Transcript for [Python for Beginners – Full

Course [Programming
Tutorial]](https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=eWRfhZUzrAc) by
[Merlin](https://merlin.foyer.work/)

in this full course you will learn the

basics of python programming
i'm beau carnes with freecodecamp.org
i've previously created one of the most
popular javascript courses on youtube
and i've created many python tutorials
now i've created this complete python
course for beginners you don't need any
previous programming experience to
follow along and all you need to code in
python is a web browser in this course i
will teach you all the core aspects of
the python programming language and i
will simplify the more complex topics
python is considered one of the most
popular programming languages in the
world and it's only growing in
popularity python excels in a wide
variety of scenarios such as shell
scripting task automation and web
development and it's also the language
of choice for data analysis and machine
learning but it can also adapt to create
games and work with embedded devices
we're going to jump right into it so you
can start coding your first python
program as soon as possible to get
started quickly we'll use a replit which
is an online ide that allows users to
code and run programs in a variety of
different languages all in a web browser
and later i'll show you how to get
python set up on your local operating
system after the first project i'll go
into more detail about each of the main
features of python the section is
comprehensive and detailed and in the
final section you will use what you've
been learning to code a blackjack game
with me guiding you every step of the
way throughout the course there will be
a little repetition of some of the key
python programming concepts to make sure
you have a deep understanding of the
language so let's get started we're
going to start by creating a simple rock
paper scissors game and we'll start by
going to replit.com replied provided a
grant that made this course possible and
replie is going to make it super easy to
get up and running really quickly so you
can either sign up or log in
and create an account i'm just going to
use my google account
okay now that you're logged into replit
you can either just click the create
button or this plus button over here to
create a new replit and i'll make sure
to create a python replit but you can
see you can also select all sorts of
different programming languages oh these
are just the ones that start with the
word python but so there's there's tons
of different programming languages you
can select but in this case we are just
going to use python and then i'll click
create reple
okay so let me just kind of show off
replica a little bit
this is where we're going to create our
python code i'm going to zoom in just a
little bit so we're going to write the
code right here and then we can see some
output over on the right side and then
you can create different files over on
the left side here
and then there's some other things like
you can connect to version control
and
if you have environment variables we're
not even going to be discussing those in
this course there's a debugger you can
connect to a database and just some
other things but we're mainly going to
just be using this main.pi program to
write our program and we're going to see
the results in the console so i'm just
going to close this files window so
it's a little bigger here
i'm going to start off by showing you
how to create a variable with python so
this is a rock paper scissors game and
there's going to be a players a player
is going to have a choice and a computer
is going to have a choice so i'm going
to create a variable called player
choice
and i'm going to set that equal to
rock
so let's look at a few components about
this this is the variable name player
choice
and you can see
if you
we use an underscore that's just kind of
the convention for python to use an
underscore if you're going to have a
space in the variable name and we're
going to assign it that's what this
equal sign this is the assign operator
and we're going to assign it to a string
a string is just a word or a collection
of characters like rock and we're going
to put quotation marks around it now we
could have also used a single quotes
instead of double quotes as long as you
use the same quote on each side that's
what's important so we've now created a
variable
called
playerchoice and assigned it to rock and
now we can reference this variable later
and whenever we reference the variable
called playerchoice it's going to
the code is going to automatically
replace that player choice with rock
so this is going to be a very
interactive project i hope you're
following along i hope you have already
got replit loaded up like this now
throughout this project i'm going to
tell you what the next thing to do is
and i want you to try doing it yourself
before you watch what i'm going to do so
periodically you'll want to pause the
video
based on and what i say you and try to
implement what i say
before you come back to the video and
watch me implement it and see if you've
implemented the the same way
so i'm just going to zoom in one more
time and
this is the first thing i want you to do
see if you can make another variable on
the next line so you're going to press
return or enter to go to the next line
and this variable should be called
computer choice and you should set it to
equal
paper
okay so you can pause the video and see
if you can make a variable called
computer choice and set it to equal
paper
so here it's pretty simple here it's
going to start simple but it's going to
get harder as we go so computer choice
equals
paper okay so like i said it's starting
simple but it's going to get more
complex as we go along
if you've done that you've now written
your first line of python code in this
course
okay now i'm going to talk about
functions
a function is a set of code which only
runs when it is called
so i'm going to show you how to put this
code into a function
now one thing about python is that
indentation is very important
so after we create a we define the name
of a function any line of code that's
indented the same amount is considered
within that function
so i'm going to create a new line of
code at the top and i'm going to call it
get
choices
okay so we define the function with def
and get choices and i'm going to select
all these these two lines of code at the
same time and just press the tab key and
that's going to indent all these the
same amount
and you can see sometimes they'll be
squiggly lines and if you hover over
some of the squiggly lines it will tell
you something in this case it just says
the local variable called player choice
is assigned to but never used that's not
necessarily bad it's just it's just
telling us that usually if you create a
variable you're going to want to use it
later well we are going to use it later
we just haven't gotten to it yet so
sometimes the squiggly lines will
indicate there's some sort of error in
the code
usually i think it's the color red will
indicate an error but if it's a
different color it just may mean that
there's something maybe not quite right
but
it's not really that big of a deal so if
you have a variable that's assigned to
but never used that's not going to stop
your program
but it's just saying that it's not this
variable isn't really being used for
anything yet but we will change that
this function i'm going to show you how
to call a function later but we're
creating a function called getchoices
that assigns these two variables and
it's also i'm going to put another line
at the very end here and it's a return
statement
and i'm going to return player
choice
this will indicate what's returned when
this function is called so later we'll
call this function get choices and it
will return
something it will return the player
choice which is right here we'll turn in
this case rock that we can use somewhere
else in our code
and i did just happen to put an extra
line here
that's just that's optional i put a
blank line here just to kind of
make things easy to kind of organize the
code a little bit so
different sometimes i'll just put an
extra line between different sections of
code and it just makes it easier to
identify the different sections when
you're looking at the code
for the computer those extra lines don't
mean anything the indentation though
definitely does mean something
so as long as every line of code is
indented the same amount as the previous
line of code then it's all within the
same function
okay so this is what i want you to do
see if you can change the return
statement so instead of returning player
choice it's returning the computer
choice
so that's pretty simple
it's now returning the computer choice
here
now i'm going to create another function
down here this is just going to be an
example function just so i can
demonstrate something to you and then
we'll delete it it's not going to be
part of our rock paper scissors game but
i'm going to create a new function
called greeting
and then i am going to add what it's
going to do oh yeah put the semicolon
you also know a colon so a function
always has to have a colon at the end of
how we define it so i'm going to return
a string and it's just going to say hi
and one thing you'll notice is that
there's no you don't have to put any
anything at the end of each line some
programming languages such as javascript
you're going to put a semicolon at the
line at the end of the line
but in python it doesn't matter you
don't put anything at the end of each
line so now i'm going to call the
function to call the function i just
type the name and i put the parentheses
at the end so it's going to say so
greeting is now going to call it's going
to call this function and that's going
to return the string hi
now it's not going to do anything with
the string because our program doesn't
do anything with the string that's been
returned it's not going to go into the
console or anything but let's add
additional code so we will
make this string hi go on to the console
first let me create a variable that
takes what this greeting function
returns so i'm going to type in response
equals greeting so now we set the the
what greeting is being returned to this
variable called response and now i can
use the print function
and i can print the response and this
will print it to the console so now i
can we have this green button here this
runs the program i'll click this green
button here and now we can see it's high
so
this response is getting this high from
here and then we're printing it right
there okay i'm actually going to delete
all of this
and what i want you to try to do now is
to call the get choices function and
store the response in a variable called
choices and then print the value of
choices to the console
so you can pause and try that really
quick and then i'm going to show you how
okay so remember the variable is called
choices
and we're going to set that equal to
the get choices variable now ins or the
get choices function now instead of
typing out get choices you can see that
this code editor is actually giving us
suggestions on what we want to put in
here so i just typed in get and you can
see it's now saying get choices right
here so i can instead of typing out the
whole thing i can either click there or
i can just press the tab key and it's
going to fill in the rest of that
function name so that's just something
little that makes it easier to write a
program and you don't have to type out
every single thing so if you've already
created a function or a variable then
the the code editor then reply will will
suggest what you may want to fill in
when you're typing and most other code
editors do something similar it's called
code completion so
i'm going to but i still have to add
parentheses at the end and now i'm going
to print
the choices
[Music]
okay so i'm gonna just click this play
button to make sure it does what we're
trying to do yep it clicked paper
great
now let's talk about dictionaries
dictionaries in python are used to store
data values in key value pairs so let me
just show you an example
okay so a dictionary is going to have
these curly braces at the beginning and
end and then here's a key value pair
there's one it's separated by a comma
and then here's another key value pair
so we're setting name
we're setting that to equal bow and
we're saying the color
to equal blue so here's the key here's
the value here's the key
here's the value
and the key or the value in a dictionary
can be a variable
like the color we could set that we
already created this variable here i'm
just going to copy the word choices and
we can put choices and you can see now
it's not surrounded by the quotation
marks so if you surrounded by quotation
marks it's a string but if we don't
surround it by quotation marks it's
getting the the variable here choices so
this would be set to
paper because that's what choice is
going to is going to equal so we're
about to delete this line because that
was just an example
but now before the return statement in
this function we're going to add a new
line we're going to create a variable
named choices and make it equal to a
dictionary the first key should be
player with a value of the player choice
actually this variable here
the second key should be computer with a
value of computer choice
and then we're going to update the
return statement
to return the the choices dictionary
now i'm not going to keep telling you to
pause and try it yourself so just the
rest of this time whenever i say what
we're going to do you'll know that after
i get done explaining it you can pause
it and try it yourself but that's what
we're going to do now
so i'm going to create choices
and it's going to be a dictionary and
then it's going to have
a player
that's the key and the value is going to
be player
choice and i was just able to press tab
to fill that in and then we're going to
have computer
and it's going to be
computer choice
and you can see sometimes if it goes to
the next line there just won't be a line
number right here
but i can
move this over for now
and then i am going to oh i forgot to
put the equal sign that's what that red
squiggly line means so because the red
means there is a problem in the program
so it's not going to run correctly now
the orange just means that we haven't
used choices yet which we will right now
because we're going to return
choices
choices
okay so now we don't have any squiggly
lines because we're using every variable
that we created and we're returning
choices here
so you may have noticed that player
choice
it does not actually get set to the
player's actual choice
so let's fix that
the input function gets input from a
user and will use it to get the player's
choice
so instead of having players choice
equal rock we're going to make players
choice input
enter a choice
rock
paper
scissors
okay so this is how you get input from a
user we use the input function and this
is going to be something that's going to
be printed
we'll print to the console here
and whatever the result of this input
will be that the the player that the
user entered will get stored to this
variable which we then can use later in
our program
so let's just try that out i'll click
run
and
enter
let me just stop and run it again
okay enter a choice rock paper scissors
i'll just put rock
and now you can see the player's choice
we're still printing that and it's going
to print as rock
great now let's just clean up this code
a little bit we still have this here we
don't need that dictionary that's not
going to be part of our final code
and now we'll make it so the computer
can actually make a choice
so we're going to learn about importing
libraries creating lists and calling
methods
python libraries are a set of useful
functions so you don't have to write
code from scratch when you import a
library to your program you get access
to more features without writing
additional code
with basic python it's challenging to
get your program to do something
randomly but it's easy to choose
something randomly using the random
library
so let me show you how we can import the
random library
import statements are used to import
libraries and they're usually put at the
top of a program so i'm going to press
enter a few times here to add some lines
at the top and i'm going to do import
random
so now we are going we we've
imported the random library
so we're going to use that random
library soon but now let's learn about
lists
a list in python is used to store
multiple items in a single variable
lists are surrounded by brackets and
each item is separated by a comma so
here's an example i could create a
variable called food and set it to this
list it's going to have three items
pizza
carrots
and eggs
[Music]
so this is a list of strings
and then you can also get a random item
from the list
using we're going to use now we've
imported random we can get a random item
by using that that random library so i'm
going to put dinner
[Music]
equals
random dot choice
and then i'm going to pass in the the
list here
so using the random library we can call
choice and then we can pass in
a list and it's going to choose a random
item from that list and
and set it to equal this dinner variable
so right now the computer choice always
equals paper but we want it to be a
random choice between rock scissors and
paper
so before the computer choice variable
is created we'll create a new variable
called options and assign it to a list
of the possible options rock paper
scissors then we'll set the computer
choice variable to be a random choice of
one of the items in the options list
okay i hope you already tried this now
but let me show you how that's going to
work
we'll create options
and we'll set it equal to this list
of
rock
[Music]
paper scissors
and you can see the code editor will
often pop up these boxes with more
information about what we're doing to
give us some some help with what we're
trying to do here so we're going to set
this computer choice to be
random
dot choice
food not food i was looking at the food
down there that's gonna be options
there we go
and let's just um try running this
program and seeing what happens so i'm
going to put rock
and then we see the computer chose
scissor it should be scissors that's why
we're testing it out i guess i
spelled that wrong okay so scissors with
an s so now let me try running it again
and you can see it shows scissors but if
we run it enough time it should now it's
choosing paper because it's choosing it
at random
okay
that's working
okay so now let's just delete all this
code after the get choices function we
don't need to test that get choices
function anymore and now
let's create a new function called check
when
so you shouldn't know enough how to you
should know enough about how to create a
function
so def
check
[Music]
when
so this is just an empty function with
nothing inside it yet
but before we add oh with the
colon so before we add any code inside
the function we're going to create some
arguments
function can re functions can receive
data when they're called the data are
called arguments so when creating a
function you can specify arguments
inside the parentheses so we've been
using this empty parentheses but i can
uh put in tooth i can put in things
within these parentheses
when this function is called we're going
to give it two pieces of data we're
going to pass two pieces of data into
the function the first piece of data is
going to be player the second piece of
data is going to be computer
so the you can basically call these
anything you want uh these are just
we're creating new variables but when we
call these functions we'll pass in two
pieces of information that will then be
assigned to the variable names player
and computer that we can use inside the
function
so for now let's
finish off with to a for a complete
function the function has to have some
code within the function
so let's just add a return statement
that's just going to return a list
containing the elements player and
computer
so this check when function shouldn't
actually return this
this is just to kind of get get it
quickly created it should actually
return different things depending on the
player and computer arguments
an if statement will allow a program to
do different things depending on certain
conditions
so an if statement will first check a
condition and if the condition is true
then all the lines of code under the if
statement that are indented the same
amount will execute so as a quick
example i can say
a equals three
b equals five
and then we can create an if statement
here
if
a is greater than
b
then we will do something like print
yes
or we can do if a is
less than b or we can do if we want to
check if a and b are equal we can do
eq we we'll put two equal signs now this
is very important you never want to use
one equal sign because a single equal
sign is the assignment operator that's
how you assign what variables are equal
to so if you use a single equal sign or
like then if i put if a single equal
sign b without a double equal sign that
is going to
set a to equal b which is not what we
want the double equal sign
is going to check if a and b are the
same value basically it checks if two
values values are equal now you can also
do
a not equal so if you use the
exclamation point that's not equal or
you can use
less than or equal to or you can do more
than or equal to
so i'm just going to delete all this for
now
so now we're going to update this risk
turn statement uh before the return
statement we want to we're going to
check if player if player equals
computer
and if so if true will return the string
it's a tie
so let's do that if player
equals computer and this is something
that maybe you figured out yourself
before you before you're watching this
will return a string and the string is
going to be
it's a tie
okay so now it's only going to return so
a function does not have to return
something
and for this function it's only going to
return something
if this is true if player equals
computer
if not it won't return anything and just
to make make you notice this see
this
line is indented within the if statement
which is indented within this function
and just really quick thing to note
for a return statement parentheses are
optional so i could also
add parentheses like that but you don't
need them but for now i'm just gonna get
rid of them
[Music]
so currently when there's a tie the
program now returns it's a tie
but how does the player know that's true
now let's have the program print which
options that the player and the computer
chose
you can concatenate strings with the
plus operator
that just means you can combine strings
with other strings or strings with
variables
so let me show you how you can print
which options were chosen so i'm going
to print
you chose
and then i'll put player so you chose
and then we have to add a space here
because it's going to print a space and
then it will choose it will print this
so if the player chose rock we'll say
you chose rock
and then we can concave so we
concatenated these together but we can
add another plus sign
and put another string here and it's
going to say
computer chose oh it's like being
covered up here by everything computer
computer chose
now i'm just about to type it in but see
if you can figure out what to add at the
end here to put in what the computer
chose
so computer chose
computer or the the value of this
variable here
so
a lot of times when with programming
there's a bunch of ways to do the same
thing so this is one way to combine
strings and variables together there's
another way that's a little simpler
called an f string
so an f string will allow you to make
strings with and with variables and
other python code
so to do that you just put a variable or
you just put f at the beginning of a
string so let me just give you an
example so we do age equals 25 we're
going to create a variable and then i'm
going to make an f string we'll make it
a print statement and i'm going to put a
string in here but instead of starting
with a quotation mark it's going to
start with an f
and then i'm going to put gem is and
then whenever you want to put a variable
or any kind of python code we're going
to put some curly braces and i'm just
going to put the variable within the
curly braces
so years old and i'll put the end of the
string
or let me put a
period here
okay so gem is
age which is going to be 25 years old so
the f string is just a slightly simpler
way to combine the strings and the
variables so what i want you to do see
if you can figure out how to update this
line right here so it uses an f string
and it uses these curly braces instead
of all these pluses up there
