Li

ter
atur
eRev
iew

Thef
oll
owi
ngchapt
ergi
vest
hel
i
ter
atur
ebehi
ndpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancei
nav
iat
ionand
ot
hermai
ntenancepr
act
ises,
thet
ool
susedi
npr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenanceandt
heai
rcr
aft
engi
neaccessor
ieswhi
char
egoi
ngt
obef
ocusedonf
ort
hepr
oject
.

“
Predi
cti
vemai
ntenancei
sat
echni
quet
hatusesdat
aanal
ysi
stool
sandt
echni
quest
o
det
ectanomal
i
esi
nyouroper
ati
onandpossi
bledef
ect
sinequi
pmentandpr
ocessesso
y
oucanf
ixt
hem bef
oret
heyf
ail
.”(
Sat
air
,2020)
.Thi
sty
peofmai
ntenancecanuse
hi
stor
ical
and/
orr
eal
-t
imedat
a(i
nfor
mat
ion)f
rom component
sorsy
stemsi
noper
ati
on
t
oant
ici
pat
epr
obl
emsbef
oret
heyoccur
.Pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancei
nav
iat
ion“
inv
olv
es
t
heuseofi
nfor
mat
ionsuchassensor
sandmai
ntenancel
ogst
opr
edi
ctmai
ntenance
needsi
nadv
ance.
”(Sat
air
,2020)
.Ai
rcr
aftmai
ntenancei
sanessent
ial
feat
ureof
av
iat
ion.I
tisr
esponsi
blef
ort
hesaf
eandef
fi
cientoper
ati
onofai
rcr
aft
.Ai
rcr
aft
mai
ntenancei
nvol
vesbuti
snotl
i
mit
edt
othei
nspect
ionandr
epai
rofai
rcr
aftsy
stems
andcomponent
s.

Pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancei
nav
iat
ioni
sonewayofconduct
ingai
rcr
aftmai
ntenance,
but
t
heyar
eal
soot
hermai
ntenancest
rat
egi
esal
readyi
npl
acei
ntheav
iat
ioni
ndust
ry.The
mostcommont
ypeofmai
ntenanceusedbymanyai
rl
inesi
ncl
udi
ngAi
rZi
mbabwei
s
schedul
edmai
ntenancewhi
chi
sdonebasedonacer
tai
nfi
xednumberoff
li
ghthour
s,
f
li
ghtcy
cles,
orcal
endardat
es.Schedul
edmai
ntenancecanal
sobeknownas
pr
event
ivemai
ntenancebecausei
tinv
olv
eskeepi
ngcomponent
sorequi
pmenti
ngood
r
epai
rther
ebymaki
ngi
tlessl
i
kel
ytof
ail
.Thecomponent
sand/
orsy
stemsar
erepai
rs
ar
eusual
l
yschedul
edbasedont
imeand/
orequi
pmentusage.Pr
event
ivemai
ntenance
hassev
eral
adv
ant
ages:

 l
essequi
pmentdownt
ime

 l
ongassetl
i
fe

 I
mpr
ovedcomponentl
i
fe(
componenti
ngoodr
epai
roper
atemor
eef
fi
cient
ly)

Thedi
sadv
ant
agesofpr
event
ivemai
ntenancear
easf
oll
ows:
  Upf
ront
-cost
s(keepi
ngequi
pmentmai
ntai
nedr
equi
resmaj
ori
nvest
ment
s)

 I
trequi
resmor
elabour

 Component
smi
ghtbeov
ermai
ntai
ned

 Ai
rcr
aftdownt
imedur
ingmai
ntenanceschedul
es

Howev
er,
wit
hpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenance“
thei
deai
stoper
for
m mai
ntenancebutmakei
t
condi
ti
on-
based.
”(EXSYNAv
iat
ionSol
uti
ons,
2023)
.Thi
spr
ojecti
sver
ysi
gni
fi
cantf
or
t
hewhol
eav
iat
ioni
ndust
ry,
Someoft
hebenef
it
sitcont
ri
but
est
oai
rl
inesi
simpr
oved
saf
ety
,(“
Bypr
edi
cti
ngcomponent
sfai
l
uresbef
oret
heyoccur
,themai
ntenancecr
ew
cant
akepr
oact
ivemeasur
est
oaddr
esst
heei
ssueandpr
eventunsaf
econdi
ti
ons.
”
(
EXSYNAv
iat
ionSol
uti
ons,
2023)
),Reducedai
rcr
aftdownt
ime,
(“byi
dent
if
yingpot
ent
ial
componentf
ail
uresbef
oret
heyoccur
,themai
ntenancecr
ewcanschedul
erepai
rs
dur
ingpl
anneddownt
ime,
rat
hert
hani
nanemer
gency
.”(
EXSYNAv
iat
ionSol
uti
ons,
2023)
).Pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenanceal
sopr
event
scomponent
sfr
om bei
ngov
ermai
ntai
ned.

