storage Plant Arrangement

Page 4 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

3.2. Site Selection, Layouts and Arrangements:

Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 The normal flow of the river is not distributed
 There is no significant storage
 A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is used to generate power. It
also acts as a controlled spilling device.
 The power house is normally in the main course of the river
 Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat slope, and little sediment
and stable reach of a river.
Water enters the powerhouse through an intake structure incorporating some or all of the following.
Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine unit.
Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine
Concrete or steel draft tube
Power house building
Additional structures are
➢ deflector or skimmer walls
➢ Fore-bay
➢ service bridge
➢ river training walls
➢ sediment trap and flushing sluices, where necessary

Figure 3-7: - A typical run of river hydroelectric station using a dam and in-stream powerhouse

Page 5 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)

 The dominant feature is the dam, which creates the required storage (to balance seasonal
fluctuation) and necessary head for the powerhouse.
 Power house is located at the toe of the dam
 Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam & enters the powerhouse.
 Sometimes the powerhouse is not immediately at the toe of the dam but at some distance (e.g.
the Koka power plant). This arrangement is more expensive (due to longer conveyance) and
is used only when it offers advantages such as extra head due to advantageous topographical
conditions.
Important components of a valley dam plant
- The dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy dissipation arrangements etc.
- The intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries
- The penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve & anchorage.
- The main powerhouse with its components.

Figure 3-8: - A typical Valley dam plant [storage-type] hydroelectric station with a powerhouse builds at
the toe of the dam
Diversion canal plant
 The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal that diverts the water from the
mainstream channel.
 The power house is provided at suitable location along the stretch of the canal
 The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to the old stream.
 Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head plants.
 They do not have storage.
 Pondage requirement is met through a pool called fore-bay located just u/s of the powerhouse.

Page 6 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Ways of developing required head

I. If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from u/s side of the fall & locating the
powerhouse at the d/s side of the fall provide the required head.
II. In inter-basin diversion, water may be diverted from a higher-level river to a lower river
through a diversion canal to the powerhouse located at the lower river.
Main structures of the diversion canal plant:
Diversion weir with its appurtenant structures.
Diversion canal intake with its ancillary works such as sills, trash racks, skimmer wall, sluice,
settling basin, de-silting basin, de-silting canal, silt exclusion arrangement is needed in some
sediment-laden streams.
Bridges and culverts of the canal.
Fore bay & its appurtenant structures.

High head diversion plants

High head is developed by:
1. Diverting the river water through a system of canals and tunnels to a downstream point of the
same river.
2. Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a point on another river, which is at much
lower level.
The main feature here is complicated conveyance system & relatively high head compared to the
diversion type.
There may be two situation concerning storage situation
I. A diversion weir to create pondage (and no storage). Here like run-off-plant the power
production is governed by the natural flow in the river.
II. Storage may be provided on the main river at the point of diversion. (This second situation is
advantageous since the fluctuation in reservoir level does not materially affect the head and
the power output can be adjusted by the controlled flow release from the reservoir. E.g. Fincha
& Melka Wakana power plants)
Main Components of high head diversion plants:
1. Storage or diversion weir with appurtenant structures
2. The canal/tunnel
3. The head race either open cut or tunnel.
4. Fore-bay/surge tank
5. Penstock
6. Power house
7. The tail race

Page 7 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Figure 3-9: - Layout of the project showing an embankment dam creating a reservoir with a high head

Figure 3-10: - Sectional view through the water conducting system for hydropower

Pumped Storage Plant

Pumped storage plant is suitable where:
 The natural annual run-off is insufficient to justify a conventional hydroelectric installation

 It is possible to have reservoir at head & tail water locations.

This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, & at off peak period water is pumped back for
future use. During off peak periods excess power available from some other plants in the system is
used in pumping backwater from the lower reservoir.
Various arrangements are possible for higher and lower reservoirs:
1. Both reservoirs in a single river
2. Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and flowing at different elevations
3. Higher reservoir an artificially constructed pool and the lower reservoir on natural river
4. The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is artificial

Page 8 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Figure 3-11: - pumped-storage scheme developments with upper and lower ponds in the same river

3.3. Storage and Pondage.

Storage is provided to balance seasonal fluctuation by using the natural land feature or constructing
artificial reservoirs. Pondage is provided through balancing reservoir or fore bay for short-term
fluctuations (daily or hourly)
3.3.1. Reservoir (storage) capacity
Reservoir capacity is determined by means of mass curve procedure of computing the necessary
capacity corresponding to a given inflow and demand pattern. Reservoir capacity has to be adjusted
to account for the dead storage, evaporation losses and carry over storage.