so yeah we're going to put f and i can
delete
a lot of these
things here
[Music]
and then i'm going to put some curly
braces you chose player
there we go okay you cho there was a
comma here you chose player computer
chose
computer
okay so now we've been able to put in
the variable within this string with the
f string
so we're going to test this out uh so
in a code
the code in this function never gets run
so when we press the run button it's not
going to run any of the code within the
function unless the function is called
within the program
so
we're not going to test out this
function all right now what i want you
to do is see if you can add a line to
call the check when function and then
just call it with uh rock and paper
so we're going to just do
check when
rock
or actually we have to pass in strings
here rock
paper
so
this is going to it's going to call this
function with rock in terms instead of
player and paper instead of computer
so let me try stride running this
program
you chose rock computer chose paper and
just don't worry about these little
icons sometimes they just block what's
in there but it's still behind that
little search icon so it's to see it's
doing you chose rock computer chose
paper
now let's get back to checking the
winner
so far this function is only going to
check if there's a tie
now we'll start adding code to check
different wing conditions
so let's learn about else and elif
statements
okay so down here i'm just going to give
you i'm just going to paste an example
so so here's the if statement if age is
greater than or equal to 18 it's going
to print this else so anytime this is
not true then it's going to print you
are a child
okay now here i've combined it with
something else the ellis statement ls
just stands for else if it combines else
and if so you have to put a condition so
if age is greater than or equal to 18
print you're an adult else if now we're
going to check if age is more than
greater than 12 you were a teenager
else if age is greater than 1 print you
are a child
or else if none of these other things
are true we'll just print you or a baby
so and it's it's only going to do one of
these
it's going to get to the for once it
gets to the first one that's true then
it's not going to check the rest it's
just going to kind of go to the next
line of code after all these statements
so it's just going to choose one and
once it gets the first one that's true
then it's be done with this whole
section of code
you can also check for two conditions at
once let me give you an example i'm just
going to delete all this code and i'm
going to create an alif statement here
elif
else if and we're going to check if
player is equal to rock
and i'm just going to type in the word
and
and computer
is equal to
scissors
so now i'm checking if
both these conditions have to be true so
this condition and
this condition have to be true before
the following
statement will happen which we're going
to just put return
rock smashes
[Music]
scissors you
you when
[Music]
okay now
the next thing we're going to do let's
see if we can figure out how to do this
we're going to add another lf statement
and this time we'll check if players
equal the rock and computer is equal to
paper and if so we'll return paper
covers rock
you lose
so we're going to make this kind of
easier by just copying this code and
then i'm just going to paste in this and
then i'll just change this so players
equal the rock and computer is equal to
paper instead of scissors
paper
and it's going to say
paper
covers rock
you lose
and we won't even have an exclamation
point anymore because it's not exciting
to lose
okay and you can kind of see there's a
few we could add a few more elif
statements to cover all the different
situations
but instead we're going to talk about
refactoring
refactoring is the process of
restructuring code while keeping the
original functionality when created pro
when creating a program it's common to
refactor code to make it simpler or more
understandable
so we are actually going to refactor
this code that i've highlighted now
and we are going to instead use a nested
if statement
a nested if statement will make the code
more understandable at a quick glance
like
so you can put an if statement inside
another if else or else statement
so you'll notice here the first elf
statement is if player equals rock and
the second l of statement is if player
equals rock so see if you can figure out
how to refactor this
to
not have to use the and anymore we're
just going to use one if statement and
one else statement and then an if
statement under that
elif statement
if that doesn't make sense you can just
see what i do right now
so i'm going to just
move this down a little bit
i'm going to actually copy and paste
some of these items but we're going to
start with l if player equals rock we're
not going to have this
i'm going to put this on a new line and
say if computer equals scissors so first
we're going to check if player equals
rock
and then if so we're then going to check
it's going to be a nested if statement
if computer equals scissors and if
computer equals scissors then we're
going to use this this return statement
here
so i have to make sure it's indented
correctly it's going to re so this we
have
we have
player if player equals rock then if
computer equals scissors we'll return oh
this needs to be indented one more time
to be on inside that if statement
and now we don't even need this elf
statement this can just be an else
statement else
because if
the computer equals scissors there's
only one other option because we already
know if player equals rock and computer
equals rock will have already returned
it's a tie
and by the way once you return something
the rest of the code in a function does
not run so if we're returning it to tie
nothing else after that is going to run
so we know that computer can't equal the
rock at this point so it's either going
to be scissors or paper so i don't we
don't even have to check if computer
equals paper because at this point
computer has to equals paper and then
we'll just return this this line
let's see
there we go return paper covers rock
you lose
so now we just basically have to add two
more sections similar to this so this
one is if player equals rock
then we have to have another section if
player equals paper and then if player
equals scissors
and then we just have to have the the
stuff inside is going to be pretty
similar just corresponding to the
different relationships between rock
paper scissors
so i'm just going to copy that
and then i will paste it here and then
one thing is important to make sure this
elif statement
lines up with this else statement
and this is now going to be
paper
and then we are going to check if
computer equals rock
and a computer equals rock
then we will say that
paper covers rock
you win
or we'll say
scissors
cuts
paper
you lose and then the final one which at
this point i'm sure you can figure out
on your own we're going to add one more
section
and this if
player equals scissors
and then first we're going to check if
computer equals paper
if so
we will do
scissors
cuts
paper we're just making sure we're just
making it so every time the first one is
you win the second one is you lose but
you could do it the other way around
and then we will do
rock
smashes
scissors
you lose
okay we're almost finished with this
whole program
so both
the get choices function and the check
win function they're both complete
now let code to call the functions and
play the game
so first let's remove this
this check when
now we'll create a variable called
choices and make it equal to the result
of calling the get choices function
and we just have to make sure it's not
indented it's on the the first
the first column i guess right here not
ended at all so we'll do
choices
equals get
choices
[Music]
and one thing about this is it's going
to return a dictionary so if we look at
the get choices
so it's returning choices and it's going
to be a dictionary like this now let me
just copy this i'm going to show you
something down here i'm going to just
paste it down here and we'll just make
an example of what it could look like it
could look like rock and paper i always
use rock and paper as examples because
scissors is a
little harder for me to spell
so so that's a little easier so so let's
one thing we haven't talked about is how
to
uh
how to access a and specific element
within a dictionary so this is a
dictionary so let's say if i call this
um
well i'll just call it choices even
because we're going to delete that and
so we're only going to have this choices
but if choices equals this and let's say
i just want to get the the choice of the
player
let me show you how i would do that
i'll just do
p choice for player choice and i'm going
to put equal choices and to get just the
the value of the player i'm going to put
brackets so the brackets look like that
and then i have to
put the the key that i want the value of
so the key would be player
so if i
put the name of the dictionary which is
this
and then i put some brackets we're going
to use brackets to identify what is the
key that we want the value of so here's
the key of the with the value of rock
and here's a key with a value of paper
so this is how we can get the player
choice and i'm sure you can under see
how you get the computer choices if
instead if
we take this computer word and put it
right here
uh computer
okay i'm just going to get rid of all
this here
and we're going to we have the get
choices here
and now listen carefully to what we're
going to do next
we are going to create a variable called
result and make it equal to the result
of calling the check win function and
when we call the check win function
we're going to pass in the value of the
player key
and the computer key
of the choices dictionary
so let's do that so then you'll see what
i mean a result
is going to be
we're going to call
[Music]
check
when
and then we are going to pass in
we're going to pass in we have choices
player
and choices
computer
so because remember we had that we i
showed the example that dictionary so
we're getting the player key the value
of the player key and the value of the
computer key
so now we know who wins
we've now this result variable is going
to be one of these strings have been
returned either it's a tie rock space of
scissors paper covered rocks and so on
so now we just have to print the result
we're going to
print
the result
okay we can try out this game
i'm going to click the run button
okay this is why it's sometimes better
to test a little earlier i just forgot
the
semicolon on some of these so um
semicolon
and see there's a red arrow i should
have seen that semicolon
and semicolon
okay now let's try it i'm going to play
the program into a choice
i'm going to do
rock and i just noticed something else i
want to change so enter a choice here i
started there's a parenthesis here
there's no parentheses at the end so
again i'm just going to change that
really quick so enter a choice and we're
going to put it in parentheses here
and
test again so rock okay you chose rock
computer chose rock
it's a tie okay i'm gonna play it again
paper
you chose paper computer chose scissors
scissors cuts paper you lose
okay we just created a python game
so hopefully this gives you a better
understanding of what it's like to
program in python and you you now know
about some of the basic concepts of
python now there's a lot more to learn
in python and we're going to be covering
a lot more in this course i just wanted
to start with a game and a full program
so just right off the bat you could go
to program
so in the next section i'm going to
start going over in detail all the most
common features of python
and we're going to cover some of the
features that we've already used in this
game plus a lot of additional features
additional common features that were not
used in this game
and then in the final section of the
course
we're going to code a more complex game
a blackjack game
so let's get started with the next
section
one of the quickest and easiest ways to
get started with python is by using
replit.com but you may also want to get
python running on your local computer so
if you want to do that you can start by
going on over to python.org
and these go to the downloads menu
and then you're going to just click
what you want to download for it for so
it's going to default to be for you the
operating system you're on but you can
also go to other platforms and make sure
you can and then just find the platform
that you want to download on and there's
going to be instructions on here that's
going to tell you how to go about
getting installed on your specific
computer
so there's a few different ways to run a
python programs and one of the ways is
with an interactive prompt so after you
get installed if you open up your
terminal and type in python or sometimes
it's going to be python 3 depending on
how you got it installed you're going to
see this interactive prompt and then you
can just this is called a python rebel
it's it's different from a rebel
creating with created with replit but
you can start coding in python right on
here so i could say
name equals bow
and then you have to make sure you
put the the quotation marks at the end
and now i've gotten a variable stored as
bow and then i can just type in the
variable name name and it's going to
show you show me the value of the
variable and you can type in most
different python commands right into
this inactive prompt here
and then i can just quit it when i'm
ready to quit
it's also common to run python using
visual studio code so if you just search
for visual studio code you can get to
the the download page and then you can
just download it for your system and
there's also you can download for
different systems and then once you open
up visual studio code to get python
working you're going to want to install
the python extension so i'm going to
click over here to extensions and you
can search for python or it may just be
listed here under popular extensions and
i'm just going to click install
and this is going to make it easier to
work with python on visual studio code
so now i can just kind of close some of
this stuff here
and i'm going to
create a new file
and i can just call the and i can just
type in name
equals
bow
print
name
and then if i save this
as
test.pi it's going to now it's going to
add the colors that correspond to
python
and then i'm just going to click this
play button here
and it's going to play it's going to
open up a terminal window here
and it's going to run the program and
it's going to print bow that's what my
program did if i zoom out a little bit
you'll be able to see the difference so
well we just print the name and it and
it runs the program just like that and
then you can see on the terminal how the
the command that was used to run that so
we could use the same command on any
terminal and instead of typing this
whole thing for the location of python 3
i can just do python
3 and then you this is where that file
is located so just copy that
and i can paste it in here and it's
going to run that program
in this section we'll learn about the
core features of python i'll go into
more detail about some of the things we
learned in the first project and they'll
be covering a lot more concepts this
section was heavily inspired by the
python handbook by flavio copes and you
can check that out on freecodecamp news
and like the first part of the course
i'll be running python in replit so once
you get logged into replit just like i
already showed you before you can hit
the plus button here or the create
button to create a new replit and then
you can search for the programming
language or you can just click it down
here python we'll just create a python
repel
and then we can instantly start creating
writing python code in replit
so like i showed before we got our
different files here we're just going to
start by using one file here and this
we're going to encode and this is where
it's going to
appear if we we run the code so i'm
going to
close off the list of files here
and let's just start at the beginning
again so you've gotten used to coding in
python through creating a rock paper
scissors game
but now we're going to
kind of do a deep dive into all the
basic commands of python so there's
going to be some review but we're going
to be going into more detail about each
of the elements and the first thing
we're going to talk about is variables
so we can create a new python variable
by assigning a value to a label using
the equal sign or the assignment
operator so let me give you an example
just like i was showing you before just
name equals bo
so let me just zoom in a little bit more
here and so now our variable name is
name and we've assigned it the value of
bo
and then we can also uh create we can
create a variable with a number so i
could do age
equals
39. so a variable name can be composed
of characters numbers and an underscore
character but and it cannot start with
the number
so it could be anything like name one
it could be all capital letters
it could
be it could have an underscore it can
start with an underscore like i said
like that
and
you can see that these are all it's
putting these
red squiggly lines because it's showing
that that's not
actual python code if you're going to
create a variable you should be
assigning it to a value or you should be
using a variable that already exists but
i'm just showing you some different
examples of different variables now so
here's an example of an invalid variable
name if you just start with a number
like that that can't be a variable
because you can't start with a number
and i couldn't put something like test
exclamation point you can't use
exclamation points you can't use percent
signs
and other than that anything is valid
unless it's a python keyword so there
are some keywords a keyword is something
that's used to to write python like for
if
while
import these are all words that have
very specific meanings within python so
you cannot use them for a variable name
now there's no need to memorize them as
the python editor here will alert you if
you use one of those as a variable
so that was just like
if i say if equals
hi
and then you can see it's going to show
you right here with these squiggly lines
that we've done something wrong
invalid syntax because and then also you
can see that
it turns blue this word turns blue
because it's a keyword you can't use it
as a variable name
so like i said it's going to alert you
if you if you use a keyword as a
variable and you'll start to gradually
recognize them as part of the python
programming language syntax
now let's talk about talk about
expressions and statements in python so
an expression is any sort of code that
returns a value like for instance if you
do one plus one or if you just do a
string like
bow this is going to like this is going
to return to this is going to return the
string bow so a statement on the other
hand is an operation on a value
so for example these are this is a
statement here because we have an
operation we're assigning this to the
variable and then another statement
would be like this print
name
so that's going to
be a statement because it's doing
something to the value now a program is
formed by a series of statements and
each statement is put on its own line
like we have these two lines here but
you can use a semicolon to have more
than one statement on a single line so i
i could put a semicolon here
and then if i run the program it's still
going to print the name and let's just
do that we already learned how to run a
program in replica click this button
right here but we can see it's going to
print bow and if i put these on two
different lines it's going to do the
same thing if i run the program it's
going to still do the same thing here
now let's talk about comments this is
something we haven't talked about in
this course yet so in the python program
everything after a hash mark is ignored
so if i put a hash mark i can say this
is a commented line and when we run the
program this line is going to be
completely ignored and then we can also
put in inline comment if i just put the
hash mark here this is an inline comment
and the cool thing about most code
editors including replit is it's going
to put comments going to make them gray
so you know that this isn't really part
of the program this is just some sort of
special note that the programmer wants
to put as part of the program
so i want to emphasize again how
important indentation is so it's very
meaningful in python so you can't
randomly indent things like you can't
just press tab here to indent here and
how this is kind of lined up here this
line up here you can see this red
squiggly line says unexpected expected
indent
so some other languages do not have
meaningful white space an indentation
doesn't matter but in python indentation
matters
so in this case if you try to run this
program we can run this and you'll see
an error right here showing up in red
here it says indentation error
unexpected
indent
because indentation has a special
meaning so i can just unindent that here
everything indented belongs to a block
like a control statement or a
conditional block or a function or a
class body and we'll be talking more
about those different blocks
now let's talk about data types python
has several built-in types
so for instance this is a string so
anything surrounded by quotation marks
is a string that's one data type and you
can check the type of a variable by
using the type function so i could say
type
and then i'll put name and to make sure
to be able to see in the console i'm
going to print what the type is here
and if i press if i run the program
we'll see that the type is the class of
str which stands for string
and then we can test to see if something
is a string by comparing it to str so i
could do equals equals str
and then if i run that it's going to say
true because the type of name does equal
a string
and then we can also use is
instance so
i'm going to
uh so if we instead of doing type we do
is
instance and then we
have to pass it two things so
the first thing we're going to pass it
so we have the is instance we're passing
it the name that's this variable and str
 we're trying to see if name is an
instance of a string and if i run that
it should say true again
so we've been testing against the str
class the string class but it works the
same for other data types so so there
are some data types around numbers
so an integer number integer numbers are
represented using the int class or the
int class and floating point numbers or
fractions are a type of are the type
float so i can say age
equals
2
and then we can just check
is instance
and i can pass in the age and then i can
pass in an int
so if i run that
we're going to see that i've done
something wrong
oh i spelled that wrong there we go okay
now i'm going to try this and we'll see
true true and i can also type in float
true false it's not a false or it's not
a float because it doesn't have a
decimal point if i
did 3418.96 then it should show that it is a
float
because it has a decimal so python
automatically detects the type
from the value type so it automatically
knows this is a string it automatically
knows this is a float but you can also
create a variable of a specific type by
using the class constructor passing a
value literal or a variable name like
for instance we have this and we check
to see if this is a float and it's
saying false but i can make it a float
by typing in
float
and just p putting the value
into the flow here so we're going to
make it a float so now it's true true
and you can do the same thing with
strings or integers or other data types
and you can also convert from one data
type to another by using the class
constructor so so that's basically what
we did we just converted this from an
integer to a float but i can also do
something else i can convert something
from
a string
to an integer so for instance i'm going
to we'll just get rid of this one
completely here and we'll just use this
one so
a string is anything in quotation marks
so if i do
20 age 20 and i test if this is a an int
it's going to say
false it's not an n so i'm printing
whether it's an instance of an int but i
can convert this string
into an integer by just doing integer
and this let me run the program and it
says true
another thing about this is you don't
just have to pass in the actual data or
the actual string i can pass in a
variable so i can say number
equals and now i'm going to make it a an
x it says number but it's actually a
string but i can pass in the number here
and then it's going to set that to age
and it's going to be true so we create
the string we convert the string to an