Thehi
stor
yofpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancecanbet
racedbackt
othe1940swhenC.
H.
Waddi
ngt
onmanagedt
oimpr
ovet
hemai
ntenancepl
anni
ngf
ort
heBr
it
ishAi
rFor
ce.
TheBr
it
ishAi
rFor
ceper
for
medschedul
edmai
ntenanceoni
tsf
ight
erpl
anesev
eryf
if
ty
f
lyi
nghour
s,C.
H.Waddi
ngt
onwasabl
etochal
l
enget
hispol
i
cyandsuggest
edt
hatt
he
mai
ntenancepr
ocessmustbedonei
ntunewi
tht
heact
ual
condi
ti
onoft
heequi
pment
andi
tsusagepat
ter
ns.Thei
ntr
oduct
ionoft
hist
ypeofmai
ntenance(
condi
ti
on-
based
mai
ntenance)al
l
owedt
heBr
it
ishAi
rFor
ce’
sai
rcr
aftt
oremai
noper
ati
onal
forl
onger
per
iods.(
Indust
ri
alMat
ri
x,2023)
.Ai
rcr
aftdef
ect
sorpot
ent
ial
issueswer
epr
ompt
ly
r
epor
tedandf
ixedt
hrought
hisr
evol
uti
onar
yappr
oacht
her
ebycausi
ng“
ani
mpr
essi
ve
60%i
ncr
easei
nef
fect
ivef
lyi
nghour
s.”(
Indust
ri
alMat
ri
x,2023)
.

Forcommer
cial
avi
ati
on,
timedi
nspect
ionsandmai
ntenancewer
ethenor
m upunt
ilt
he
1960s.(
OMAR,
2022)
.“Dur
ingamai
ntenancecheck,
funct
ional
par
tswoul
dber
epl
aced
wi
thnewpar
ts,
andt
hel
i
miti
szer
oedunt
ilt
henexti
nter
val
isr
eached.
”(OMAR,
2022)
.
I
n1960,
theFAA(
Feder
alAv
iat
ionandAdmi
nist
rat
ion)andot
herai
rl
inesmadean
i
nvest
igat
ioni
ntot
hist
ypeofmai
ntenancest
rat
egyanddi
scov
eredt
hati
twas
i
nef
fect
iveduet
othecostoft
hemai
ntenanceandl
ostt
imedur
ingunnecessar
yai
rcr
aft
downt
ime.Thei
nvest
igat
ional
sor
eveal
edt
hati
nter
fer
ingwi
thai
rcr
aftsy
stemst
hatar
e
st
il
lrunni
ngper
fect
lycr
eat
esnewdef
ect
s.(
OMAR,
2022)
.Thepr
obl
emsassoci
ated
wi
thf
oll
owi
ngt
hehar
d-t
imedmai
ntenancest
rat
egyl
edt
otheuseofon-
condi
ti
on
moni
tor
ingofai
rcr
aftsy
stemsandcomponent
s.On-
condi
ti
onmoni
tor
ingi
sthebasi
sof
pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenance.I
tinv
olv
esmoni
tor
ingt
hecondi
ti
onofai
rcr
aftsy
stemsor
component
sthr
ought
heuseofsensor
s.TheBoei
ng747ai
rcr
aftwast
hef
ir
stai
rcr
aftt
o
i
mpl
ementt
heon-
condi
ti
onmoni
tor
ingmai
ntenancephi
l
osophy
.(OMAR,
2022)
.

Pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancei
snowal
sobei
ngusedt
oef
fect
ivel
ymai
ntai
nai
rcr
aftengi
nes.
Thi
sisdonet
hrought
heuseofapr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancet
ool
knownast
heAi
rcr
aft
Condi
ti
onMoni
tor
ingSy
stem (
ACMS)
.ACMSconsi
stsofaf
li
ghtdat
aacqui
sit
ionuni
t
andsensor
sthatmoni
torandr
ecor
ddat
aandf
li
ghtpar
amet
ersf
rom cer
tai
nai
rcr
aft
sy
stemsandcomponent
s.(
SKYbr
ary
,2021)
.Anexampl
eofanai
rcr
aftt
hatusest
he
Ai
rcr
aftCondi
ti
onMoni
tor
ingSy
stem t
opr
edi
ctf
ail
uresi
stheBoei
ng767-
200.The
ai
rcr
afthassev
eral
sensor
sinst
all
edont
heengi
nef
orext
ract
ionoft
heengi
ne
per
for
mancepar
amet
ers.TheBoei
ng767haspr
essur
epr
obesl
ocat
edatt
heengi
ne
i
nletandt
urbi
necase,
Theengi
nepr
essur
epr
obesar
esensor
sthatsenset
hei
nlet
pr
essur
eandexi
tpr
essur
efort
heengi
ne,
andt
her
ati
ooft
hesepr
essur
espr
oducest
he
engi
nepr
essur
erat
io.Theengi
nepr
essur
erat
iogi
vest
hepi
l
otsani
ndi
cat
ionoft
he
amountoft
hrustbei
ngpr
oducedbyaj
etengi
neast
het
hrustl
everi
sbei
ngmov
edt
o
ensur
ethatengi
nel
i
mit
ati
onsar
enotbei
ngexceeded.(
SKYbr
ary
,2023)
.Theai
rcr
aft
al
somoni
tor
sthet
emper
atur
eatt
het
urbi
near
ea,
knownast
heexhaustgas
t
emper
atur
e(EGT)
.TheEGTf
ort
heB767i
ssensedbyt
her
mocoupl
epr
obessi
tuat
edon
t
het
urbi
neexhaustcase.Thesi
gnal
sfr
om t
het
her
mocoupl
esar
epr
ocessedbyt
he
Engi
neEl
ect
roni
cCont
rol
(EEC)andt
hensentt
obedi
spl
ayedatt
hecockpi
tont
he
Engi
neI
ndi
cat
ingandCr
ewAl
ert
ingSy
stem (
EICAS)di
spl
ay.Thespeedf
ort
hel
ow-
pr
essur
ecompr
essorandt
urbi
neandhi
gh-
pressur
ecompr
essorandt
urbi
near
e
measur
edusi
ngt
achogener
ator
s.Thedat
acol
l
ect
edbyt
hesesensor
sar
eacqui
redby
t
heFl
i
ghtDat
aAcqui
si
ti
onUni
t(FDAU)
.Thedat
ashowst
heov
eral
lper
for
manceoft
he
engi
neandi
tper
mit
sdet
ail
edanal
ysi
soft
heengi
ne’
sper
for
manceandmai
ntenance
r
equi
rement
s.

Howev
er,
alt
hought
heACMSf
ort
heB767-
200canshowt
heov
eral
lper
for
manceoft
he
engi
nei
tcannotpr
edi
ctt
hef
ail
uresormoni
tort
hecomponent
sinst
all
edont
hecor
e
engi
ne(
qui
ckengi
nechange)
.Thepr
ojectbei
ngpr
oposedf
ocusesonmoni
tor
ingt
hese
QECcomponent
stobeabl
etoi
dent
if
ydef
ect
sbef
oret
hecomponentf
ail
s.Qui
ck
Engi
neChangecomponent
sar
eusual
l
ythef
ir
stt
ofai
lbef
oret
hewhol
eengi
nef
ail
s,
t
her
efor
emoni
tor
ingt
hesecomponent
spr
ovi
desamor
edi
sti
nct
iveandqui
ckerwayt
o
pr
edi
ctwhent
hewhol
eengi
nemi
ghtf
ail
.

Mul
ti
plet
ool
sforpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancehav
ebeendev
elopedbyi
ndust
ri
esar
oundt
he
wor
ldwhi
chcanbeappl
i
edi
nav
iat
ion.Someoft
heset
ypesofpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenance
ar
evi
brat
ionanal
ysi
s,acoust
icanal
ysi
s,andi
nfr
aredanal
ysi
s.

Ai
rcr
aftEngi
neComponent
s

Theai
rcr
aftengi
nei
sresponsi
blef
orpr
ovi
dingt
heai
rpl
anewi
thpr
opul
sion,
hydr
aul
i
c
power
,pneumat
icpowerandel
ect
ri
cal
power
.Hy
draul
i
cpower
,pneumat
icpowerand
el
ect
ri
cpowerar
eal
ltr
ansmi
tt
edt
hroughengi
necomponent
swhi
char
econnect
edt
o
t
heai
rcr
aftengi
neaccessor
ygear
box.Thegear
boxpr
ovi
desmechani
cal
connect
ion
bet
weent
hehor
izont
aldr
iveshaf
toft
her
otorandt
heaccessor
ycomponent
smount
ed
ont
heaccessor
ygear
box
.