Figure 3-12: - Reservoir Components

Page 9 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

Dead storage
This is a storage capacity of the reservoir provided to accommodate the deposition of silt in the
reservoir. It is expected that the dead storage space will eventually fill up with sediment at which time
one says the dam has served its full purpose. The life of a reservoir is dependent on the silting capacity
of the reservoir. Provisions for flushing out silt through deep-seated bottom outlets/sluices is made in
most dams. However, this has a limited effectiveness.
Evaporation Loss
Provision should be made for evaporation since it is an important loss item actual evaporation rate
depends upon location & meteorological factors. In arid and semi-arid regions, at least 2 to 2.5m of
depth should be added as a rule of thumb.

Carry over storage

Sometimes it may be required to carry over some of the live storage to the next year as a safety
measure. This carry over storage is determined by analyzing the storage requirement for a sequence
of two or three consecutive dry years.

Figure 3-13: - Reservoir capacity determination: [Mass Curve Procedure]

3.3.2. Pondage Capacity

Pondage is provided to cater for short term fluctuations.
For run-of-river plants, the main weir on its side provides the pondage.
For diversion canal plants, the pondage is provided at the end of the canal in the form of Forebay
reservoir.
Reasons for short-term fluctuations are:
Page 10 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

a. Sudden increase or decrease in load on the turbine. The pondage would provide the
extra water when needed and retain excess water when not needed.
b. The load and thus the water demand may be steady but the supply may undergo a
change. Breaches in the supply canal may lead to this.
Pondage capacity is determination for varying inflow is similar to storage capacity determination.
If hourly inflows for a typical day are known, one can calculate the average hourly requirement and
determine the total maximum cumulative departures from the average over a 24-hour period. This
will then be the pondage needed to equalize the daily flow fluctuations.

3.4. Plant capacity Determination

Turbine selection and plant capacity determination require that rather detail information has been
determined on head and possible plant discharge. In theoretical sense, the energy output can be
expressed mathematically as plant output or annual energy in a functional relation as:
E = f (h, q, TW, d, n, Hs, Pmax)
Where: h = net effective head
q = plant discharge
TW = tail water elevation
d = diameter of runner
n = generator speed
Hs = turbine setting elevation above tail water
Pmax = maximum output expected or desired at plant
It is seen that there are numerous parameters that can be varied to achieve the best selection. The
usual practice is to base selection on the annual energy output of the plant and the least cost of that
energy for the particular scale of hydropower installation. Thus, one must recognize that
determination of plant capacity requires analyses that vary the different parameters, while applying
economic analysis.
3.4.1. Limits of use of turbine types
For practical purposes, some definite limits of use need to be understood in the selection of turbines
for specific situations. Impulse turbines normally have most economical application at head above
300 m. For Francis turbines, the units can be operated over a range of flows from approximately
50 to 115% best efficiency discharge. Below 40%, low efficiency, and rough operation may make
extended operation unwise. Instability or the generator rating and temperature rise may limit the
upper range of flow. The approximate limits of head range from 60 to 125% of design head.
Propeller turbines have been developed for heads from 2m to 70m but are normally used for heads
less than 30 m. For fixed blade, propeller turbines the limits of flow operation should be between
75 and 100% of best-efficiency flow.
Kaplan units may be operated between 25 and 125% of the best efficiency discharge. The head
range for satisfactory operation is from 20 to 140% of design head.

Page 11 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25
Hydropower Engineering, Chapter 3

3.4.2. Selection of Most Economical Units

An economic analysis must be done in order to justify the optimum installation. When the curve
of total cost of installation crosses the total benefit gained the optimum installation can be decided
depending on the local situation.
3.4.3. Determination of number of units
Normally, it is cost effective to have minimum number of units at a given installation. However,
multiple units may be necessary to make the most efficient use of water where flow variation is
high. Factors such as space limitations by geological characteristics or existing structure may
dictate larger or smaller units. The difficulty of transporting large runners sometimes makes it
necessary to limit their size. Larger units require construction in segments and field fabrication
with special care. Field fabrication is costly and practical only for multiple units where the cost of
facilities can be spread over many units. Runners may be split in two pieces, completely machined
in the factory and bolted together in the field. This is likewise costly, and most users avoid this
method because the integrity of the runner cannot be assured.

Page 12 of 12
Lecture Note, 2024/25