integer and we tested that that age is
an integer
so when we do something like this this
is called casting
we are it's basically trying to extract
an integer from this string
of course the conversion might not
always work depending on the value
that's passed so for instance if we
write test here in the string
instead of the 20
we may get an air so let me just run
this and see now we have an error it
says invalid literal for
for int int with base 10 test so we
can't convert the word we can't convert
the string test to an integer so python
does its best to do the conversion but
it doesn't always work there are a few
other types so let me see are some other
common types of types so there's the
type of complex for complex numbers bool
for booleans list for list tuple for
tuples range for ranges
dict is our dictionaries and set
is a type for sets
and we'll explore all these soon we'll
go into more detail about about all
these different types of types well now
let's talk about operators we've already
seen one operator that's this one that's
the assignment operator but there's also
arithmetic operators comparison
operators logical operators bitwise
operators and plus some interesting ones
like is and in so we're going to be
going over a lot of those right now
so we talked about the assignment
operator which is used to assign a value
to a variable or to assign a variable
value to another variable now let's talk
about arithmetic operators
it's just what you use to do
math mathematics
so here are the different
arithmetic operators so we have plus one
plus one equals two then minus
multiplication division
we have
remainder so four divided by three
equals one but there's a remainder of
one we have exponents four to the power
of 2 is 16 and floor division
so floor division does a
division problem and then just
basically rounds down
so floor division does the division and
rounds down to the nearest whole number
so actually this would be better seen if
we do four five divide by two five floor
division divided by two is going to be
two normally be 2.5 but floor division
is rounding down to the nearest integer
the nearest whole number
and then also note that that
the minus can also be a
make something a negative number
so i could do 4 plus
negative or i mean 1 plus negative 1 and
then that's just going to equal 0. and
then the plus operator can also be used
to concatenate string values that's
something we talked about earlier but i
could say
scamp
and then put a plus
is a good dog
and then like if i print this out
i put the the parentheses around it i
can
and then we'll see the whole string here
sk scamp is a good dog
that was the name of my first dog when i
was a kid so we can also combine these
arithmetic operators with the assignment
operator let me show you what i mean so
let me just get rid of this here and i'm
going to do age
equals 8
and age
plus equals
[Music]
8
and i'll do print
age
so we've so all these different
operators can be assigned with it can be
combined with the assignment operator
and now it's going to add
8
to the age so if i
run this it's 16. so this actually just
means
age
equals age
plus
eight
so this age plus equals eight is the
same as saying age equals age plus eight
so it's just going to add this number
to the current age and set it equal to
the age and you can do that with any of
these like i could do
times
and that would be age equals age times 8
and
64. and so on with any of these
arithmetic operators
okay now let's talk about comparison
operators
now we talked a little bit about them
before
but let's see some examples again so
this is to compare if two things are
equal
and then we have not equal we're
comparing them to see if they're not
equal or count this is if a is
greater than b
or more than b and then this this is
less than or equal to b
now let me just tell you a trick of how
i keep the keep track of which one is
greater than and which one is less than
if you see this less than one if you
kind of tilt your head a little bit it
kind of looks like an l see like l and
this one doesn't look like as much of an
l so this
less than operator kind of in some ways
looks like a capital l that's kind of
just squished over and that's how i keep
track of which one is less than which
one is greater than
and so these are all going to give
either a false value or a true values
speaking of true and false
true and false are examples of boolean
the boolean data type the boolean data
type just means true false or true
so a boolean is either going to be true
or false there's only two options
and there are a few boolean operators
so let me show you what the boolean the
boolean operators are either not
and
or or
so when working with two or false
attributes
those work like logical and or and not
so when you're using uh not
it means it's not true you're checking
you're checking to see something is not
true and means they both have to be true
and or means either this one has to be
true or this one has to be true in order
for the full thing to be evaluated as
true
and let me show you something about or
now or using an expression returns the
value of the first operator operand that
is not a false value or a falsie value
otherwise it returns the last operand so
it's going to return
the first operand that is not a false
value but since this is a false value
it's returning the second operand since
this is a false value it returns the
second one
since this is not a false value it will
return the first one
and this is considered a false value if
it's just an
empty bracket that's false so it's going
to return the second value which just
happens to be false
and since this is a false value it's
going to return the second option which
also happens to equal to false
so
one way to think about it for the word
or is so the pi this is how the python
docs describe it if x is false
then why
else x
so this would be like x this would be y
if else is false then why else x
and then for and down here let's look at
some examples for and and only evaluates
the second argument if the first one is
true so if the first argument is falsy
such as false zero and empty string
empty brackets it returns that argument
otherwise it evaluates the second
argument
so the way the way the python docs
describe it is if x is false then x
else y
okay let's quickly discuss bitwise
operators they're very rarely used only
in very specific situations but it's
worth knowing what these bitwise
operators are just in case you're in the
very rare situation that you need to use
them
and then two other types of operators
are is and in
now is is called the identity operator
it's used to compare two objects and
returns true if both are the same
objects if both are the same object and
i'll be talking more about that later in
the section on objects and then in is
called the membership operator this is
used to tell if a value is contained in
a list or another sequence and we'll be
talking more about the in operator when
we're discussing lists and other
sequences later in this course
and the final thing i want to talk to
you about is the ternary operator now
the turn area operator in python allows
you to quickly define a conditional
so here will be like kind of the slow
way to do it without a ternary operator
so let's say you have a function that in
this function is comparing age with 18
and it's going to return true or false
depending on the risk result
so instead of writing like this
we can implement it with a ternary
operator so let's do death
[Music]
is
adult i'll call it is adult 2 because
it's the second way of doing it and this
time we're going to use the ternary
operator it's just going to be return
true
if age
is greater than 18
else
false
so you can see first we define the
result if the condition is true
then we evaluate the condition
and then we define the result if the
condition is false
it's basically an if else statement all
on a single line
okay let's talk more about strings in
python so a string in python is a series
of characters enclosed in quotes in
double quotes or it could be
single quotes
as long as the type of quote is the same
on both sides and we already talked
about how you can assign a string to a
variable
[Music]
and we already talked about how you can
concatenate two strings using the plus
operator like phrase
equals bo and then you can concatenate
with the plus operator
is my
name
[Music]
and then
also instead of putting a string here
you can put the variable so i could put
name is my name and we already have the
variable here to equal bo so when you
concatenate you can concatenate the
strings or the variables
you can also append to a string using
the plus equal operator so let's say i
want to add to this name and i'm so i'm
going to say name
plus equals
is my name so we're adding is my name to
the end of this so i can say
print
name
and then we can see what it looks like
when you use the plus equal operator
so bo is my name
and then we already talked about how you
can convert a number to a string using
the
str class constructor like if we had age
equals we could make this a string
but we passed this integer it converts
to a string and now it's going to be a
string
now here's something new a string can be
a multi what can be multi-line when
defined with a special syntax so if you
enclose it if you enclose the string in
a set of three
quotes
so let me show you an example get rid of
all this
and i'm going to
print an entire
string here
so we're going to make this a multi-line
string i'm going to put three quotation
marks
and then it's going to start with three
quotation marks and end with three
quotation marks and then i can make it
multi-line so i can say bo is and then i
can
put some extra lines
39
years old now if i print that
and you can see it's going to print
the different lines here so we just made
a multi-line string
and you can also instead of using the
double quotes you can put a single quote
as long as they're the same at the
at the beginning and ending
now a string also has a set of built-in
methods let me show you an example so if
i have this string
bow but i'm going to put at the end of
the string i'm going to put dot
upper and i put parentheses at the end
so if i run this now it's going to print
it in all capital letters
and the same thing you can use with
lower so if it if i had a string that
had a few capital letters
okay now it's all
lower now i can also type in a title
and this is going to
make each lut so i can say
bow
person
uh and i do this so it's going to cat
it's going to a title that's going to
make the first letter of each string
a capital letter
i can also check things like i can say
is lower and it's going to check if it's
all lowercase letters false but if i
make it so it is all lowercase letters
it's going to say true so here's just a
list of a few common ones
[Music]
you can do is alpha to check if it
contains only characters
is
l num to
check if a string contains characters or
digits and is not empty is decimal
lower to make it lower case is lower
upper is upper title starts with to
check if it starts with a specific
substring to check if it ends with you
can replace part of a string split a
string you can strip the white space
from a string you can append new letters
to a string you can find the position of
a substring spring string and there's a
few more but these are some of the most
common things you can do with a string
and then one thing to know about these
is that they they all return a new
modified string they don't actually
alter the original string so let me show
you what i mean by that so let's say we
have we'll do name equals bow again let
me zoom in a little bit
and we're going to
print
name dot lower
now i'm going to print
name
so if i just run this
and we first figure out what went wrong
here it looks like there's a few extra
parentheses
[Music]
okay let's run this and you can see it's
going to make it all lowercase but then
when i print the name again
it's not still lowercase because this
just returns a brand new modified string
it doesn't actually change anything
in the original string
and then you can use some global
functions with strings as well so one
function we haven't discussed yet is the
l e n function which stands for length
it can give the length of a string so
i'm going to type an l-e-n
and then so there's just some global
functions that work with a lot of
different types of data and the length
of this is four you can see
and then you can use the in operator now
i briefly mentioned the n operator
earlier so
let me show you one use case so we can
use the in operator to check if a string
contains a substring like for instance i
can say
au
in
name so let's check if name
contains the letters a u
well true it does but if if if it if it
if it didn't if i just add an extra
string it's going to say
false
okay another thing with strings um
escaping is a way to add special
characters into a string
for example let's say we wanted to add a
double quote within the string how can i
add a double quote into a string that's
wrapped in double quotes if i put a
double quote like that that's not going
to work because this is going to be the
string and then it's not going to the
code editor is not going to know what to
do with this last little bit here
so
the way to go is to escape the double
quote inside the string with the
backslash character so right before this
quote i'm going to put the backslash
character
and then you can see it now all is all
the same color as a string and if i
print it it's going to it's not going to
print the backslash character so putting
a backslash is how you escape a
character and that just means
this
the the backslash character means that
the next character is not going to mean
what it normally means
it's going to actually just be the
string of that character
and you can do the same thing with so
with in this particular example you may
not need to do it because you can always
just put a single quote at the beginning
and ending
and as long as you have a different type
of quote at the beginning and ending
then
you can put a double quote in the middle
but let's say you want a string that
contains both a single quote and double
quote within the string
then you will have to backslash like if
i just put a single quote there it's
going to mess it up but if i put it
backslash
now it's going to have the single the
double quote and the single quote right
within the string
and
you can also use the escape character
for
special formatting characters like uh
for instance what if i want there to be
a new line between the first two and the
last two letters of the string if i do
slash n
that is going to not actually just put a
slash in let's see what happens when i
put that this is means new line you can
see it says be new line a you
and then another way a reason why you
may want to use an escape here like
let's see what happens if i do this
this
that's not looking how i want to look
because it's normally normally when
the code is running if it sees this
backslash it thinks it's an escape
character so if you want to actually add
a backslash to a string you have to
escape the backslash so now it's be
backslash au
okay we're done talking about escape
characters now i'm going to tell you how
you can get a specific character in a
string so given a string you can get its
character using square brackets to get a
specific item given its index starting
from zero
so
one thing to know about programming is
that
whenever you're counting from in most
programming languages you start counting
starting at zero so this is going to get
the letter at index one so this is index
zero the b the e is at index one index
two index three so if i run that we can
see we are getting the e that's at index
one if i want to get the b i just put a
zero in the brackets and we get the b
and then we can use a negative number to
start counting at the end so if i put
negative one it's going to start here
zero
one and that's going to be a oh you okay
i guess when it's going backwards it's
not going to start zero because there is
no negative zero that makes sense so
negative one is going to be the last
character in the string so negative one
negative two negative three and so on
we can also use a range using what we
call slicing so if i put 1 colon 2
this is going to be every character
starting at index 1
and ending before index 2. so it starts
at index 1 so it starts with that
character and it ends before an x2 which
is a so that's actually only going to
return an e
but if i put 3 here
now we can return a u
and if i put bo is cool we can put one
further down i'm going to put 7
and we can see
it's going to return part of this string
and then you can also start if you just
put a blank before the colon then it's
going to turn everything up to it's
going to start at the beginning and
return everything up to character seven
and you can also do in the opposite
direction so if i put a blank after the
colon it's going to go to the end of the
string so it's going to say is cool
so let's talk about
booleans well we already talked more
about we already talked about booleans
but we're going to talk a little bit
more about boolean which is considered
the bool type and this can have two
values true or false so i can say done
equals
true
or you can do done
equals false now
notice that it always has a capital t or
a capital f so
if you don't put a capital t or capital
f it won't be considered the the true
boolean value in python
and booleans can be especially useful
with the conditional co
with conditional control structures like
if statements
well we already discussed if statements
in the first part of the course and
we'll be discussing them more in detail
later but let me just show you an
example so if done and i'm going to
erase this done because we want to be
true so if done
and then we'll say print
yes
[Music]
else
print
no
okay so i can run that and it's going to
print yes because done
equals true but if done equals false
[Music]
then it's just going to say
no
so when evaluating a value for true or
false if the value is not a bool or
boolean like if it's not true or false
we have some rules depending on the type
we're checking so numbers are always
true
except for the number zero
if i put 0 here it's going to evaluate
to false but if i put any other number
here it's going to be true even like
negative 1 or anything like that it's
going to be true oh i guess
that i didn't put negative 1 i put
equals 1. so if it's negative 1 that's
going to be true
so strings are always false
oh
strings are false only when empty
so if i say
bow here this is going to be true
because it's not an empty string but if
i make an empty string then it's going
to be
false
lists tuples and sets and dictionaries
which we'll talk about more later are
false only when empty so it's going to
be if a list double star dictionary is
is filled with something that is true
and then also you can
check if a value is a boolean so if i
say done equals true
i can do
print
type we're going to check the type we're
going to check if the type of done
equals
bool so let's check it does that equal
boolean
true it does now let's see let's
change this to a different type and it's
going to say false so it can still
evaluate whether this is true or false
but the type is not a boolean the type
is a string
and let me show you another example code
so the global
the any function it's a global function
it's very useful when working with
booleans
it returns true if any of the values of
the iterable such as a list if any of
them are true it's going to return true
for all of them so
for instance book one read that's true
but book two read that's false but this
is going to return true because it's
checking if any of them are true and
then it's going to set this to true
now the all function is is similar but
returns true if
all of the values are true so
we see we have this value as true
we have this value as false
whereas any would have returned true
this is going to return false because it
only returns true if all of the values
are true
okay now let's talk about more
number data ties we already talked about
int an integer whole number we've
already talked about float which is any
number with a decimal point there's
another type called complex
complex numbers are an extension of the
familiar real number system in which all
numbers are expressed as a sum of a real
part
and an imaginary part
imaginary numbers are real multiples of
the imaginary unit which is the square
root of negative one often written
i in mathematics or j in engineering
python is built in support for complex
numbers which are written with
the the j notation so the imaginary part
is written with a s with a j suffix
so you can combine it you can use a
literal value like complex
equals
two plus
three j so the the j means it's the
imaginary part of the number or you can
use the complex constructor so i can put
num
equals
complex
and then i can pass in
two comma three so
the three part is the imaginary part the
two is the the real part the integer
part
and then once you have a complex number
you can get it's real or imaginary part
like this so i can say print
[Music]
num
dot real
or num
dot match
so this is going to be the 2 this is
going to be the 3. so if i just
uh
let me
i think the problem was
num
num one no so i'll do num one and num
two and we're gonna do this as num two
okay let's check this so
this is the real part this is the
imaginary part you can see they're being
returned as floats
and you can use the type function to
check the type
so now let's talk about some built-in
functions that help with numbers so one
of them is abs abs will return the
absolute value of a number so if i say
5314.48 that's just going to be
5.5 but if i put negative 5.5 well
it will be 5.5 so
[Music]
so if i print this see 5.5 basically it
just makes it so it's not negative
then you can also use
round so if we do round
let's make this just 5.5 round is going
to round to the nearest integer so if i
do this it's just gonna be six so point
five is going to round up but if we did
uh
four nine
it's going to go down to five
you can also specify a second parameter
to set the decimal points precision so
i can
go to if i do
one here and i round it it's going to
instead of rounding to the nearest
integer it's now going to round to the
nearest tenths place value or one
decimal point
there are several other math utility
functions and constants that are
provided by the math standard library
like there's a math package a c math
package decimal pages fractions package
that makes it easier to work with
different types of numbers we'll explore
some of those more later on
now let's talk about in nums and noms
are readable names that are bound to a
constant value so to use a noms we're
going to have to import and numbs from
the inum standard library module
like this from enum import enum and now
we'll be talking more about
importing
stuff from modules later but once you
import it then we can initialize a new
and nom in this way so do class
state enum
and so we can have inactive
[Music]
equals 0
and active
[Music]
equals one
so basically the the word state this can
be anywhere any
word we like so we're setting
uh
basically a variable called
state.inactive
which is going to equal 0 or
state.active to equal 1.
so
you can reference this how you would
reference it you can do print
state
dot
active
and then if i just run the program we'll
see
now you can see it's just going to
return state to active instead of one
so to actually get the value you use
state to active dot value
and then we run that and then we'll see
one here
if you we want to just return
state.active that the sa that value can
be reached by the number assigned in the
num so state we can do
one
and if i print that it's now going to
say state.active
same for using the square brackets
notation so i could do states
i'll do see square brackets and put
active
if i print that it's going to print
state that active so this is basically
the only way to create constants in
python
python is no way to enforce the variable
should be a constant so some people use
enums to create a constant
and then nobody can reassign the value
so
when we do
state
or state active dot
value
so this is it's not going to be able to
be reassigned so basically there's two
ways to do we can do this bracket
notation or we can go back to the other
way
active
now we can also list all the possible
values for enum so
our num is called state and we can now
just print all the values oh i actually
did that wrong it's supposed to be a
list
so this is going to list the values of
the state
and we can see we have inactive 0 and
active is 1. and we can also count them
using the length function so we're going
to print the result of a length state
and that's just going to give us 2.