Theaccessor
ycomponent
soft
hemai
ngear
boxar
easf
oll
ows:

 Gener
ator(
int
egr
ateddr
ivegener
ator
,const
antspeeddr
ivegener
ator
)

 St
art
er

 Hy
draul
i
cpump

 Oi
lpump

 Fuel
pump/
fuel
met
eri
nguni
t

Vi
brat
ionAnal
ysi
s

“
Vibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sisamet
hodt
hatmoni
tor
sthechangesi
namachi
ne'
svi
brat
ion.
”
(
Wizat
a,2023)
.Accor
dingt
o(Kei
th,
2002)al
lmechani
cal
equi
pmentgener
ates
v
ibr
ati
onst
hatr
efl
ecti
tsoper
ati
ngcondi
ti
on.Ther
efor
e,anychangei
nthenor
mal
v
ibr
ati
onpr
ofi
l
eindi
cat
esanupcomi
ngdef
ectand/
oramachi
net
hathasf
ail
ed.“
A
maj
oradv
ant
agef
orv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sist
hati
tcani
dent
if
ydev
elopi
ngpr
obl
emsbef
ore
t
heybecomet
ooser
iousorcauseunschedul
eddownt
ime.
”(Gi
rdhar
,2004)
.Thi
sisdone
byusi
ngv
ibr
ati
onsensor
stomoni
tort
hev
ibr
ati
onsoft
hechosencomponent
s
cont
inuousl
yoratschedul
edi
nter
val
s.Thev
ibr
ati
onmeasur
ement
sar
ethenanal
ysed
usi
ngmi
cropr
ocessor
sandwi
ndows-
basedsof
twar
e(Mobl
ey,
2002)andt
henst
oredon
comput
ersand/
orSDcar
ds.Accor
dingt
o(Gi
rdhar
,2004)v
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
scandet
ect
det
eri
orat
ingbear
ings,
misal
i
gnment
,unbal
ance,
mechani
cal
loosenessandwor
nor
br
okengear
s.I
nanMRO(
Mai
ntenanceandRepai
rOr
gani
sat
ion)
,forexampl
e,Ai
r
Zi
mbabwe,
mostcomponent
sar
eov
erhaul
edandt
est
edt
her
e,v
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
spl
ays
apar
tasanaccept
ancet
estt
over
if
ythatacomponentov
erhaul
,repai
randassembl
y
wasdonepr
oper
ly.Theanal
ysi
sisabl
etocheckwhet
herpr
opermai
ntenancewasdone
bef
oreacomponenti
sinst
all
edbackont
heai
rcr
aft
.

Handhel
dvi
brat
ionmet
ersar
ecur
rent
lybei
ngusedi
nindust
ri
esf
orv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
s
byt
rai
nedoper
ator
s.Theyar
echeap,
conv
eni
entandeasyt
ouse.Howev
er,
these
v
ibr
ati
onmet
ersl
ackenoughdat
ast
oragef
orpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancet
obedoneov
era
l
ongper
iodoft
ime.t
her
efor
e,f
ort
hispr
ojectacomput
erwi
tht
hecapabi
l
ityofusi
ng
machi
nel
ear
ningt
omoni
tort
hecondi
ti
onsofengi
negear
boxaccessor
ycomponent
s
wi
l
lbeused.Togett
hepr
operaccur
ater
eadi
ngsf
orengi
neaccessor
ycomponent
sthe
engi
nesshoul
dber
unni
ngandsi
ncet
hesedev
icesar
ehandhel
d,t
heypr
esentasaf
ety
hazar
dtot
het
echni
ci
ani
nvest
igat
ingdef
ect
sofai
rcr
aftengi
necomponent
s.
Acoust
icanal
ysi
s

Acoust
icanal
ysi
swhi
chal
soknownassoundanal
ysi
sisbasedont
hepr
inci
plet
hat
ev
erymachi
nepr
oducesasoundpat
ter
n.I
t’
sisdef
inedast
he“
anal
ysi
sand
measur
ementofsoundwav
escausedbycomponentcont
act
sinsi
deequi
pment
.”
(
Gri
bbl
e,2006)
.Thepat
ter
ndat
acanbecol
l
ect
edbyi
nputt
ransducer
swhi
char
eabl
e
t
oconv
ertsoundi
ntoaudi
osi
gnal
sforexampl
e,mi
crophones,
andt
henanal
yset
he
audi
osi
gnal
stoi
dent
if
yfaul
ts.(
Linkedi
n,2023)
.Acoust
icanal
ysi
sgener
all
yref
erst
o
t
heuseofsoundi
nthesoni
crange,
howev
erwhenusi
ngul
tr
asoni
cfr
equenci
es,
it
becomesknownasul
tr
asoni
canal
ysi
s.Byusi
ngsoundf
requenci
esi
ntheul
tr
asoni
c
r
ange,
det
ect
ingl
eakscausedbyt
hecompr
essi
onandexpansi
onofgasesandl
i
qui
ds
becomespossi
ble.