okay let's talk about more about user
input now we already discussed a little
bit in our first program
but you can do get user input by using
the input function so let's just get rid
of all this
and we'll do
age
equals input
and we can say
print
your age is
and then we just can concatenate that
with the
variable age and then also if you want
to
so let's just do a quick test and right
now it's looking for the age right now i
can put five your age is five so there's
two ways to make it say what is your age
we can do a print statement right before
here
and do what is
your age
and then
now we can put four your age is four
now you can also ins instead of
putting the print statement right before
here i'm going to copy this delete that
and we can put it right in this input
function
and then i'll say it'll still say what
is your age and i can
put an age here
so one thing to really realize about
this is that it gets the input at
runtime meaning the program will stop
execution and will wait until the user
types something and presses the enter
key
you can also do more complex input
processing and accept input at program
invocation time and we'll see how to do
that later on
if you want to get the input when the
program is run that's going to work
better for command line applications
other kinds of applications will need a
different way of accepting input
let's look more at control statements
this is another thing we've already
discussed earlier but we're going to
review it and and look at it in a little
more detail so a control statement is
like an if statement so if condition
that's this variable here equals true
then it's going to run everything in the
block a block is
the part that is indented one level
usually it's going to be either four or
two spaces in this case it's four spaces
sometimes it's two spaces it doesn't
matter it could even be one space as
long as it's the same as long as every
line of code is indented the same amount
so if i just run that
the condition was true the block can be
formed by a single line or multiple
lines and it ends whenever you move back
to the previous indentation level
so
for instance if once we are not indented
i can say print
outside
if
so then
that's always going to pres it's always
going to print this because it's not in
that if statement
and then we have the if else statements
where the else is if
if this does not true then it's going to
do whatever is in here so if i just
change this to false
then it's going to
print whatever the condition was false
and then we can have this series this is
something that we showed in the per the
program earlier but if and then elif
combines else and if so
if this is not true then i'll move on to
this line and else
if this is true then i'll do this else
if this is true and it'll just keep
going on and then it will always do the
this is if none of the other ones were
true it's going to do this
so since
it was testing this it's not even going
to evaluate anything later but if we
move this to false
and we change this to bow
then it's actually going to skip all the
way down
all the way to this else here
and if we do flavio
you can print that and then it's going
to say hello flavio from right here
okay that's all we're going to talk
about for this for now since we've
already covered it earlier in the course
now i'm going to go into more detail
about lists lists are an essential
python data structure and so an example
of a list would be let's create a list
called dogs so we're going to create
the dog names we have roger we have sid
and this allows you to group together
multiple values and reference them all
with a common name so we have a list of
dogs and this is just two strings so the
list always going to have the opening
closing brackets and each item in the
list is going to be separated with a
comma and a list can hold different
types of values so these are all strings
but we can
have a string
an integer a string a
boolean
and you can mix different types of data
types
in a single list
and then you can check if an item is
contained in a list with the in operator
so we talked about the in operator
earlier but let me show you how that
works so we're going to print here's
where we can use the in operator we're
going to check if roger
is
in
dogs
so let's see
so run that true but now let's check if
bo is in dogs well
false because it's checking
so this is how you can check if an item
is in a list
you can also define a list as an empty
string so i could actually just
remove all this and now we just have an
empty list and this is obviously still
going to be false because there's
nothing in that list
but let's go back to when we had some
items in the list
and you can reference items in a list by
their indexes starting with zero so i'm
going to do dogs and then i can use
these brackets so and now i'm going to
put the so this is where we're going to
reference the thing
an item from the list and i'm going to
type in 0 which will be this item right
here roger or i could put 2 and it's
going to do 0 1 2 and now we're going to
have sid
and the same
and you can use this same notation to
update an item
in a list so i'm going to add another
line of code here and put dogs 2 is
going to equal
bo
and now i'm just going to print the
entire list here and now
instead of
being roger 1 said true to roger 1 bow
true
because we've updated the item at index
2 to be bo instead of sid
now you can also use the index method
so
um instead of
like if i want to find the first item in
the list i could do it like this
so you can also use a negative number
here
just how we saw on the string so
negative 2 is going to start with one
two
actually let's do negative one so it
should return true here
okay true so it starts with this one if
you put a negative number
you can also extract part of a list now
this is very similar to what we showed
using
with the string let me just add another
item here
[Music]
now i am going to
use the colon to do part of a list so
i'm going to 2
4
and so this is a slice
so it's going to start at the second or
zero
one
two
which is now bow because we change it to
bow and it's going to go through four
it's going to go through four but not
over pat not including four so it's
going to be 2
3
and then not 4 so it's just sid and true
or bow and true because we updated 2 to
bow
and you can also just leave this blank
so it's going to go through the end of
the list or if you
leave the first number blank
it's going to go it's going to start at
the beginning of the list and we can go
through for instance index three
and so that's a way to slice the list
you can also
use the the length function so let's
find out how many items are in the list
i'll use the length the length of dogs
is six or six items in the list we can
also add items to the list by using the
append method so i'm going to do dogs
dot append
and then i can
add an item so i can say something like
judah and now if we see the length
there's now going to be 7 and if we just
print
the full list
then we can see that we can see all the
items including the one that was just
added we can also use the extend method
the extend is another way to add an item
to a list so if i do instead of dogs
append i can do dogs that extend
and then i'm going to pass in
instead of just passing in the string
i'm gonna pass in
the item as a list so i'm gonna and it's
gonna add it just the same but now i can
actually
combine two lists together so i'm gonna
put a five so if i do this we can see
now we are taking this list and
extending it by adding this list on the
end this is a two item list and we have
that six m list and now we have the
eight item list
you can also use the
plus equals operator so
to use the plus equals operator i'm
going to do dogs it's the same it's
going to do the same thing as extend
so plus equals
and then we have this list take this
parentheses off here and it should look
exactly the same see it's showing up the
same thing up here
so the plus equals is going to be the
same thing as extend where it takes the
list that's already exists and adds this
other list to the end
and when you're using the extend or the
plus equals
you don't want to forget the square
brackets
here so if you if you forget the square
brackets and let's say i'm just going to
add this iron to the list
it's now actually going to put each
letter individually here
so if i you can kind of see it better if
i move over here
so it so that so you want to make sure
you put the the brackets
and another thing you can do is remove
you can remove an item using the remove
method so i'm gonna do
dogs dot remove
sid
okay now i'm gonna play it here and
it's saying
what did i do wrong here
oh obviously um i'm moving sid but we've
already changed the element of sid to
bow so let's remove
quincy and let's try that
okay so now there's no quincy
so another common thing to do another
common list method is pop so if i do
dogs.pop
it's going to remove and return a single
item so first i'm going to
[Music]
do dot
print dogs that pop and then i'm going
to print dog so if i
so first it's going to return 5 that was
the last item that we added onto the
list and now when i print the list that
item's not in the list so pop is going
to remove the last item from the list
and it's going to return the last item
it's going to return and remove the last
item from the list and then it's not on
the list anymore
now let's make this
let's let's simplify this just go back
to the initial list and i'm going to
change this to items
now i'm going to show you how to add an
item in the middle of the list at a
specific index you can use the insert
method so i'm going to do items dot
insert
i'm going to put the index which is
going we're going to insert at the index
number two and the item is going to be
test
and then i'm just going to print that
print
items
and then i'll run that and then we can
see it index number two we now see the
item test
now to add multiple items at a specific
index you need to use slices so
let me show you how you do that so we're
going to do a slice
and i'm going to set that equal to
test
1
test
2.
we print that
so now you can see we have test 1 and
test 2 right here
right behind this search thing here
and we've inserted multiple items into
the list starting at index 1.
now you can also sort a list
so if i do
here we go um
items dot sort
it will sort the list
but you have to make sure okay we have
an error it's not supported between
we have a combination of ins and strings
so let's
make it so it's all strings in the list
and
then it should
be able to sort it
okay
now the
strings are in alphabetical order and if
we're using integers or floats and they
would just be in numerical order
now one thing that's interesting about
that if i put change this to
bow
you'll see now we have this at the
beginning and this at the end
so
a the sort method orders uppercase
letters first and then lowercase letters
so to fix that actually to make it
make more sense we're going to change
that to
bob and to fix that
within the sort i'm going to i'm going
to put key equals str dot lower
and now
it's going to sort these correctly how
you would imagine not caring about
uppercase or lowercase letters
sorting modifies the original list
content so to avoid that you can copy
the list content using
so let me show you if we do
items
items
copy
equals
items
and then we make a slice
with with nothing at the beginning and
nothing at the end so it's going to
start at the beginning of the list to
the end of the list and now we can have
a copy and i can print
items copy
so if i print that so now we see we have
the sorted list that's that we ran the
sort on but we also still have
the original list
so it with all the words in the original
order
and there is also a way to sort a list
without returning a
new list
there is also a way to sort a list
without modifying the original list so
instead of copying a list
um what i'm going to do
is
i items
instead of doing items dot sort
we are going to do
we're going to use a global function
called sorted
so in the sorted function
we are going to pass in two parameters
so first is the list items
and then the second is how we're sorting
it so this just makes
sure that the key the case of the
letters don't matter and then i'm just
going to print that
now if i run this you can see we it
we print printed the sorted list
and now we're printing the list and it's
not it's no longer sorted because this
creates a new list without modifying the
original list
okay now let's learn about another data
structure called
couples
so
this time i'm going to put
tuples
so we're using a comment here so tuples
are another fundamental python data
structure they allow you to create
immutable groups of objects this means
that once a tuple is created it cannot
be modified so we already saw that we
could modify lists but tuple you can't
even add or remove items
they're created in a way similar to
lists but using parentheses instead of
square brackets so
for instance i'm going to do names
equals instead of using square brackets
we're going to do parentheses roger
and
sid
okay so a tuple's order like a list so
you can get its values by referencing an
index
an index so i could say for instance
names and if i do the bracket i could
put a zero here to return
roger
and then you can also use the index
method for instance names
dot
index
and then i can
pass in something like
roger and then this is going to
return 0
because it's going to get the the index
number of that so as with strings and
lists using a negative index we'll start
searching from the end so i could do
that i can do negative one to start
not negative zero negative one to start
searching from the end here
and you can count the items in a tuple
with the length function so i could do
if i do length and then do names it's if
i printed that it would just print 2
because there are two items in that
tuple
then you can also check if an item is
contained in a tuple with the in
operators very similar to a list so i
can do this time i will print it i'll do
print
roger
in
names so if i print that and run it
we'll see true because roger is in the
names
and then you can extract part of a tuple
using slices
just like we could do with with strings
and lists so i could do names and then i
could do
0 starting at the whoops
0
2
so that's just going to start at the
zero index and be done at the index 2
and then
and then you can use the so you can get
a sorted version of the tuple using the
sorted global function so
remember when we were looking at lists
when we used the sorted function it
created a new a new list or so when
we're creating using the sorted function
for tuples it creates a new tuple so i
can say sorted
[Music]
names
and this would put them in alphabetical
order they already in are in
alphabetical order but say there is one
more
word in this list
and then
i can print this
[Music]
to print the sorted version but it's not
actually going to modify the list
because you cannot modify
a tuple
and then you can create a new tuple from
existing tuples using the plus operator
so i could say something like
new tuple
[Music]
equals names and then i can use the plus
operator
and then i would say i would just say
tina
and
quincy i could add a few i could add so
these will combine two tuples into a new
tuple but you can never like i said you
can't actually modify the original tuple
now let's learn about dictionaries
dictionaries are another very important
python data structure
while lists allow you to create
collections of values dictionaries allow
you to create key value pairs we already
discussed dictionaries a little bit but
now we're going to discuss even more
about dictionaries so let me give you an
example of a dictionary with just one
key value pair so dog equals and then
we're going to use the curly braces to
create the dictionary and i'll put name
and then i will put
roger and just like any type of strings
we could make these single quotes or
they could be double quotes and the
spaces here are not very important but
it's common to put spaces in between
these things for better readability
and the key can be any immutable
value so this is the key this is the
value and the key can be any immutable
value
such as a string a number or a tuple
the value can be anything you want so a
dictionary can contain multiple key
value pairs so like for instance we got
the name we can have
age
and that's going to be
8. and you can access individual key
values using the notation like this so i
can say
dog
so i'm using the bracket notation i can
do name so if i print this it's just
going to
print roger
and then again i can use the single
quotes 2 if i want
and it still prints roger
and then you can use the same notation
to change the value stored at a specific
index
so let's say i want to change the name
so if i do dog
and i'm going to say that the name
is now going to equal
sid
now i'm just going to print the whole
the whole thing
and we can see the name is now sid
instead of roger
so another way to get a specific element
is to use the get method so if i do a
dog dot
get
and then i
do name so i'm going to try to get the
name here
it's going to return roger so
one good thing about this is that you
can add a default value like let's say
i'm going i'm searching for color
and it's saying none it's giving it none
because there is no color
but what if i want a default value so
i'm going to put comma and then i'll put
brown
so now if it cannot find the color in
the dictionary it's going to return
brown but if it can find the color like
let's say
color
and this is a
green dog
okay we'll return
green
so with the bracket notation that was
showing you earlier you cannot have a
default value so that's one good thing
about the get method
now you can also use the pop method to
retrieve the value of a key and delete
the item from the dictionary we also
showed the pop method for lists so for
instance i can say
get dot
pop
and then i will pass in
name
and then right after that i'm just going
to print
dog that the the whole dictionary so
first we're going to get roger and then
when i print the dictionary here it's
not going to show roger anymore because
we we deleted it pop will return the
item and delete the item
now you can also use a function a method
called pop item the pop item method well
let me show you that one pop item
it's going to retrieve and remove the
last key value pair inserted into the
dictionary
so
in this case it should be color so if i
run this
it's going to return color green and now
when i print out the dictionary it's not
going to show color green because that
was already removed it removed the last
item
you can also check if a key is contained
in a dictionary by using the in operator
so we're going to say we're going to try
to find out if
color
is in
dog if there's a key called color in dog
we run that and it says
true another thing we can do is get a
list with the keys in the dictionary
using the keys method so if i do dog dot
keys
and then we'll run that it's going to
show the keys so the keys are name age
and
color
we can see that it's inside the thing
called dick keys but we can also pass
this into list so we return an actual
just the list part so now we can see
it's just an actual list name age and
color
then we can do the same thing with
values so
instead of dog.keys let's do
values
print that
and you can see we have roger 8 green we
can pass it into a list
to
return the app just the list here
roger 8 green
and then finally if we just do items
[Music]
it's going to return all the items in
the list or all the items in the
dictionary
and convert it into a list
so you can see
this is the first item in the list this
is the second item and then we have the
third item here so
we can see each item of the list each
item of the dictionary is now in a list
and then like a lot of the other things
we can use the length function and i'll
just put dog
and we can see that there are three
items in dog now you can also add a new
key value pair to the dictionary so
let's say i want to do
dog
food
or i it doesn't even have to be a single
word i could put favorite
food
and i'm going to say
meet
and now we're going to print
that
let's see what do we oh
this was supposed to i did that a little
wrong
there we go this is actually how you do
it you put use the bracket notation
equals and let's put what it equals
there okay now you can see that we now
have a new item on the list favorite
food
meet
then you can also delete an item from a
list or a delete a key value pair so i'm
going to d e l means delete dog
or
dog there we go and this time i'm going
to delete
color and i'm just going to use single
quotes instead of double quotes to show
you that doesn't really matter the type
of quote and now you can see we don't
know what color
this dog is it's no longer a green dog
and then you can also copy a dictionary
so if you want to make two copies of a
dictionary you can do
do like this dog copy that's the name of
the new dictionary i'll do dog dot copy
and that would be the new
copied version of the dictionary
okay now we are going to talk about a
new thing called sets
sets are another important python data
structure
sets kind of work like tuples but
they're not ordered and they are
immutable so you can change them
you can also say that they kind of work
like dictionaries but they don't have
keys
they're all they have an immutable
version of a set called a frozen set so
let me show you how you would create a
set so let's do names
and you we're going to use
curly brackets just like that
and
just like that so we have two names so
you can see the differences the a
dictionary
you use the curly brackets but there's
going to be key value pairs but this
doesn't have key value pairs in a list
it's just going to be a
item after item like this but there's
going to be brackets instead of curly
braces
so
one thing about the sets is that they
are not ordered
so sets work well when you think about
them as mathematical sets
so for instance let's have we're going
to create a set 1
with roger and sid and we're going to
have a set
2
which is just going to have
roger
and so you can intersect two sets so
uh the inner intersect
the intersection of these two sets will
be set one
and
set
two so if i just print that out print
intersect
and then we can just run that and we're
gonna see what so it's just roger so the
intersection of these two sets are just
roger the all the items that they have
in common you can also create a union of
two sets so
instead of just calling this union i'll
put
mod for modification and so i can show a
few different things with the same
variable name and the union symbol is
just the
straight line like this it's not an i
it's just the
straight line
it's on the same key as a
as the was it the forward slash
backslash one of the slashes
now we're going to get every single item
in both sets which happens to in this
case just happen to be the same as set
one but if we change this one to the
word luna it's just a different name and
now we're going to get each item
in both sets or said luna roger for the
intersection and then we can also get
the difference the difference between
two sets so let me change this to back
to roger and for the difference between
two sets i'll use a the minus
and
the difference is just going to be sid
that's the only thing that's different
between the two sets
you can also check if a set is a
superset of another and if a set is a
subset of another so how you would do
that is
so we're just saying like is this
greater than that which means it has
everything of the in the other set true
now if we put the other direction
is does this set have everything in this
one no it doesn't
you can also count items in a set with
the length function that's pretty
self-explanatory i won't even show it to
you we've seen the link function so many
times
you can also get you can also get a list
from the items in a set by passing the
set to the list constructor so
i'm just going to remove this
and we will do
list
set
one
okay so now we have a list of the set
and then you can check if an item is
contained in a set with the in operator
just like the
list and the other way we the other
places we use the in operator and then
one more final thing about a set a set
cannot have two of the same item so
that's another thing that's useful about
sets so if i type in rogers now we have
roger sid roger if i play this we'll see
it's only going to
print sid roger it's not going to add
the roger twice to the set
so that's another
useful thing about sets is that make
sure there's only one of each item in
the the set so if you have a list that
has multiple items you can convert it to
a set
um and then i'll just make sure there's
only one of each thing in that set
now let's talk more about functions
we already talked about functions in the
last section but we're going to do a
review and then go into even more detail
about functions so a function lets us
create a set of instructions that we can
run when needed and i'm just going to
paste in a function and again the
indentation it can be either four spaces
two spaces
as long as it's indented the exact same
amount
so functions are essential in python and
in many other programming languages they
help us create meaningful programs
because they allow us to decompose a
program into manageable parts and they
promote readability and code reuse
so this one is a function called hello
that just prints hello this is the
function definition
so there's a name called hello this is
the name here and then the body of the
function
which is the the set of instructions
and the body of the function is
everything that's after the colon
and everything that's indented one level
on the right
so to run this function we must call it
so i can just type in hello
hello
and then this is the syntax to to call
the function and i can call it multiple
times so i can just copy this and paste
it and now if i just run this program
it's going to print hello
three times
the name of the function is very
important so the name of the function is
hello it should be the function name
should be descriptive so anyone calling
it can imagine what the function does
a function can accept one or more
parameters this is something else that
we saw
before
but
i can type in a parameter right here and
this becomes a variable that we can use
in the function so i can change this
instead of printing hello
it's going to print hello
and then we'll just put name
and now i can call the function with the
name
and i can actually um call it with
different names so we'll do bow
and we'll do
quincy
and then if i just play that we see
hello bo
hello quincy
so
as you can see we call the function by
passing the argument
and again you can use single quote or
double quotes here it's better to be
consistent just always use single quotes
or always use double quotes
but for teaching i like to switch it up
to just to emphasize that you can use
either so let me tell you about the
difference between parameters and
arguments
these two words parameters and arguments
are sometimes used interchangeably
and it's common to get confused about
the distinction
we call
parameters
the values accepted by the function
inside the function definition
and arguments are the values we pass to
the function when we call it also an
argument can have a default value
that's applied if the argument is not
specified so let me show you how i would
do that so we have it name so right now
it always needs to be get a name well
first let me show you what would happen
if i called the function without passing
the name
i'm just going to run that and we can
see we're going to get an error hello
missing one required positional argument
name but we can make it so you can call
this function without passing in a name
where it's optional you can't if you
want so i'm going to put an equal sign
and then i'm gonna type in my friend
and just to make consistent make this
consistent i'm gonna make this all
double quotes
okay so this is now an optional argument
so it's it's you can pass in the name
but if you don't pass a name it's going
to default to my friend so i'll just run
this again with that default
value and now it's hello bow hill quincy
hello my friend because we called this
and we didn't specify any argument or
parameter and then we can also accept
multiple parameters so i'm just going to
get rid of this default value and i'll
put 8 so now we're accepting a name and
an age so we can now use both parameters
in our function so i can do plus
hello
name
[Music]
you are
and we're going to add
the age
and now it's going to be passed in as a
number but we're going to convert it to
a string
so you are
[Music]
years old
and then we have to make sure we have to
make sure to add a space in here so
there'll be a space space after this
word then the number then a space and
then years old
so i'm gonna now have to pass in the
number
and now i can run this function
now showing the red
squiggly lines
i sometimes the the red squiggly lines
will appear when it's
actually correct
so let me what am i am i doing something
wrong here
oh i need to put the parentheses
if the red squiggly lines appears when
it's actually correct they'll it they'll
go away
usually within a few seconds or if you
hit enter
so that actually was a problem i forgot
the parentheses at the end um so
you can see this is what the whole
function looks like
if it's all on one line but i'm just
going to
move that over so hello bo you are 39
years old so we've used the name and the
age
so parameters are passed by reference
all types in python are objects but some
of them are immutable including integers
booleans floats strings and tuples this
means that if you pass them as
parameters and you modify their value
inside the function the new value is not
reflected outside of the function
let me just give you an example of that
so if i just i'm just going to paste in
some new code here and we can see we
have this function called change and
we're going to pass in this value if we
pass in this this valve variable 1 to
the change function and we set value to
2
well then we're going to print the value
and see what happens
and you can see it's now just 1 here so
so it didn't change the value
the value so what we change inside the
function doesn't affect anything from
outside the function
and then you can see we have these
orange squiggly lines here local
variable value is assigned but never
used it's just showing that actually
this isn't really doing anything once
it's inside the function and we change
it doesn't change anything outside the
function
so if you pass an object that's not
immutable you do change one of its
properties and the change will be
reflected outside so this was
mutable this is immutable an object that
would be
mutable would be like a dictionary so if
i change this to a dictionary and i put
name
and i set it to bow
but then inside the change i do value
dot name or not i'll put the the
brackets value name
so the key of this dictionary and i set
that to sid
and i run this we'll see now the name
has changed to sin so we changed we use
the change function to change name to
sid and now it actually is changed
because a dictionary is mutable
so a function can also return a value
using the return statement
so i'm going to update this whole thing
and talk about return statements a
function can return a value using the
return statement so it's going to return
this name that we then can continue to
use in our in our program it doesn't
have to return name it can return
anything that happens inside the
function
and
the when the function meets the return
statement the function ends so you can
have a return statement have code after
it but it will just end like for
instance if you have the return
statement in a conditional like in an if
statement we can also omit
the return the return value
so it's just going to end the function
and not return anything so i had
mentioned having the return statement in
a conditional so that's a common way to
end a function if the starting condition
is not met
like for instance if we update the
function to
this so if not name return this so if i
mean if not name return
or
else
you don't even need an else because this
will just in the function and you don't
even need an else this will happen if
there is a name now we just said that
you have to pass in something if you
don't have a default value so the way to
get to that would just be to call the
function
with false
so if we call with false then it's just
going to return it doesn't do anything
but if we call it with
bo
then let's see
hello bo so you can also return multiple
values by using comma separated values
so
for instance i can i'm just going to
take this part off here and then add a
return statement
return and then i can return the name i
can return
bo in case that's not the name i can
return
8 and then i can call this and i'm just
going to call this with sid
and we can see what happens
now
oh
it doesn't it's not it doesn't actually
print what's been returned but if i
print this
here we go then we can really see what
happens so
in this function it's going to print
this but now we're also going to print
what's returned so let's see what that
looks like so
this is what when we print what was
returned it looks like this so it's sid
bo
8
so one thing related to functions and
also related to other parts of python is
variable scope
so let's look at this
we've declared a variable up here and
when you declare a variable that
variable is visible in parts of your
program depending on where you declare
it
so if you declare a variable outside of
a function the variable is visible to
any code running after the declare after
the declaration including functions so
we call this a global variable so we've
declared this before the function so we
can now access it inside a function and
also outside the function so if i
so we can see 8 and 8 and it shows right
here what's going to
show in the
console here
but if we declare a variable inside a
function let me give you an example if
we declare
this variable
inside the function i'm just going to
move it down to here
now it's a
local variable and it's only visible
inside the function so let me just
delete with this because it's not
actually going to be
doing that so if i run this we're going
to see there's there's an error
name
age is not defined we're trying to print
the age here but since the age was
declared inside the function it's not
available outside the function it's only
available
inside the function
so you just have to be aware sometimes
there's local variables that only apply
inside the function and there's global
variables if you that can apply inside a
function and outside a function
okay now let's look at something else
with functions and this is nested
functions
functions in python can be nested
inside other functions
a function defined inside a function is
visible only inside that function this
is useful to create utilities that are
useful to a function but not useful
outside of it so you might ask why
should i be hiding this function if it
does no harm
well one because it's always best to
hide functionality that's local to a
function if it's not useful elsewhere
also because we can make use of closures
which we'll talk more about later so so
look at this example so we have this
function talk and inside the function we
defined another function called say
and then
what we
what we do is that we can call that say
function
inside the function and so the way this
works is we pass in the phrase so here's
the phrase and the phrase i'm going to
buy the milk
and here we do we we split it so split
is a way to
create a list
of out of this string so we have this
string but it's going to split it on
every space so it's going to create a
list of each word individually and then
we're going to run this loop
more on loops later
and we're going to for every word in the
the words list we're going to say
the word we're going to say the word
it's just going to print the word so if
i just run that i am going to buy the
milk and every time it prints it it
prints it on a new line so this would
just be an example because we're never
going to want to use this save function
outside the talk function so it's better
just to put it inside the talk function
and then i'll just paste in
another example here if you want to
access a variable defined in the outer
function from the inner function
you first need to declare it as
non-local
so
we're using non-local here at non-local
count and this allows us to access this
variable that was declared inside the
out so this is the outer function count
and we have this variable called count
and to be able to access that variable
in the inner function we have to
call non-local or we already talked
about variable scope and if we didn't
call
call this non-local then we could not
access the count variable from inside
the function so like for instance i'm
going to run this it's going to print
the count which is just count plus 1 is
just adding 1 to this number that's all
the function does but if i take off this
word non-local here and i run this we're
going to get an error because it doesn't
know what count is it doesn't know that
we're referring to this count in the
inner function so we'll just put that
back on there and then it should work
again
this is especially useful with closures
which we're just about to talk about
so closure is a special way of doing a
function in python if you return a
nested function from a function that
nested function has access to the
variables defined in that function even
if that function is not active anymore
so let me show you an example i'm going
to paste some code that'll be very
similar to this code but just a a little
different and then i'll explain it so
now instead of count it's a counter so
we're returning count from this nested
function and from the outer function
we're returning the nested function
we're returning the increment function
and then here instead of just calling
the function directory the outer
function we're assigning it to this
variable and now we're going to print
we're just going to call we're going to
call this variable which is the returned
inner function so we're basically
calling the inner function and it's
still going it's because we're calling
the inner function it's not going to
reset the count to zero every time and
it can keep track of that value and we
have this
using a comment what it's going to
return but we can also
run the program and we can see one two
three just like that so we return the
increment inner function and that still
has access to the state of the count
variable even though the counter
function has ended
so let's move on to
objects
[Music]
everything in python is an object
even values of basic prim of types like
integers strings floats are objects
lists are objects as well as tuples
dictionaries and pretty much everything
so objects have attributes and methods
that can be accessed using the dot
syntax for example let's define a new
variable of type int so i'm going to do
age equals eight
age now has access to the properties and
methods defined for all int objects
this includes for example access to the
real and imaginary part of that number
so i can do
a print
age dot real
and then if i just run that
the real part is eight i can also print
the imaginary
part of the number
and manage
and there is no imaginary part of the
number so it just
does zero i can also get the the bit
length age dot
bit
length
and if i run that
we can see the bit length is four so the
bit length method returns the number of
bits necessary to represent this number
in binary notation
so there's just a lot of
things that you can use for all int
objects and these are just a few of them
so a variable holding a list value has
access to a different set of methods so
i'm going to
update this again we're going to do
items
equals and we're going to create a list
one
two
so
i can do
items dot
append
i can append a three i can append
another item i can do
items dot pop
which is going to
remove and return the last item which is
the three
and the methods so so these are the
methods of pin and pop and the methods
available to an object depend on the
type of value
the id global function provided by
python lets you inspect the location in
memory for a particular object so for
instance i could do a print and i'm
going to do id what's the id of the
items
object
and we can see this is the location in
memory
so some val some objects are mutable
while others are immutable this is
something that we already talked about a
little bit that depends on the object
itself if the object provides methods to
change its content then it's mutable
otherwise it's immutable
most most types defined by python are
immutable for example an int is
immutable there are no methods to change
its value so if you increment the value
like with um
age equals age
plus
one
it's actually going to create an
entirely
new value
so it it's not going to even be the same
object at all because age you it has to
create a whole new one to reassign it
but something like a in in a dictionary
it would actually be the same object but
you could just change different parts of
it now let's talk more about
loops
so this song we already discussed a
little bit in the previous section but
loops are
one essential part of programming
and in python we have two kinds of loops
while loops and for loops
so before i um show i'm going to paste
in this code but i just want to show
something really quick see how there's a
line like dotted line here and a dotted
line here this is showing the default
indentation which we can change so i'm
actually going to go and change
that really quick let me wait i think
i'm gonna have to yeah i'm gonna zoom
out so i can get to this and i'm gonna
change the indent to four and now it's
not going to have a little line right in
there so now i'm going to go back here
and let's zoom in again
okay so let's talk about
while loops
while loops are defined using the
while
keyword
and they repeat their block until the
the condition is evaluated as false so
while condition equals true so
this particular example is an infinite
loop it never ends because this
condition is always going to so if we
run this program which i'm not going to
do right now because it just goes on
forever while this condition is true
keep running the code inside the loop
all the lines of code that are indented
the same amount
so let's halt the loop right after the
first iteration i can do condition
equals
false
[Music]
so now if i run it it just runs the loop
one time
so in this case the first iteration is
run as the condition is evaluated true
and then at the second iteration the
condition test evaluates to false so the
control goes to the next instruction
after the loop which in this case there
is no next instruction after the loop
it's common to have a counter to stop
the iteration after some number of
cycles
so here's a while loop with a counter so
you you start the counter at zero and
then while count is less than 10.
we're we're gonna print this count
equals count plus one so it's going to
increment the counter every time
until we get to the end so it's gonna
see it's gonna print this until
eventually the count is
greater than 10
so or 10 or 10 or greater while count is
less than 10. so once it gets to 10 the
loop will stop um again another way to
doing to do this we could have just done
plus equals plus equals one so if i run
that it's going to do the exact same
thing
and other type is the for loop so using
for loops we can tell python to execute
a block for a predetermined amount of
times up front and without the need of a
separate variable and conditional to
check its value
it's commonly used to iterate the items
in a list so we have this list there's
obviously four items here and then four
item in items so items is this list and
then for each item in the list we're
going to print
the item pretty straightforward and it
prints each item in the list
or you can iterate a specific amount of
times using the range function so let's
say we don't have we're not going to
define this here we're just going to do
4 item in and then here i'm going to
type in range
and then i'm just going to type in a
number how about
15
so i'm using the range function that
basically just returns a list and then
if i do that we can see it's going from
0 to 14. so the range function is going
to return a
a list that goes from 0 to 14 so there's
15 items and it's going to print the
items
now if we just go back a few steps to
when we had the list here
we can i can show you how to get the
index so right now it's just printing
the items one two three four but what if
we want the index of the list
we can do that by using the by wrapping
the sequence in the enumerate function
so for items in and then
i'm going to do
enumerate
i'm going to pass in
so this is going to return
each item and
the index of the item and since there's
going to be an item in an index
but it's actually the index and then the
item i'm going to type an index comma
item so this enumerate is going to get
the index and the item so now i can
print the index and the item here and if
i run that
so index zero item one index one item
two index two item three and so on and
it doesn't even have to be numbers we
can
do names
[Music]
and if i just run that whoops not that
one
and then we can see the the index and
the item then let me put in some more
code here so i can talk about break and
continue
both while and for loops can be
interrupted inside the block using
either break or continue
continue stops the current iteration and
tells python to execute the next one
and break stops the loop altogether and
goes on with the next instruction after
the loop ends so i'm going to just play
this so here we're saying if item equals
two continues that means it's going to
skip that iteration so if i play this
one three four so it's not going to it's
not going to get to the print item
because it's actually skipped that
iteration it just
doesn't run any code after the continue
if this is true
and so it doesn't print 2. so if we
change this to break it will be very
it'll be a little different here this
time it's going to just print one
because now it's breaking out of the
loop
entirely and it's not going to run any
more iteration of the loop
okay let's talk about another thing
classes classes in python
so in addition to using the python
provided types we can declare our own
classes
and from the classes we can instantiate
objects
an object is an instance of a class
a class is the type of an object so
here's an example i'm going to create a
class called
dog
so
uh to create a class you just put the
word class and then put the the class
name
and
now
i can i can
add a method for the class so to define
a method i'll just do define bark
[Music]
and i'm going to put the word self here
and inside this i'll print
[Music]
woof
[Music]
okay so self as an argument of the
method
will point to the current object
instance and must be specified when
defining a method so when you're
creating a method inside a class you're
always going to start with self so we
create an instance of a class
which is an object
like this
so i'm just going to put
roger
equals
dog
okay so i've created a dog just like
this
and then i can
print
type
roger so let's see what the type of this
roger is we can see it's the class to
dog class
roger is a dog
a special type of method
called in there's a special type of
method called init which is a
constructor
so let me show you how to create a
constructor
deaf
so we can use this
a constructor like this
to initialize one more properties when
we create a new object from that class
so you can see we always have to add
self but now these are the two
variables we can pass in when we create
a dog and that will associate be
associated with that
that
object
so down here i can call um i can call
dog but i can pass in roger for the name
and
the age
and now when we create this
dog it's going to assign the name to
self.name and it's going to assign the
age to self.age and let me show you how
you can access that information
so i'm going to print instead of
printing the type i'm going to do roger
dot name
and now it's going to when i do
roger.name that's self.name so self is
roger and we do self.name it's going to
be the name that was passed in
and then we can also
do the age
and then we can finally
call the bark method so we have bark
here now we can see what that does so
i'm just going to run that
and we have roger
we have eight
and then
this is because i should have put
parentheses here so let me put
parentheses after bark
and so we have wolf here so roger 8
wolf and the reason why it says none
here is because i didn't have to put the
print see i i put pranks that was in
this groove if you're playing print on
everything but calling bark
already prints wolf
so when i do
it when it's when it's printing it's
printing because since
roger.bark doesn't return anything
there's no return statement that's why
it printed none so there'd be two ways
to fix that either instead of printing
wolf i could return wolf
or i could just not do the print here so
let me just take that off
okay roger 8
wolf
so one important feature of class is
inheritance let me show you an example
of inheritance i'm going to create a new
class before the dog class and this is
going to be
a class
called
animal
and the animal class i'm going to put a
function called walk
and i'm going to always pass in self
and this is going to print
[Music]
walking
[Music]
and then we can make the dog class
inherent inherit from the animal class
so we have class dog but if i put
parentheses here
then i can type in animal
and now the dog class is going to
inherit from the animal class and now i
can go down here and after roger.bark i
can do roger.walk
and if i run that
okay so roger 8wolf but now it's going
to be able to do walking and you can see
the dog class doesn't actually have a
walk method but it's getting it from
the animal class it's inheriting this
method
and in that way you're able to i could
create a class cat a class frog
a class bird and each of them could
inherit the walk
method and then it would have
walking
and we'll be doing a little more with
classes in the the final project
in this course
because we'll be going a little more
over object oriented programming
but right now let's talk about something
new i'm going to just delete all this
and we're going to be talking about
modules
so every python file is a module you can
import a module from other files and
that's the base of any program of
moderate complexity as it promotes a
sensible organization and code reuse so
it's basically how you can create a
software that has multiple python
programs in the same piece of software
so in the typical python program one
file acts as the entry point and the
other files are modules and exposed
functions that we can call from
other files so
let me just show you an example i am
going to
open up this
files tab and i'm going to create a new
file and this is going to be called dog
dot pi
and now i have dog dot pi open i no
longer have the main dot pi open and i'm
going to define
bark
and what bark is going to do is just
print
woof
[Music]
okay now i'm going to it's just going to
automatically save for me i'm going to
go back to the the python file and now
i'm going to
import
dog
and let's see oh it's just saying it's
unused i thought maybe this thing wrong
but that just means i import dog and i
haven't used it which i'm about to do
right now so dog
dot
bark
so now if i run this program
it's going to say wolf but that's not
from this file it's actually importing
this function from from the dog file so
that's a way you can
break up your code into multiple files
we can also use the from import syntax
and call the function directly
let me show you what i mean so instead
of import dog i'm going to say
from dog
import
bark
and then instead of calling it dog.bark
i can just call
bark
because we're only importing bark well
we've imported bark directly instead of
the whole dog so i can run that and it
says
wolf
so
the first strategy allows us to load
everything defined in a file when i just
said
import dog that
allows everything defined in a file so i
could have a bunch of function like bark
or walk
name or there could be a bunch of
functions if i just say import dog it
imports all of them but the second
strategy from dog import bark allows us
to just pick the things we need so we're
only going to import the specific
functions that we need
those modules are specific to your
program and importing depends on the
location of the file in the file system
so
suppose you put dog.pi in a
subfolder for instance let's say i
create a folder
and i call it liv for library and let's
say i put dog.pi in this subfolder like
this
now in this folder to make this work i'm
going to have to create an empty file
named init.pie so i'm going to add file
and i'll do init dot or under underscore
underscore init underscore underscore
dot pi
and this tells python that
the folder contains modules
now i'm going to go back to my main file
and i can
i can import dog from
lib so i'm going to say from
lib
that's that subfolder import
dog
and then i can do
dog
dot bark so let's run that to make sure
there's no errors it worked
correctly so i was able to import this
file from the subfolder
or you can reference the dog module
specific function by importing from
lib.dog so i can do from
lib.dog
import
bark and now instead of calling dog.bark
i can just call
bark
and it says
wolf
so i'm going to close this here
and
now let's talk about the python standard
library so basically there's all these
pre-built modules you can
you can load a lot of code from the
standard library python exposes a lot of
built-in functionality through its
standard library
the stand library is a huge collection
of all sorts of utilities ranging from
math utilities to debugging to creating
graphical user interfaces
so there's a bunch of them but here's
some of the more common ones we have
math for math utilities re regular
expressions json to work with json date
time sqlite 3 os for operating system
utilities random for random number
generations
so
statistics requests for http request
http to create servers url lib to manage
urls so you can import these modules
that allow you to get extra
functionality so
we already looked at a little bit at the
math one we already looked a little bit
at random in the the first
uh project that we did but let's just
kind of look at a little more how you
would do this so now we are going to use
the the math one we're going to import
math
and
so this is how you would introduce you
would use a module of the standard
library so we already saw how to import
modules that we created it's very stan
it's very similar with the standard
library so now that i've imported math i
can now use
functions and methods from from the math
module so i can do math dot
square root and i can pass in 4 and then
i can just
print that so we can see what the result
is
okay 9921.52 or we can
just like we shall
we saw before instead of importing math
i can say
from math
import
square root and then instead of just
doing math dot square root i can just
call
this
square root method here and it's going
to do the same thing so that's basically
how it works for for all the modules in
the standard library okay now we're
going to start going over a few kind of
miscellaneous
slightly more advanced topics in python
so we're going to talk about how to
accept arguments from the command line
in python
well first of all let's see how to run a
program from the command line
in replit so let's say we have a program
it just says print
hello okay so we've been running it by
just clicking this play button but
there's another way to run a program in
 replit and i go over to the shell so
this is the command line in replica we
can clear this
and now i'm just going to type in
python main dot pi
okay so what we call python to run the
python program and then we just put the
name of our file with main.pi
so
whether you're in replit or if you're
running things locally
you should be able to
run a program in the same way
depending on how you install the program
locally instead of typing python you may
type in python 3.