Accor
dingt
o(Mobl
ey,
2002)manyor
gani
sat
ionsar
enowat
tempt
ingt
orepl
ace
v
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sbyi
mpl
ement
ingacoust
icand/
orul
tr
asoundanal
ysi
sbecausei
tisa
l
essexpensi
vet
ool
.Thi
shasbeenr
egar
dedi
mpossi
blesi
nceul
tr
asoundf
requenci
es
used(
abov
e30000hz)i
shi
gherf
ori
ttodet
ecti
nci
pientbear
ingand/
ormachi
ne
pr
obl
ems,
ther
efor
eacoust
icanal
ysi
sisonl
yli
mit
edt
odet
ect
ingl
eaks.Unl
i
kev
ibr
ati
on
anal
ysi
sacoust
icanal
ysi
scanbeusedev
enonmachi
nest
hatar
enotmechani
cal
,
howev
er,
accor
dingt
o(Wi
zat
a,2023)acoust
icanal
ysi
scannotbeusedi
nanar
eat
hati
s
“
ful
lofbackgr
oundnoi
se.
”
I
nfr
aredAnal
ysi
s

I
nfr
aredanal
ysi
sisnotdependentonequi
pmentv
ibr
ati
onsorsound,
itcanpr
edi
ct
f
aul
tsbymoni
tor
ingt
het
emper
atur
eoft
heequi
pment
.(Gi
rdhar
,2004)st
atest
hatev
ery
obj
ectwi
that
emper
atur
eabov
eabsol
utezer
oemi
tssomef
orm ofener
gy.Ther
efor
e,
ai
rcr
aftengi
neaccessor
ycomponent
scanbemoni
tor
edbyt
hist
echni
queofpr
edi
cti
ve
mai
ntenance.Thr
oughuseofi
nst
rument
ati
ondesi
gnedt
odet
ectt
her
mal
anomal
i
es
(
component
sar
east
hatar
ehot
terorcol
dert
hant
heyshoul
dbe)anddi
spl
ayt
hedat
a
onanLCDorCRTdi
spl
ay,
atr
ainedsur
vey
orcandet
ermi
net
hel
ocat
ionanddef
ine
i
nci
pientpot
ent
ial
def
ect
s(Mobl
ey,
2002)
.Inf
rar
edanal
ysi
susesi
nfr
aredt
her
momet
ers
t
odet
ectt
emper
atur
eanomal
i
esf
rom component
sbei
ngmoni
tor
ed.Al
enssy
stem i
s
al
sousedt
ofocust
heemi
tt
edener
gyf
rom obj
ectt
othei
nfr
aredt
ransducer
(
ther
momet
er)
.

Ther
mogr
aphyhasanadv
ant
ageov
erv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sint
hat
,itdoesnotmake
cont
actwi
tht
hesur
faceoft
hecomponentbei
ngmoni
tor
ed.I
tal
sodoesnotdepend
uponanobj
ectv
ibr
ati
ngorpr
oduci
ngsoundst
her
efor
ecanbeusedonnon-
rot
ati
ng
component
s.Al
thought
hemet
hodi
snotdependentonv
ibr
ati
onsandsound,
iti
s
compl
i
cat
edbecauset
hreesour
cesoft
her
mal
ener
gycanbedet
ect
edf
rom asi
ngl
e
component
:ener
gyemi
tt
edf
rom t
heobj
ecti
tsel
f,ener
gyr
efl
ect
edf
rom t
heobj
ect
,and
ener
gyt
ransmi
tt
edbyt
heobj
ect
.Theemi
ssi
onofv
ari
ousener
gysi
gnat
uresmakesi
t
di
ff
icul
ttodet
ectt
hel
ocat
ionoft
hedef
ectev
enaf
terappl
yi
ngf
il
ter
ingt
echni
ques.
(
Mobl
ey,
2002)
.Thi
stechni
quei
sexpensi
vet
hanv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sandt
hequal
i
tyof
t
hei
mager
eadi
ngsar
eaf
fect
edbydi
stance,
atmospher
iccondi
ti
onsandt
emper
atur
e.
(
Gir
dhar
,2004)
.