sometimes the way people install python
it will be python 3 because we're using
version 3 of python
so now let's see how you can
call a python a program on the command
line and pass in some arguments right
when we run the program from the
command
line
so
a basic way to handle arguments is to
use the sys module from the standard
library so let me give you an example so
first of all we're going to import sys
now just so you know usually you're
always going to have import statements
on the first line i'm just putting this
comment on the first line to remind us
what we're working on right now so now
i'm going to we're going to import the
sys library
now i'm going to
print
and i'm going to first i'm going to
oh
we're going to print the argument
cis.arg
the
so this is how we can print all the
arguments that were passed in
when we called the program so so i'm
going to see we have python main.pi and
now i'm going to put
bow
39
okay so you can see it's printing the
list of arguments so this is basically
just a list the first item is the name
of file
then we have
the the first word and then the second
one and you can see they're both strings
even though this is a number it's coming
in
as a string so then we could do
something like this we could say name
equals cis.arg v
and then i would
get the element at index 1 which is the
name here and i could print
[Music]
hello
and then we're going to do a name oh
hello hello and then name so let's call
this again
and instead of i'm not going to do 39
it's just going to be python main.pi bow
hello bo so we've now been able to use
the argument that was passed in
now this is a simple way to do it but
you
really would have to do a lot of work
using this method because you really
should validate the arguments make sure
the type is correct and you need to
print feedback to the user if they're
not using the program correctly
so i got zoomed out a little bit and i'm
going to show you this other method
so python provides another package in
the standard library to help you called
arg parse so first you would insert
import arg parse
[Music]
and then let me show you
how you would use it
so you call arc parse dot argument
parser
and then pass in the description of the
program so the description of the
program is this program prints the name
of my dogs
then
you proceed to add arguments you want to
accept
so for this example program we are going
to accept the c option or it can be
slash
c or dash that's color
and we are going to
be calling it color and then later we
can we do
parser.parse args
and then we can access args
dot color to get the color that was
passed in and then you can specify
whether it's required and what help is
going to go along with that so let me
show you how you would do that
we're going to do python
main dot pi i'm going to put dash c and
then i'm just going to put red
okay so
you can see if i
go this out a little more you can see
this is the
command i called this is the command i
run i pass in red and then it just
printed red that's what we have right
here
and so let me show you what would happen
if we if we
don't specify the argument so if i just
run it without the red so it's now
giving me
some information usage well main.pi we
need to put dash c and then we have to
put a color and then it says the
following
arguments are required this dashi or
dash sc so it's it's showing us that we
need to
if we we've called the program wrong and
we're going to need to call it with the
dash c
you can also
set this option
we can set an option to have a specific
set of values using choices so after
required true after this comma i'm going
to type in choices and i'm going to set
this to equal
see i have this empty
dictionary
but i'm just going to well not a
dictionary but
because it's not going to key value
pairs i can do red
and yellow
so now it's it can only accept
two options so i can
call it here
with
red
but if i call with blue
it will say
invalid choice blue i need to choose
from red or yellow so
using this arc parse makes it easier to
deal with arguments and also makes it
easier to
communicate information back to the user
about what we're trying to get
so there are more options with this but
those are those are the basics
now let's talk about something
completely different
lambda
lambda
functions
so let me just give you a quick example
[Music]
lambda num
num
[Music]
times
2. so
lambda functions
also called anonymous functions are tiny
functions they have no name and only
have one expression as their body
so they're defined using the lambda
keyword and so
this is going to be the argument
and this is going to be the expression
the body must be a single expression and
it has to be an expression not a
statement so this difference is
important an expression returns a value
a statement does not so it has to return
a value so the value that's being
returned is the number times two the
number that was passed in going to
multiply it by 2 in this example
so this is basically the simplest
example of a lambda function it just
doubles the value of a number and lambda
functions can accept more
arguments so
so for instance i could do
[Music]
lambda
a comma b
and then we can multiply a times b
lambda functions cannot be invoked
directly but you can't assign them to
variables so for instance i can assign
this to the variable called
multiply so multiply is going to this
function is going to be assigned to this
variable here so then the way that i
would use that i could print now i'll
print the result of calling multiply
and then i pass in
two
and four
so if i just run that okay 2 times 4 is
8. we can see right in the console here
and then i'm going to just
zoom in just a little bit
so the utility of lambda functions comes
when combined with other python
functionality for example in combination
with map filter and reduce so speaking
of map filter and reduce that's what
we're going to talk about now map
filter
reduce
so python provides three useful global
functions we that we can use to work
with collections so this is map filter
reduce so first let's talk about
map and since their functions are going
to have the
parentheses at the end so map is used to
run a function
upon each item in an iterable item like
a list and create a new list with the
same number of items but the values of
each item can be changed so here's an
example we have this list
and then here's the function
and then we are going to map through
each item in the list
and so here's the function we're going
to run we're going to run this function
on each item in the list
and now we're going to get a new list so
i can do print
result now if we print that i'll just
run that function and we can see
okay we get a map object
so then we can always just pass it into
the
list function
and then we can
run the program again two four six so
one two three became two four
so yeah whenever you want to do run a
function on each item in a list you can
use map
and when the function is a one-liner
it's common to use a lambda function so
we just talked about lambda functions so
now let me show you how you would do
this as a lambda function so
double
is going this is going to be a variable
and we're going to assign it to a lambda
function
and i'm going to
so now this lambda function takes the
number
a
and then does a times two so and this we
just keep the same because now we're
using a lambda function here and we're
taking each number and passing it
through this function where we have the
the this is each number in the list and
we multiply it so if i run this program
it should look exactly the same
and we can even simplify it even more so
this is where lambda functions really
shine instead of assign it assigning it
to double first i can copy the whole
function i can delete this completely
and now i can just put it right in here
so now we're mapping over this function
and we don't even have to create the
function in a different line and assign
it to a variable first we can put the
lambda function right in the same line
right within the map and now i run this
and it's going to give us the same
result so remember we started with
when i first showed you this example we
had a much longer piece of code now
we've simplified it with the
lambda function
so the original list the original list
is left untouched in a new list with the
updated values is returned by map
the result is a map object which is an
iterable so
that's why we needed to cast it to list
to print its content
okay now let's talk about filter
let me put in let me just update the
code here it's kind of similar but now
we're using filter filter takes an
iterable and returns a filter object
which is another iterable but without
some of the original items so you can do
so by returning true or false from the
filtering
the filtering function so here's the
filtering function we are going to check
if the item passed in is even so
so here's the list here so
you can see we're calling filter we pass
in the function the filtering function
and then the list
and we're going to return true or false
from this function so if it can be if
it's divisible by if when you divide it
by two we have zero remainder
then it's even
so
that would return true so this line
would return true
and then if not it would return false if
it's odd so now any even number is going
to be added to the result and any odd
number is not going to be added to the
result so basically we're filtering the
list based on this function and then
here we just print
we convert that result to a list and if
we run that it's two and obviously if we
can just put in
uh more numbers here
and run that again
we have two four six
and then we can just like before we can
use a lambda function so
i'm just going to
copy this here we can just delete this
whole thing and we are going to put a
lambda function here so lamb
duh
[Music]
so now you can see we're just putting
the lambda function in the in line here
and we are checking to see if it's this
is going to turn true or false whether
it's even or not
and so i run the program and it's going
to give me the exact same result here
okay the final thing we're going to talk
about is reduce
reduce is used to calculate a value out
of a sequence like a list so for example
suppose we have this list of expenses
stored as tuples
and so so we had dinner 80 car repair
180 or 120 and we want to calculate the
sum
of this property
in each tuple
in this case the cost of the expense
so here's kind of the long way of doing
it without using reduce
we basically take every expense in
expenses and then we add to the sum here
and we add expense one that's going to
be the
the item at index one and then we get
the sum and we can print the sum so
that's kind of like the long way of
doing it without reduce but there's a
quicker way so
to use reduce reduce is a little
different from map and filter where it's
not available it's not it's not
available automatically we have to
import it from the standard library func
tools so i'll do from
funk
tools or function tools
import
[Music]
reduce
and now i'm going to
create a new i'm going to create a new
variable called sum
and we're going to set it to
reduce we're going to use reduce and now
i'm just going to
pass in i'm going to go directly to the
lambda function so
lambda
let me just kind of explain this for a
little bit so reduce the first is going
to take a function the reduction
function
and then
the iterable here
and the function has to take two
arguments
so this the first argument is the
accumulated value and then the the right
argument is
the updated the update value from the
iterable so we're going to
continue adding
these two item we're going to
basically add every item together and
reduce
the
i the numbers at the first index all
into down to one value by adding them
all together so i'll just
pray here play here and then we get the
same number 200 and you can see it's a
lot it's a lot quicker just to use the
reduce function compared to the other
code we had previously
okay next up we are going to talk about
recursion
in
python not recursion error just
recursion
and a function in python can call itself
that's what recursion is and it can be
pretty useful in many scenarios a common
way to explain recursion is by using the
factorial calculation
so let me show you how you would
calculate factorial this isn't python
code this is just an example here so a
fact when you do 3 factorial that means
you do 3
you multiply every number between three
between this number and one together so
three times two times one equals six
four factorial is four times three times
two times one five factorial is you know
five through one and so on and then
every number you multiply every whole
number down to one so using recursion we
can write a function that calculates the
factorial of any number so let me show
you so here's the function you can see
inside the function it's calling the
same function so a recursive function
it's always going to have a base case
that's this
and the recursive case so the base case
is when we're going to leave the
the recursive function so if n is equal
to one we're going to return one and
that's basically going to get out of the
recursive function uh but if n is not
going to equal one then we have the
recursive the recursive case where we're
going to call the function so you always
need to have at least you always have
need to have a base case so eventually
the recursion can stop
if the recursion doesn't ever stop
then you're going to get a recursion
error
basically python by default will halt
recursions at 1000 calls and that's when
you get the recursion error so this is
going to get the factorial three but
let's just do this a few more times so
you can see the difference so three
four
five and now we'll test this out
6 24
120.
okay now let's talk about decorators
so decorators in python are a way to
change enhance or alter in any way how a
function works decorators are defined
with the at symbol followed by the
decorator name just before the function
definition
so for instance let's say we have a
function
hello
and it's just going to be the simplest
function we're just going to print
hello
uh so
to make that to add a decorator i'm
going to put like this an at sign and
then the decorator name in this
case we're going to type in log time so
the function has the log time decorator
assigned so
whenever we call the hello function the
decorator is going to be called a
decorator is a function that takes a
function as a parameter wraps the
function in an inner function that
performs the job it has to do and
returns that inner function
so for instance i'm going to create
another function here that's going to be
the log time function
and now we we can do something before
and after the function like for instance
we can say
print
before
and then after
we are going to print
after
now if i run this
oh and we have to call the function
that's always important
now if i run this
before hello after
so you're going to often use decorator
functions when you want to change the
behavior of a function without modifying
the function itself so a few good
examples are when you want to add
logging test performance perform caching
verify permissions and so on
you can also use one when you need to
run the same code on multiple functions
okay now let's talk about doc strings so
doc strings
[Music]
documentation is hugely important not
just to communicate to other people what
the goal of a function or class or
method or module is but it's also it
also communicates to yourself when you
come back to your code like many months
from now you might not remember all the
knowledge you were holding in your head
when you wrote the code so at that point
reading your code and understanding what
it's supposed to do
so that at that point reading your code
and understanding what it's supposed to
do will be a lot more difficult so a lot
that's one of the reasons why people add
comments so another way is to use a doc
string so let me show you what a doc
string looks like
the utility of a doc strings is that
they follow conventions
so they can be processed automatically
so this is how you would define a doc
string for a function
basically you're putting the three
quotation marks here three quotation
marks there and then this is a
description of what the function is
this is how you would define a doc
string for a
a class and a method so
got the class this is what the class
does is this is what the method does
and then it's also common to
add docs place a doc string at the top
of the file so if you put a doc string
at the top of the file it's going to
look like this
and it's going to explain what the file
is all about
and docs stock strings can also span
multiple lines just like this is a
multiple line docs string as long as it
has the three quarts three quarters at
the top three quarts at the bottom
and then python will process the doc
strings and you can use the help global
function to get the documentation for a
class a method a function or a module
for example i'm going to go to the
bottom of this and i'm going to say
print
help
and then i'm just going to type in
dog now i'll run this
and let me just run it again
so now you're going to get information
about the dog we know that the dog has a
name and age it's a class representing a
dog and the has these specific
methods
and then it says more we can get more
information data descriptors defined
here we have
and this is just going to give us all
this information
about
the dog and we and so that's why it's
good to use doc strings because there
are specific standards and it makes it
easier to get information using
different helper methods
and standards allow
and standards allow us to have tools to
extract doc strings and automatically
generate documentation for your code so
besides just this help functions there's
a lot of other methods to pull out these
docs strings and get information about
your code and next we will learn about
annotations
python is dynamically typed so we do not
have to specify the type of a variable
or function parameter or a function
return value
annotations allow us to optionally do
that so if we want to actually show what
type we're expecting for different
values so here's a function without
annotations and then here's how we would
make it have annotations so uh we want
to make this function only accept an int
so i'm going to put colon int
and then after here
i'm going to put
actually before the colon here i'm going
to put a little arrow here
and then i'm going to put in int so now
we're specifying that this function
receives an int and then it's also going
to
return an end
and you can do the same thing with
variables so if we have a variable if i
had a variable called count and was
equal to zero i can add an annotation to
make it be an int like that so now
we're specifying that this variable is
going to be an integer
python will actually ignore these
annotations a separate tool called mypi
can be run standalone or integrated by
ides to automatically check for type
errors statically while you're coding
it'll also help you catch tight
mismatched bugs before even running the
code
a great help especially when your
software becomes large and you need to
refactor your code
okay now we'll talk about exceptions
[Music]
it's important to have a way to handle
errors and python gives us exception
handling to do so so for exception
handling you would wrap lines of code in
a try block
and then inside this block you'll put
the lines of code and then if an error
occurs
python will alert you and you can
determine which kind of error occurred
using an accept block so
we're we're trying some lines of code
here and then we're checking for a
specific error and then if that error
happens we would handle that error but
if a different error happens then we
will handle the different error you can
also catch
all exceptions
using an accept without an error type so
at the very end you could just do accept
and then if you don't have an error type
then it's going to handle the rest of
the exceptions and just to make this
clear this is just an example where it
says air one you have to put a specific
error in that spot
you can also put an else block at the
end to handle that that will run if the
no exceptions are found so if there are
no errors in this code that's right up
here we can have an else and then run
specific code at the bottom that that
runs if there's no errors
and then we can have a finally block so
anything
in a finally block is going to just
always run at the end whether or not
there are exceptions or no exceptions
the code in the final block is always
going to run the specific error that's
going to occur depends on the operation
you're performing for example if you're
reading a file you might get an eof
error would just look like this eof
error which means end of file
if you divide a number by zero you'll
get a zero division error if you have a
type conversion issue you might get a
type error so
let's try this code
so i'm going to just delete all this and
we'll do result
equals 2 divided by
0 which
you cannot do
so just print the result
and if i run that
we'll see this error over here
zero division error division by zero so
it's going to get an error when we run
the code and then whenever there's an
error anything after the error occurs
will not happen so we're not going to
print the result because there is
because the this
this line resulted in error so we're not
going to run the following line of code
so now let's try adding that operation
in a
try block
so i'm just going to paste it all in
here and so we're putting the operation
in a try block and then we're expecting
a zero division error
where we'll print cannot divide by zero
finally we will set the result to one
and then print the results so let me
just run that code see cannot divide by
zero and then we print one we because we
set it in the final block here
so this try block lets us recover
gracefully and move on with the program
you can raise exceptions in your own
code too using the raise statement so i
could type in raise
and then we can raise an exception
intentionally
and error
so if i just run this
it will say
an error because that's what we typed in
so you can make it say anything you want
for your error
and this raises a general exception and
you can and you can intercept it
just like this so i could say
try
and then we raise that exception
and then we can do accept
exception
as error
and then we can print
the error
okay if i run that
so now instead of we don't see all that
red anymore because it's not stopping
our program because of the error but
it's now printing the error message
right here
just like that
you can also define your own exception
class extending from exception so i
could do class
dog not
found
[Music]
exception
and then i will
extend from exception
[Music]
and then i can just put
pass for this one here let me adjust
that
so
pass here just means nothing and we must
use it when we define a class without
methods or a function without code so if
you're not going to put anything so this
is just an example so i can just put
pass to mean that we're not going to
have any code in this
so now we can try it out so i'll just
paste that uh so we're going to raise
dog not found exception and then if
we're we're going to
candle this exception and just print dog
not found so let's try that yep dog nut
bound because it raised this exception
here we can also actually do something
in the exception
so if i can say print
inside
and then i'm going to run that
and i'll do inside and dog not bound the
with statement is very helpful to
simplify working with exception handling
for example when working with files each
time we open a file we must remember to
close it with makes the process more
transparent so let me show you some
example code without the with statement
so
we're not going to go into a lot of
details about working with files here
but i just want to kind of just give
this one quick example so if we're going
to be working with files in python so we
can open the file and then we can read
the file we can print the content from
the file
and we
we're going to try that because there
could be an exception and then finally
we're always going to make sure to close
the file
but
an alternate way to do it would be like
this
um so with
we're going to open the file as file and
then content file.read and then print
the content and with using with it's
going to make sure to automatically
close the file at the end in other words
we have built-in implicit exception
handling as close will be called
automatically for us
and with can do a lot more stuff as well
this example is just meant to introduce
its capabilities
now let's talk about third-party
packages
and we're going to talk about pip so
let's learn how to install third-party
packages in python using pip the python
standard library contains a huge number
of utilities that simplify our python
development needs but nothing can
satisfy everything
that's why individuals and companies
create packages and make them available
as open source software for the entire
community so the modules are all
collected in a single place called the
python package index which is available
available at pipe.org that's
pi
pi.org
and they can be installed on the system
using
pip there's over 270 000 packages freely
available
most computers are already going to have
pip installed and it already has pip
installed so let me show you how you
would install a package we'd have to go
over to the shell here if you're not on
replit you can just do in your terminal
and i'm going to clear this here
and i'm just going to do pip
install and then you can put the name of
a package for instance one popular
package is called the request package
it's an http library so i can do
requests
and let me just
so you can see i have to make sure i
spelled that right
[Music]
and it's going to install that package
right now so once the we install this
package it's going to be available for
 all our python scripts because packages
are installed globally and the exact
location depends on the operating system
you can also upgrade a package to its
latest version by doing pip install
dash u and then i will just put the
package name so in this case we'll just
do request again
and then it's going to just update it to
its
latest version
in this case
it updated from
2.28.0 to 2. 12039.12 you can also specify a
specific
version when you're installing
and then you can also uninstall a
package so i'll do pip
uninstall
requests
and then i can say that yes i do want to
uninstall that
and then once when you have a package
installed
i'm just going to install request again
and then you always have to make sure
you spell it right
so once you have it installed you can do
pip show
requests
and then it's going to show some
information about the package
so see we can see the name the version
uh the summary and then a bunch of the
author and a bunch of other information
about the package
okay i'll just clear this
now we're actually gonna backtrack a
little bit we already talked about lists
but i'm gonna talk about a more advanced
way of using lists called
list
compression
list compressions so list compressions
are a way to create lists in a very
concise way so suppose you have this
list like this it's a list of numbers
and we'll just do
one
two three
four five
so we can create a new list using a list
compression
composed by the numbers list elements to
the power of 2.
let me show you what i mean so let's get
make a new list numbers
power
[Music]
2
equals
and let me just show you how you do this
list compression
so this is the list compression syntax
and if i print this
[Music]
we can see that now we have every
element in the list to the power of two
list compressions are a syntax that's
sometimes preferred over loops as it's
more readable when the operation can be
written on a single line
so for instance this is how you would do
it uh with a loop so what we do in a
single line up here we take a few lines
to do
in the method with a loop so list
compression just makes it
simpler
and then you can do the same thing with
map as well
but again it's just a little more
complex sometimes it's just simpler to
use a list compression using the syntax
here
now let's talk about a few more advanced
topics in regards to functions
polymorphism
polymorphism generalizes a functionality
so it can work on different types
it's an important concept in object
oriented programming so see in here
we've defined the same method on
different classes so the dog has eat and
the cat also has an eat method
then we can generate objects and we can
call the eat method regardless of the
class the object belongs to and will get
different results so we create the two
objects the dog and the cat here
and we're calling the eat method on both
objects and if we run this you can see
what we're getting eating cat dog food
eating cat food and so you could do a
lot of things with this like maybe you
have a list of different animals and
then you can
loop through that list and call the eat
function or the eat method on each
animal in that list and they don't have
to be the exact same class to be able to
still run the eat method
so we build a generalized interface and
now we do not need to know that an
animal is a cat or dog we just need to
know that we can call eat on it
now let's talk about
operator
overloading
[Music]
operator overloading is an advanced
technique we can use to make classes
comparable and to make them work with
python operators so let's take this
class dog so here's a dog class and you
can create a dog with a name and age
then we'll create two dog objects we'll
do roger equals dog
and we can pass the name
and eight
[Music]
and then i'll make another one
we can use operator overloading to add a
custom way to compare these two objects
based on the age property
so like how could you compare
this dog and this dog well we can make
it possible with operator overloading so
let me just show you this example here
so
this
function here gt
is going to compare things as to figure
out what what is greater than you can
now we'll be able to compare
two dog objects to see which one is
greater than the other and this is how
we're going to figure out which is
greater than return true if self.age is
greater than
other dot age which is the other one
you're comparing it to else false
now we can
do print
roger
is greater than sid so we're trying to
figure out this is true or false if i
run this it's going to say true roger is
greater than sid because 8 is bigger
than 7. but if we like put 9 here run
that
now it's going to be false
so in the same way we define this
underscore underscore gt underscore
which means greater than we can also
define methods for like less than
lower or equal to greater equal to or
not equal
and then you can also create methods to
go with different arithmetic operators
so
we can do add subtract multiply
division floor division mod power so you
can see all these different ones you can
make it respond to the different
operators so the example was just a
greater than operator but we can
make functions to show how it's going to
respond to all these different
operators there's even a few more
methods to work with other operators but
you get the idea we've learned a lot
about python and now we're going to
bring a lot of what we've learned
together to code a blackjack card game
and in the process we'll learn about
object oriented programming in python so
we'll start by creating a new python
project on replit
and i'm just going to close this tab
here
and i'll zoom in just a bit
and just like our first project
i'm going to
say what i'm about to do and i want you
to see if you can do it on your own
before i show you how to do it
and with all you've learned so far a lot
of this you're probably going to be able
to figure out on your own as i give you
the instructions without even seeing how
i how i do it but then you can come back
to the video and see how i do it
or i guess you can just watch and not
even try to do it yourself but you're
going to learn a lot more if you try to
code this by yourself along with me as i
do it but right before i do the
different steps
so the first thing we're going to do is
create a
variable called a suit
and set it equal to hearts and then a
variable called rank and set it to equal
k for king
and then a variable called value and set
to equal
10.
[Music]
okay simple two variables equal to
strings and one variable equal to an int
so now we are going to add a print
statement and print the the phrase your
card is with a colon at the end
and then we'll add another print
statement and print the rank
so now we're just printing the variable
here
and we're going to be doing a lot of
refactoring as we create this program
let's refactor this so it's just one
print statement that's going to print
your card is colon space and then the
rank
so we are going to be doing
string concatenation
[Music]
just like that
so
you can concatenate as many strings and
variables as you want so let's update
the code so that the print function
print prints your card as
k
of
hearts
so we just need to add
of and we have to make sure we put
spaces on each side of the word of
and then
suit
and let me just
adjust this here okay as you know you
can use a list in python to store
multiple values or items at a time so
above the suit variable
create a suits
variable and assign it to a list of
suits in this case spades clubs hearts
diamonds
we learned about how you can use the
bracket operator to access a specific
element in a list the number inside the
bracket specifies the index of the list
to access remember the indexes start at
zero
so you update the suit variable so that
the value of hearts come from comes from
the suits list
now we'll practice a for loop so add a
for loop to the end of the code that
prints each suit
and then we'll just test this out
i really hope you actually are following
along and trying it out right before i
show it to you that's how you're going
to learn the best here so spades clubs
hearts diamonds
now this next thing is is just to see if
we can do it so it's not going to be
part of our final code but right before
the loop we just added see if you can
add another item to the suits list
that's the string snakes
there's a few different ways to do it
but we will use append snakes so this is
just going to append the word snakes at
the end
of the list so if i run this we can now
see snakes at the bottom
okay now we're going to start the
process of representing a full deck of
cards with python code
so we're going to actually get rid of a
lot of this we're going to get rid of
all this we're just going to have the
suits and then we're going to have this
for loop at the bottom we're going to do
a lot of refactoring as we go mainly for
educational purposes but also so we can
get the a really good blackjack game so
we have a list of suits after that we're
going to create a list of ranks that's a
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 j q
k
[Music]
now before the suits list
create a new variable called cards and
assign an empty list to the variable
you can an empty list is just two
brackets with nothing inside
now in the cards list there should be an
item for each card in the deck each item
in the suits list should be combined
with each item in the ranks list for a
total of 52 items or cards
let's work our way up to that so first
we'll update the print statement in the
for loop so that it prints a list with
two elements the first element should be
suit and the second should be the first
element of the ranks lists so this
should print
an ace in every suit
so i'm going to update this so it's
going to be a list with
suit
and ranks
the first item is going to be at index
zero now let's print that out
so we got them these four right here
now instead of just printing an ace in
every suit let's print every rank in
every suit
this can be done easily with a for loop
nested within another for loop so inside
the for loop add another for loop that
loops through the ranks
then update the print statement so that
it's not just printing the first element
in the ranks list but it's printing the
rank from the for other for loop
so let me show you what i mean
we're going to do four
for rank and ranks
and then
we have to make sure to indent this
print statement so it's inside this
other for loop
and this is now just going to be
rank so it's going to print the suit and
rank and i'll just run that
and now we with this nested for loop we
have every card at every rank in every
suit all 52 cards are printed as two
item lists
an element in a list can be another list
so instead of printing 52
two item lists
let's append those 52 cards to the cards
list
so we already have the cards list here
it's empty but i'm going to do
cards
dot
append
and so we're appending
this item
all these items to the cards list
so let's check what the cards list looks
like by printing out printing it out at
the bottom remember make sure this is
not indented at all and we'll do print
cards
and i'll run that
and then here it is here so this is the
list it's not
one there's just a comma between each
item in the list here
you may notice that all the cards are in
order in the cards lists
for a game like this though the cards
must be shuffled so to help with this
import the random module at the top of
your code so that's just we just do
import
random
[Music]
now we'll be able to use the the random
module so this is going to import the
random module which contains a variety
of things related to random number
generation
and as you probably remember when you
import a python module it allows you to
use additional commands in your code
specifically we're going to be using the
random.shuffle function
so right before at the end where it says
print cards we're going to call
random.shuffle and pass in the cards
list to that function
and then if i play this here or run the
program we can see that these are not in
order anymore see ace of spades
three of spades king of diamonds jack of
hearts so these are no longer in order
because they've been shuffled now let's
remove a single element from the cards
list this is similar to dealing a card
from a deck and this can be done with
the pop method
so after the cards are shuffled
let's create another card variable and
just
pop off a card from the cards list and
put it into that variable called card
and just print that card
so i'll do card
equals cards dot pop
and then instead of printing all the
cards i'm just going to print a single
card i'll run the program
see every time i run the program you can
see we're getting a different card we're
dealing a different card because it's
been shuffled
so we've already learned all about
functions and now we're going to create
a function
so create a
function called shuffle that just has
the single line that shuffles the cards
so it's just def shuffle
and then i just have to make sure this
is indented so now when we call the
shuffle function it will shuffle the
cards
so right before the print statement
call the shuffle function and instead of
just printing the single card print the
cards
so do shuffle
and then i will print all the cards and
let's just try out the program
and we can see there was a problem it's
because we didn't put the the colon here
so that's an important part of creating
a function is putting the colon there
now we'll create another function called
deal and we'll put this line inside the
the deal function
so we're going to define deal
and i'll put the colon this time and
make sure to
indent that
and we can see this has a orange
squiggly line underneath it because
variables can only be accessed in the
context that they were created so the
card variable will not be available
outside of the deal function
you can get a value out of a function by
returning a result using the return
statement so at the end we're going to
return the card
okay now we've taken care of that
squiggly line there so after the shuffle
function is called we'll call the deal
function and assign the return value to
a variable named card then we'll update
the print function to print card instead
of cards
so card
equals
deal
and then we'll just print
the card
and again we
see a different card every time we run
the program
what if you want the deal function to
deal more than one card well let's
refactor the deal function to and accept
to accept an argument so any number of
arguments can appear inside the
parentheses when a function is created
separated by commas inside the function
the arguments are assigned to variables
called parameters so start by making it
so we'll start by making it so the deal
function takes an argument named number
then we'll make sure when we call the
function we use the new parameter
by
making it so we're gonna deal two
so i'm just gonna put number here it's
gonna it's gonna deal a number of cards
we're gonna deal two and i just didn't
say this before but now instead this is
not one card anymore so we're going to
update this to be cards dealt but
there's a special shortcut you can
either it's going to be
command or control d
and now i'm actually selecting the card
two different times see i i now have
multiple cursors here so basically i
selected the word i double clicked to
select the word then did command or
control d now it's selecting two words
and now i can type in
cards
delt
so now i can type in two places at one
time so that's a cool thing that you can
do in replit and you can do it in many
other code editors and i'll run the
program but it should still only deal
one card because even though we're
passing this parameter into here we're
not doing anything with it yet here so
we want to update the deal function so
it's going to return a list of cards
instead of a single card
in the first line of the function create
an empty list named cards delt then
update the last line of the function to
return cards dealt instead of return
card so let's do that really quick we're
going to do
cards
dealt
is going to equal an empty list and i'll
just copy that and paste it
right here
now do you remember how to use a the
range function with a for loop we talked
about it earlier in the course we just
briefly touched on it but let's create a
for loop that's going to
add a card from the deck
for each
card dealt
so we can do that by creating a for loop
for x and range
number now this is a common thing you're
going to be doing in python creating a
for loop that's going to be in range
number because now it's going to loop
this many times it's going to loop this
many times which is the number we passed
in here and we're going to do a few
things in this for loop
first we are going to
actually do this what we already have
card equal cards dot pop and then we'll
do cards
delt
dot append
card
so now just this card that we popped off
the deck we are appending it to the
card's delt and then we're returning the
cards dealt here
so down here in the code
let's separate out a single card from
the two cards dealt
so let's create a variable called card
and set it equal to the first item in
the cards delt list
and then we'll just print that card
instead of cards dealt
so we are going to do card
equals cards
delt and then we just use the brackets
and put 0 to get the first item in that
list
and then we'll just print
a card
now i'm just going to test out the
program we're still just seeing a single
card here but it's doing a lot more
behind the scenes now
so now let's separate out the rank part
of a single card so after we create the
card there let's create a variable named
rank and assign it the rank from the
card
so we'll do rank
equals card
and then i have to get index one because
the rank is this that's the nine here
the second item in this card is the rank
so each rank has a different value in
blackjack the value of an ace or an a in
this in this program is 11
or sometimes it can actually be one it's
going to be 11 or 1 but we'll get to the
one part later so jack j q and k which
is jack queen and king have the value of
10 and then the numbers have the value
of the number so we need to check what
the rank is and set the value depending
on the rank
so this is the perfect time for a
conditional statement specifically an if
statement
before the final print statement or
program we're going to add an if
statement to check if the rank equals a
and if so we'll assign 11 to a variable
named value
so we'll do if
rank and i hope you remember if you're
flying along i hope you remember to use
two equal signs instead of one equal
sign here so if rank equals a
then value is going to equal with a
single equal sign is going to equal
11.
now if rank does not equal a we'll want
to check if it equals j q or k
that can be done with an elif statement
for now we'll just create an if
statement to check if the rank equals j
and then if so we will set the value to
10.
so we talked about the three logical
operators and or
and not you can use these three
operators in conditional statements to
check multiple conditions at once so we
want to check if
rank is j or rank is q
or rank is k so update the code with the
the and with the ors
now there can be any number of ls
statements after an if statement but at
the end there can only be a single else
statement
and like we discussed the else is just
going to be if none of the other ones
are true so let's add an else statement
and inside we'll just assign rank to
value because we've already gotten all
the letters out of the way the rest are
numbers and we can assign it directly to
the value
now we'll
instead of printing the card at the end
let's print the rank and the value
so i can just type in rank comma value
and
when that multiple values in a print
statement are listed with a comma
separating them both values are printed
with a space in between so let's test
this out a few times q10 five five 6 6
so we can see every time we press it
it's going to be a random rank and value
now we already talked about dictionaries
in python it's like a list but more
general you can think of a dictionary as
a mapping between a set of indices which
are called keys and values so key value
pairs each key maps to a value so above
the print statement let's create a
variable called rank
underscore dict for dictionary and
create a dictionary with two items
a key value pair for the rank and a key
value pair for the value
so we have the string rank here and then
the actual rank variable string value
and the actual value variable
before we are
printing the rank variable and the value
variable but let's update this code so
we're actually getting the rank and
value from the rank dictionary right
here
so i'm going to copy that and then i
just pasted that but now i'm going to
use bracket notation
and so i'll put two brackets but then i
also have to surround this in quotation
marks
and then i'm gonna
put the rank dictionary the brackets
and then the quotation marks because
we're accessing that key there
and then i can just run the program and
it's still doing the same thing as
before just a lot more complicated as
far as the code goes but it's going to
be good to have more complicated code as
our program is going to become more
complicated as we go
so when writing a program there are many
ways to do almost everything
now we're going to refactor the code to
get the value of each rank without using
an if statement
instead we'll store both the rank name
and value in the ranks list using
dictionaries so let's delete all the
code lines of code after where it says
shuffle
so
here i know we typed in a lot of stuff
there but it was just kind of to
practice and now we're going to practice
a different method of doing this
so now let's create a new card variable
a new variable called card at the end
and let's assign to the card variable
a a single card that will deal from the
deck but we'll make sure that card is
not
in a list so this is a little tricky i'm
gonna do deal and i'll deal one card
but now i have to get
the first item so this is going to deal
one card but the one card is going to
deal is going to be in a list so i want
to get the first item in the list which
is going to be the only item in the list
so i had to put the zero in brackets
here to get that card out of a list
before it goes into the card variable
now we're going to update the ranks list
so here's the the ranks list each
element the list should now be a
dictionary when lists or list elements
are long it's common to put each element
on its own line so we're going to put
each element on its own line and each
element is going to have the rank and
the value so for instance it will be
rank a value 11
rank 2 value 2.