(
Kei
th,
2002)st
atest
hatv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sasat
ool
forpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancewas
sel
ect
edaccor
dingt
oasur
veydoneast
hemostbenef
ici
alby54.
6per
centoft
he
par
ti
cipant
s.Thepr
ojectbei
ngpr
oposedt
her
efor
ewi
l
lbeusi
ngv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sfor
pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenanceofengi
necomponent
s.Howev
er,
whenappl
yi
ngpr
edi
cti
ve
mai
ntenancet
echni
quesonanai
rcr
aftengi
ne,
itr
equi
ressomemodi
fi
cat
ions.These
modi
fi
cat
ionscanbecost
lyandt
heyr
equi
rewor
kandt
imewhi
chcanbeexpensi
vef
or
someai
rl
ines.

Pr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenanceusi
ngv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
sismoni
tor
ingt
hev
ibr
ati
onsof
mechani
cal
equi
pmentt
odet
ectdev
elopi
ngpr
obl
emsandt
ost
opcat
ast
rophi
cfai
l
ure.
Whi
l
ether
ear
esomedi
sadv
ant
ages,
suchast
hemodi
fi
cat
ionpr
ocessi
nvol
vi
ngt
ime-
consumi
ngwor
kandi
ncr
easedcost
,theadv
ant
agesofbei
ngabl
etoant
ici
pat
e
pot
ent
ial
probl
emsbef
oret
heyoccurar
egr
eat
er.

Usi
ngVi
brat
ionAnal
ysi
sinPr
edi
cti
veMai
ntenance

Al
lmechani
cal
machi
nespr
oducev
ibr
ati
onwhenoper
ati
ng.Thr
oughr
ecor
dingand
st
udy
ingt
hev
ibr
ati
onpat
ter
nchangesi
nthemachi
nesoper
ati
onal
behav
iourcanbe
i
dent
if
ied.

Vi
brat
ionanal
ysi
sinpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenancef
orai
rcr
aftengi
negear
boxaccessor
ies
i
nvol
vesaf
our
-st
agepr
ocess.Thepr
ocessesar
eli
stedasf
oll
ows:

 Dat
aAcqui
si
ti
on:
thi
spr
ocessi
nvol
vest
hecol
l
ect
ionofv
ibr
ati
ondat
afr
om t
he
component
s.Vi
brat
ionsensor
sar
eusedt
ocol
l
ectv
ibr
ati
onsi
gnal
sandf
rom t
he
chosencomponent
s.
  St
orage:
thi
sst
epi
nvol
vesst
ori
ngt
hev
ibr
ati
ondat
aori
nfor
mat
ionsoast
o
anal
ysei
tandcompar
epr
esentv
ibr
ati
ondat
awi
thhi
stor
ical
dat
a.

 Anal
ysi
s:t
hedat
abei
ngcol
l
ect
edhast
obeanal
ysedusi
ngsev
eral
oroneoft
he
v
ibr
ati
onanal
ysest
echni
quesknownt
odayt
oident
if
ydef
ect
swhi
chcanbe
i
dent
if
iedt
hroughv
ibr
ati
onanomal
i
esbei
ngpr
oduced.

Dat
aAcqui
sit
ion

I
tisoff
undament
ali
mpor
tancedur
ingpr
edi
cti
vemai
ntenanceusi
ngv
ibr
ati
onanal
ysi
s
t
oacqui
reaccur
atedat
afr
om t
hecomponent
sbei
ngmoni
tor
ed.Tomeasur
evi
brat
ions
(
thedat
a),
atr
ansducerorv
ibr
ati
onsensori
srequi
red.At
ransducercanbedef
inedasa
dev
icet
hatcanconv
ertener
gyf
rom onef
ormt
oanot
her
,forexampl
e,v
ibr
ati
oni
nto
el
ect
ri
ccur
rentorv
olt
age.(
Schef
fer&Gi
rdhar
,2004)
.Iti
sal
soi
mpor
tantt
omai
ntai
n
t
hesamepoi
ntofmeasur
ementwhenacqui
ri
ngt
hev
ibr
ati
ondat
a.

Vi
brat
ionSensor
s

Vi
brat
ioncanbedef
inedas“
themechani
cal
osci
l
lat
ionsaboutanequi
l
ibr
ium posi
ti
on.
”
(
luke,
2019)“
Avi
brat
ionsensori
sadev
icet
hatmeasur
est
heamountandf
requencyof
v
ibr
ati
oni
nagi
vensy
stem,
machi
ne,
orpi
eceofequi
pment
.”(
ETSSol
uti
onsAsi
aTeam,
2021)
.Vi
brat
ionsar
ecommont
oal
lmechani
cal
equi
pmentbutsomet
imest
hey
i
ndi
cat
etr
oubl
e.

Ty
pesofVi
brat
iont
ransducer
s

St
rai
nGauge

Ast
rai
ngaugei
sasensori
nwhi
cht
her
esi
stancechangeswi
tht
hef
orceappl
i
ed.A
st
rai
ngaugei
saf
oil
whi
chcanbedi
rect
lyappl
i
edt
othesur
faceoft
hecomponent
underi
nvest
igat
ion.Thef
oil
hasaconduct
ivegr
idwhi
chi
sel
ect
ri
cal
.Whent
hisgr
idi
s
subj
ect
edt
otensi
l
est
rai
nandcompr
essi
vest
rai
nsuchaswheni
tisi
ncont
actwi
tha
componentt
hati
svi
brat
ing,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hegr
idal
sov
ari
es.Ther
efor
e,byr
eadi
ng
t
hesechangesi
nresi
stancet
hev
ibr
ati
onoft
hecomponentunderi
nvest
igat
ioncanbe
measur
edbasedonhowmucht
hemat
eri
ali
sst
rai
ning.St
rai
ngaugesar
einexpensi
ve
butt
heyhav
etobeper
fect
lybondedt
oanobj
ectt
ogetaccur
ater
eadi
ngs.

Accel
eromet
ers

Anaccel
eromet
erv
ibr
ati
onsensoral
soknownasapi
ezoel
ect
ri
cvi
brat
ionsensori
sthe
commont
ypeofv
ibr
ati
onsensorusedi
nindust
ry.Theaccel
eromet
erusesa
“
transducert
hatconv
ert
smechani
cal
for
cecausedbyv
ibr
ati
onorachangei
nmot
ion
i
ntoanel
ect
ri
ccur
rentusi
ngt
hepi
ezoel
ect
ri
cef
fect
.”(
luke,
2019)
.“Thepi
ezoel
ect
ri
c
ef
fecti
stheabi
l
ityofcer
tai
nmat
eri
alst
ogener
ateanel
ect
ri
cchar
gei
nresponset
o
appl
i
edmechani
cal
str
ess.
”(Nanomot
ion,
2022)
.Thesensorwi
l
lshowachangei
n
v
eloci
tywhenat
tachedonav
ibr
ati
ngcomponent
.Thev
ibr
ati
onsf
rom t
hecomponent
causest
heaccel
eromet
erv
ibr
ati
onsensort
ogener
ateanel
ect
ri
cal
signal
,whi
chi
sthen
deci
pher
edt
opr
oducev
ibr
ati
oni
nfor
mat
ionoft
hev
ibr
ati
ngcomponent
.

Accor
dingt
o(Mobl
ey,
2002)
,accel
erat
ionsensor
sar
ebesti
nacqui
ri
ngv
ibr
ati
ondat
a
f
rom v
ibr
ati
ngcomponent
s.Theyar
eal
sobenef
ici
albecauset
heydonotneeda
cal
i
brat
ionpr
ogr
am t
omai
ntai
ntheaccur
acyofdat
ebei
ngpr
ovi
ded.Accel
eromet
ers
ar
e“r
ugged,
compactandl
i
ght
wei
ghtwi
thawi
def
requencyr
esponse.
”(Schef
fer&
Gi
rdhar
,2004)
Eddy
-Cur
rent

Eddy
-Cur
rentv
ibr
ati
onsensor
sar
enon-
cont
actdev
ices“
thatpr
oducesmagnet
icf
iel
ds
whi
char
eusedt
omeasur
ether
elat
ivemov
ementofagi
vencomponent
.”(
upKeep,
2023)
.Eddy
-Cur
rentpr
obescanal
sobecal
l
eddi
spl
acementpr
obesbecauset
heyar
e
desi
gnedt
omeasur
etheact
ual
mov
ementordi
spl
acementf
rom t
heneut
ral
poi
ntofa
componentv
ibr
ati
ng(
Mobl
ey,
2002)
.Thi
sty
peofv
ibr
ati
onsensorhasapr
obewhi
ch
pr
oducesal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
,thecur
rentt
hencr
eat
essmal
lcur
rent
sint
heequi
pment
underi
nvest
igat
ion.Thesesmal
lcur
rent
sar
ecal
l
ededdy
-cur
rent
s.Thi
sresul
tsi
ntwo
magnet
icf
iel
ds,
onef
rom t
hepr
obet
heot
heronei
sfr
om t
heequi
pmentunder
i
nvest
igat
ion.Thev
ibr
ati
onsensormoni
tor
sthei
nter
act
ionbet
weent
heset
wo
magnet
icf
iel
ds,
andast
hef
iel
dint
eract
ionchangest
hesensorgener
atesav
olt
age
whi
chi
spr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hechangeorv
ibr
ati
onpr
oducedbyt
heequi
pmentv
ibr
ati
ng.
Thedi
spl
acementpr
obesmustbeper
manent
lymount
edt
opr
ovi
deaccur
atedat
a.
Howev
er,
fort
hist
ypeofsensort
heobj
ectorcomponentbei
ngmeasur
edshoul
dbeat
“
leastt
hreet
imesl
argert
hant
hesensor
.”(
luke,
2019)
.
Vel
oci
tyt
ransducer

“
Vel
oci
tyt
ransducer
sar
eel
ect
romechani
cal
sensor
sdesi
gnedt
omoni
torcasi
ng,
or
r
elat
ive,
vibr
ati
on.
”(Mobl
ey,
2002)
.Theset
ypesofv
ibr
ati
onsensor
smeasur
ether
ateof
di
spl
acementunl
i
ket
hedi
spl
acementpr
obeswhi
chmeasur
ethedi
spl
acement
.The
sensorcangener
atori
tsownv
olt
agebecausei
tconsi
stsofamagnet
,acoi
lofwi
reand
somespr
ingsuppor
ts.Whent
hecoi
lofwi
rei
scausedt
opasst
hroughamagnet
icf
iel
d
gener
atedbyt
heper
manentmagnet
,byv
ibr
ator
ymot
ion,
avol
tagei
sinducedacr
oss
t
heendsoft
hecoi
l
ed-
wir
e.(
Schef
fer&Gi
rdhar
,2004)

Thev
olt
agegener
atedi
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
her
ateofdi
spl
acementoft
he
v
ibr
ator
ymot
ion.Vel
oci
tysensor
shav
eanadv
ant
ageofbei
ngmuchcheapert
hant
he
eddy
-cur
rentpr
obesandt
heyar
eeasi
ert
oinst
all
.Theyal
sodonotr
equi
reanext
ernal
si
gnal
.Howev
er,
becauset
heycont
ainamagnet
,theyar
epr
onet
omagnet
ic
i
nter
fer
enceswhenacqui
ri
ngv
ibr
ati
onsf
rom ACmot
orsandgener
ator
s.Theyal
so
mustbecont
inual
l
ycal
i
brat
edbecauseev
ennor
mal
usecausesal
ossofcal
i
brat
ion.
(
Mobl
ey,
2002)
.
St
orage

Vi
brat
iondat
acol
l
ect
edf
rom t
hecomponent
sthr
oughv
ibr
ati
onsensor
scanbest
ored
onSDcar
dand/
orst
oredonl
i
neusi
ngWI
FI.

Vi
brat
ionAnal
ysi
stechni
ques

Commonanal
ysi
stechni
quesusedt
odayi
nthei
ndust
ryar
etr
endi
ng,
compar
ati
ve
anal
ysi
sandsi
gnat
ureanal
ysi
s.(
Gir
dhar
,2004)

Tr
endi
ng

Tr
endi
ngi
sdonebycr
eat
ingat
rendpl
otwhi
chi
ssi
mpl
yanumberofampl
i
tudev
alues
r
ecor
dedorcapt
uredf
rom t
hesensorofaper
iodoft
ime.Theampl
i
tuder
evi
ewst
he
st
rengt
hoft
hev
ibr
ati
ont
her
efor
eitshowst
hesev
eri
tyoft
hedef
ect
.(Senapat
y&RaoU,
2018)
.Acont
inuousi
ncr
easei
ntheampl
i
tudeasshownbel
owshowsadef
ectt
hati
t
becomi
ngmor
eandmor
esev
ere.
Compar
ati
veAnal
ysi
s

“
Compar
ati
veanal
ysi
sdi
rect
lycompar
est
woormor
edat
aset
sinor
dert
odet
ect
changesi
ntheoper
ati
ngcondi
ti
onofmechani
cal
orpr
ocesssy
stems.
”(Mobl
ey,
2002)
.
Vi
brat
iondat
afr
om aheal
thcomponenti
smeasur
edandst
ored.Thedat
aist
henused
ast
hebasel
i
nef
orev
eryot
hersi
mil
arcomponent
,ift
her
eal
timev
ibr
ati
ondat
a
exceedst
hebasel
i
neanal
erti
ssentt
otheai
rcr
aftmai
ntenanceengi
neer
.Al
lvi
brat
ion
dat
amustbeconv
ert
edt
osi
mil
arf
requencyandampl
i
tudeuni
ts.