so it's going to look like
this
and i'm now i'm actually going to zoom
out just a little bit and we have all
these they're all these ranks and each
one in this list
is a dictionary each element in the list
is a dictionary
okay now that this is updated let's go
down and just print a card so we can see
now that we've updated that ranks list
so print
card
okay so this is what it's going to look
like coming from
our list
so we got the suit
and then we have the rank that's also
going to have the value here the rank
and the value
we can see every time we click it we get
a random item
now let's update the code so instead of
printing the whole card we just
print the value so in this example the
value is two so we just want to print
this to just that that value so how can
we update this see if you can figure out
how to update this line so only prints
just the value number there
so first of all we have to see that
we're in a list and we need so this is
the first element of the list this is
the second element so wait to start by
getting the second element of the list
which is
index one
and then
we have an object here or a dictionary i
mean and we need to get
so here we have this key value pair so
we need the value at that key so to get
the value of that key we are going to
put more brackets and i'm going to put
value the key of value so now with that
should work let's try it
okay nine
seven see every time it's gonna just
give us the value of the card
now we'll start defining classes that
will be used in order to separate out
different aspects of the game
so classes you may remember provide a
way of bundling data and functionality
together creating a new class creates a
new type of object allowing new
instances of that type to be made an
object can contain a number of functions
which we call methods as well as data
that is used by those functions called
attributes so
we're going to use classes to model
three parts of the game a card a deck
and a hand so far we've mainly worked on
the elements of the debt class
so right after this import statement at
the top
we're going to
make a class a class called
dec and we're going to put everything
that we've written so far in that class
so we're just gonna do class
deck
colon
okay now we just highlight
everything here and then i'm gonna press
tab
to put everything in the class of deck
because everything's
indented a little bit
and then these last few lines of code we
don't need so i'll just delete those
those are just for testing out
a class is like a template you can use
that class to create an instance of the
class called an object
then you can use the instance each
instance keeps track of its own state so
you can update an instance created from
a class and it won't impact other
objects created from the same class soon
you'll see an example of all this to
make it easier to understand
but first let's prepare a class to
create an instance from it
when you create an instance of a class
python automatically calls a function
also called a method in the clast named
init remember we already discussed this
earlier in the course so the contents of
this init method should be code that is
run one time to initialize the instance
so at the beginning of our class let's
create this init function so we'll do
def
underscore underscore init
underscore underscore and if you
remember from before we always have to
pass in
self
to all of these
functions in a class because then it
gets itself is referring to the instance
of the class that we've developed now
we're going to indent all the code
that's not part of the shuffle or deal
function so the code will be part of
this new function so i'm just going to
highlight
all this here
including
the suits here and then just press
tab
so like i said we just added self in
here you should always
all the methods in a class or all the
functions should have self
anything inside the parentheses remember
is called an argument their variables
pass them from the color to the
functions
as i've said all functions in a class
should receive self as an argument and
self represents the instance of the
class by using the self keyword the
function can access the attributes and
methods of the class
so let's make sure to add self as the
first item in the parentheses of the
other functions
so we are going to add self here
and then see how we already have number
here but we're going to hit self at the
beginning
and we so we can still
call this function with just
a single number but it's going to also
get a reference to the instance here now
i want you to notice that
the cards here is underlying in
red so before it wasn't when we were
before we made this into a class we
could just access
this cards variable but now we cannot so
let's fix that
inside a class in order to access a
variable in multiple functions also
called methods the variable has to start
with self dot
so we're going to change all instances
of cards in every function to self.card
starting
with this so self dot cards
now this is going to make it so we can
access it in other places and then we'll
change this to self dot cards
and then this is self
dot cards
and then self
dot cards
so now this will be a variable that's
specifically associated with the
instance of the deck that's created and
then we can access it in all of these
other methods
okay we can now create an instance also
called an object of the deck class so at
the very end of the code
let's create a variable called deck 1
and make it an instance of the deck
class
so to make sure i'm not indented at all
and i'll do deck
1
equals
deck there we go
now since we created cards with
self.cards
we can access that we can access cards
from the instance of the class so let's
just print out the cards from our deck
one so do print
deck
one dot cards
and we can try that out now you can see
the the list of all of these cards
it has the suit
and the rank and the value for each card
so underneath where we created deck one
let's create deck two we'll create
another instance of another deck
so
[Music]
so now we can call methods on these
instances and you see some of the
methods we have we have shuffle and deal
so on deck 2 right after we create the
deck 2 let's shuffle the deck so deck
2 dot shuffle
and then i have to make sure to put the
parentheses
at the end here
right if we print deck one let's print
deck two or the cards of deck two so i'm
gonna copy that and then we'll print
deck two cards so now we should see that
the deck one cards are not shuffled and
the deck two cards are shuffled so let
me move this over here i'm gonna run the
program
and let's see if we can see that where
deck one so here's where here's deck one
and we can see how it's all diamonds
diamonds diamonds diamonds diamonds all
the diamonds are in a row because
unshuffled but then if we go into deck 2
we can see we have diamonds clubs spades
diamonds hearts so these are shuffled in
deck 2 they are shuffled
okay the deck works
now let's add safeguards to prevent
errors every time the deal function is
called a card is removed from the cards
list
you can only remove a card if there are
cards to remove
so before the program tries to pop a
card off self.cards is to check if the
length of self.cards is greater than
zero
remember you can get the number of items
in a list with length so see if you can
figure that out on your own and then i'm
about to show you how it's done
so when it's going to deal here
right as we're dealing we're going to
add an if statement here so if
the length
of self dot cards
is greater than zero
and we do we don't need this parentheses
here so if the length of self.cards is
greater than zero
then we will
do this we'll pop up a card and add it
to the cards dealt if not we just won't
do anything and then we'll return cards
dealt which could be an empty array if
there were no cards on the deck
now let's add something to the shuffle
function a deck with only one card does
not need to be shuffled so let's add the
appropriate if statement to the shuffle
function
so we'll do
if the length of self
dot cards
is
greater than one
then we will shuffle and then make sure
i'll make sure to put the
colon there
okay
since a card is a separate concept than
a deck
next we'll make a card class
so let's create a card class with an
init function and in that init function
we'll set self.suit to equal hearts
so hopefully you already tried this i'm
going to do class
card
and then i will do def
net
[Music]
and then after the suit will lose self
dot rank and set it to a
so currently anytime a card is created
it will be an ace of hearts let's
refactor the code so the suit and rank
are specified when a card object is
constructed so the init method can take
additional parameters besides self that
are passed into it as objects is
constructed so we'll update it to take
suit and rank
[Music]
now we'll create a special method
that's underscore underscore str
underscore underscore
when a class has this specific method
it's called when print is invoked on an
object from the class
so we want to make it so when we print
an object from the card class it will
print something like 10 of hearts or
three of clubs or something like that
so we don't do print here we do return
it's going to return this to the print
statement it's going to turn self dot
rank
and then we have to get
the rank
[Music]
and we do plus
and then of or to put a string there
plus
self dot suit
so now it's going to return the rank
which is like 2 or a of and then the
suit which is one of these
so let's just try it out real quick and
we go to the bottom we don't need any of
these to test because we're testing
something completely different now let's
do card one
equals
[Music]
card i'm going to create a card and i
have to pass in remember i have to first
pass in the suit so how about hearts and
then i have to pass in the rank but we
want to make it look like these ranks so
i'm just going to
copy one of these here
and then
after we create the card i can just
print
card one
let me clear this and then i'll just run
that j of hearts
oh see i got the j of hearts and feel
free to add a few more cards like this
and test out a few more if you want
okay now we're going to refactor this
slightly you remember way toward the
beginning of this course we talked about
f strings so f strings allow us to put
variables right within a string do you
remember how to do that let's see if you
can update this to use enough string
so first we're going to create a new
string but we're going to start with the
letter f
and then
inside this string we put curly braces
around
the
python code and we don't need these
other strings here so
now we put another curly brace
and then an
ending string here
okay it's still showing these um red
squiggly lines because if i have a
double quote around the strings and
anytime other quotes are in the middle i
have to put a different type of quote so
we're going to use
single quotes okay so now we can make
this a whole a string but we use the
brackets to put the variables right
within the string so now we've updated
that to use an f string
so currently in the deck class the last
line of this init method
appends a list as an item to the cards
list
instead of appending
suit
comma rank
we'll create and append an instance of
the card class
then afterwards when a deck is created
it's filled with cards
so it's just like this we're just going
to delete that i'll put card
and then i'll pass in a suit and they
rank so now we're passing in
card instances
so we're done with the deck and card
classes and we created them in such a
way that they could basically be used
for any card game
now let's make a hand class
this will represent a hand in the game
of blackjack so create a hand class and
add an inet method and initialize a
variable called self.cards that is set
to an empty list so let's go down here
and we can also get rid of all this test
code here
so the new class is called hand
and we'll also make the hand keep track
of the value of the hands a self.value
will start it at zero
in this blackjack game there will be a
human controlled player and a program
controlled dealer so let's add a dealer
parameter in the init constructor method
of the hand class
and then when the hand classes create a
dealer should be set to true or false to
keep track of what type of hand it is
so i'll pass in the parameter dealer and
then we just have to create a variable
and call dealer and set it to dealer so
self dot dealer
equals dealer
[Music]
if you remember from before function
parameters can have default values so we
want to make it so the default value of
dealer is false
so then if
we create a hand and we don't set the
dealer value it will automatically be
false
and i'm just going to take out these
spaces here to make it smaller here
so now a hand can be created
let's give it some functionality we'll
add an add card method and the method
should take a card list as a parameter
and then we need to add that card list
to the cards
so we can use the extend function the
extend method to append each item in
card list onto the cards list so it's
just going to look like this self dot
cards dot append no extend i mean dot
extend
and then we pass in
card list
now let's just add some code to test out
what we have so far so let's create a
deck and then we will shuffle the deck
deck.shuffle
[Music]
now we'll create a hand
now we can add cards to the hand so hand
dot
add
card
and we will deck dot deal we'll deal two
cards into the hand
and then we'll just print
hand cards
okay so this is what how it printed out
i was expecting this to look a little
different
because of this function it print it
should print like that
but i think the reason is
because
this is a list so it's printing a list
not an individual card so let's change
this to print an individual card i'll
print the first card so put zero in
there i'll try it again nine of diamonds
and then we can also print the next card
three of hearts
and then we can also print both cards if
we just copy that and do
hand that cards
zero
handout cards
one
okay ace of hearts and nine of spades so
those are the two cards that were dealt
to the hand
now we'll go back to the hand class and
we'll add the ability to calculate the
value of a hand so let's add a method
called calculate value
and inside the method we'll set
self.value to zero
now we'll take this one step at a time
first let's let's make a for loop that's
going to go through every single card
and inside the for loop we'll just set
the value
of the card to a variable called card
underscore value so i'll do four card
and self.cards
okay so we're not doing anything with
that yet but we're going to in a second
here
now we want to make sure that this is an
integer
so let's convert that to an integer if
you remember you just use int
[Music]
and then put it in print int and then
inside the parentheses we put this value
not just getting the card value for each
card is not enough something must be
done with the variable so let's add that
value
to
self.value
so we'll do self
dot value
and then if you remember from before we
can use the plus equals to
add that to the current value those will
do a card
value
so as you may know in blackjack and ace
can have the value of either 11 or 1
depending on what is better for the
player so there's a few ways to
implement that in code so we're going to
do one way that's relatively simple
first we'll check if the hand has an ace
so let's first create a variable that
will store whether the
hand has an a so just be called hand has
underscore ace we'll set to false and
we'll put it right under here
so we'll do
has ace and we'll set to false and since
we're only going to be using has ace
within
this
method we don't need to use self that
has ace because we're only using it here
and now when we're going through the the
list of cards let's check if the the
rank of a card is an ace and then set
has aced equals true
so i'll do it
if
card dot rank
the rank is going to be equal double
equal sign if it equals ace
after this entire for loop
we're going to check if the card has an
ace
and if the value is over 21
if so then we'll just subtract 10 from
the value
because that'll be the same as setting
the ace to equal one instead of 11.
so we'll just do if has
ace
and
self.value
is greater than 21
to self.value
minus equals
10.
okay and look at this this is something
i don't think i've discussed yet
you could say if has
equals true and self.value is greater
than 21.
but you can also it's like a shorthand
you don't have to say if has ace equals
true
if has a because has ace is just going
to equal true or false you can just say
if has ace so that's just the same as
saying if true or if false
and so we're seeing if both of these
evaluate the true then we will subtract
10 from the value okay now we'll just
add another method to get the value of a
hand called getvalue and the function
will just return self.value
so we're going to make sure that we're
not we're indented correctly and do def
get
value
return
self
dot value
and then i have to make sure i put the
parentheses here
and then i have to remember to put self
since this is a self.value we could call
down here like we could call
hand
value to get the value but it's
generally better to make a function to
return the value so i can do get
value that way there may be some extra
code you want to run in there like
depending on different conditions
you may want to modify the value before
you return it
so it's best practice to create a method
that will get a value like this for you
so currently this value that's returned
could be incorrect
because
if someone's going to get the value the
value has to be calculated correctly
first and like checking for aces and and
other things so let's call
let's calculate the value before we
return the value so i'm going to do self
dot calculate value so
this is something that i think is new
where to call calculate value from
within this we're going to have to call
self.calculatevalue
and self will refer to the instance that
we're working with so we're calling the
calculate value on the instance that's
that is the the hand instance and we're
getting the value and then we're
returning the value
okay let's create another method called
is blackjack and it'll return true if
there's a blackjack and false otherwise
so it's a blackjack if the value is 21.
so i'm gonna do
def
get or is
oh and put self here
okay so this is going to evaluate you to
either true or false and return true or
false depending on whether there's a
blackjack
now we'll create the final method in the
hand class that will display information
about the hand so let's create a method
called display they'll
to start with will just print your hand
[Music]
okay now let's do a quick refactor
instead of saying your hand it should
either say dealer's hand or your hand
depending on whether
self.dealer
is
true or not
so we're going to you to to do this all
in one line we're going to use a few
things that we learned about earlier
including
ternary operators
f strings and going between double
quotes and single quotes and then one
other new thing we are going to make
this into an f string
and then we are going to be using
actually
single quotes and double quotes within
this f string so if you want to use
single quotes and double quotes within a
string
then you can surround it with a triple
single quote so i'm going to delete this
quote and just do three single quotes
and then delete this quote and do three
single quotes and so
we got the
double quote
single quote and now this is a triple
quote so now we can use the double quote
and single quotes within this string
so i'm going to um i'm just going to
delete your right here and we are going
to
put a ternary operator to see if it's
going to say dealers or yours in the
dealer's hand or your hand so
to do some code i'm going to put these
curly braces here
and then to do this ternary operator
we're going to put dealer
and now here so here's the double quote
and here's the single quote so dealers
it will
return dealers
if
self.dealer
so basically if self.dealer equals true
so return dealers if self.dealer
else will return
your
okay that's the line so it's going to be
the dealer's hand or your hand and next
we will add a for loop that will print
out each of the cards
so
for card and self.cards
print
card
and then finally if the player is not
the dealer it should print value
and then a colon and then print the
value of the cards so to do this we can
actually use the the not operator so
if not
self.dealer
[Music]
then we will print
and we'll print value
value
and then i can just put a comma to print
two different items so the string and
it'll print self dot get
value
and it's gonna when you put a comma and
two different things it's gonna put a
space in between
and then finally we'll just add an empty
a print statement that will print a
blank line
okay let's test this out by
instead of printing this we are going to
print
hand
dot display
to see if this all works how we thought
it was going to work
so your hand k of spades two of spades
value is 12. so it's actually
calculating that correctly because
that's 10 plus 2 is 12 and then it's
going to print none which indicates that
we did something wrong which is that we
did not need to print this because hand
display display already prints so now
just call hand.display
okay so now it doesn't put none or
doesn't yeah it doesn't put none at the
end so that looks right
okay when you're playing blackjack you
don't get to see
everyone else's cards
so
we're going to update this so when the
dealer's cards are printed during the
game
only the second one should display
the first card should display as hidden
so in this for loop
when we're displaying the cards
we're going to need to get access to the
card index since that will determine
which to display
since we're only going to display the
second card
so let's start by updating this for loop
so we can get access to both the card
and the card index
we briefly touched on this earlier in
the course we're going to be using the
enumerate function
so
when it's for card in
and now i'm going to type in enumerate
and i'm going to pass in self.cards
and this is going to return the index
and the card for each card so i'm going
to type it index
comma
and so
in we're getting the index and the card
for all the items in self.cards
and so now we just have to update what's
in the for loop
to print
hidden
if it's the first card and it's a dealer
so we'll do
if index
equals zero and self.dealer
then
we will print
hidden
and then we can use an else
any other time
and let's make sure this lines up
correctly any other time we will print
the card
so
what we did wrong here is this should be
double equal sign i did almost did the
the main mistake you always have to
watch out never use a single equal sign
when you're checking equality
because that's the single equal sign is
the assignment operator so if index
equals zero and self and we it is the
dealer then we'll print hidden
so in our version of the game at the end
of the game
that all the dealer's cards will be
shown so you can see what the dealer had
so to do that we're going to create a
new parameter in this
display method and it's going to be
called show all dealer cards with
underscores for spaces and we're going
to set the default value to false
show
all
dealer
cards
and when the default value is going to
be false
now we'll add it to this if statement
so
we'll add another
and
not
show
all
dealer cards
so
it's going to be hidden if we're not
showing all the dealer cards
but if we are showing all the dealer
cards then this whole if statement will
be false so we'll just print the card
and there's going to be one other
scenario where we're not going to print
hidden if there's a blackjack then the
game is over the person with the
blackjack is just going to win and then
we'll just print all the cards so we're
going to add that to this long if
statement here so we'll say
and not is
black jack
and it should be
self dot is blackjack to be able to call
this method here
and since this is such a long line is
always going to go to this next line we
can do this special thing
we can add a slash here
and then just go to the next line
so
this slash or it's a backslash i mean
this backslash will indicate that the
line continues on the following line
okay we're done creating the hand class
so we'll delete
everything that we were using for
testing before
okay it's time to code the final and
longest class that runs the game so what
i want you to do is create a class
called game and inside the class create
a method called play and inside the
method create a variable called
gamenumber with the underscore for the
space
and set that to zero so class game
and then we'll create another variable
games to play and set that to zero
now we're going to set games to play
to be whatever the user inputs
after they're asked how many games do
you want to play
so you may remember how to do
input from before
so we just do input
now we want to make sure the games to
play is an end so we just need to
convert this to an end
[Music]
okay now let's test things so far so at
the end i will put g equals game i'm
going to create a new game
and then g dot play
okay let's test this
how many games you want to play
five
okay well it's not going to play the
games yet we still have to create that
so there is a potential for an error
here if i do this again and i just put
how many games i put you or some letter
we're going to get an error
so basically anytime someone puts
something that's not a number is going
to be an error
so let's create a try accept block to
handle the exception
and
if they put something that's not a
number we'll
print you must enter a number so let me
arrange this and we've already learned a
little bit about try except blocks i'm
going to put try
and it's going to try this
and then if that doesn't work if there's
an exception
[Music]
it will print
[Music]
you must enter a number
so currently the user gets only one
chance to input a correct value let's
make the program keep asking the user
for a value until the user enters a
number this can be done with a while
loop the while loop just keeps looping
while something is true so keep looping
until the user enters a number by
putting the entire tri-catch block into
a while loop that keeps looping while
the game's a play is less than or equal
to zero
[Music]
oh and i have to make sure i spell
while correctly
okay now let's create the main game loop
this is a new loop that will loop one
time per game played it should loop
while game number is less than games to
play and the first line of loop should
increment the game number by one
inside the loop we'll create a deck
object in a deck variable and shuffle
the deck
now we'll create a variable called
playerhand and set it to a hand object
and then we'll create a variable called
dealerhand and set it to a hand object
but this time we'll make sure to specify
that dealer equals true
okay this next part will be a little
more complicated we'll create a for loop
that loops two times and each iteration
should add a card to the player's hand
that is dealt from the deck and add a
card to the dealer's hand that is also
dealt from the deck
[Music]
okay we just dealt two cards each player
now information is going to be printed
to the console for each game so let's
start by printing an empty line
now we'll print an asterisk 30 times to
make a divider
there's a trick to printing something a
lot of times so i can put an asterisk
in in quotation marks and then just do
times 30.
so it's going to print it 30 times now
we'll print the current game number out
of the total number of games
so it'll be something like game 4 of 10
and we'll use an f string
and then we'll just print 30 more
asterisks
now we'll display the player's hand
and then the dealer's hand
at this point in the game someone could
already have won if they got a blackjack
the code should check if there's a
winner let's put the code to check if
there's a winner in a separate method of
the game class so create a method called
check winner for now the method should
just return false
and just make sure everything's indented
correctly this should be less indented
than the previous line here
the check winner function should take
the playerhand and dealer hand as
arguments
now before this return statement
we're going to check if
playerhand.getvalue is greater than 21.
if so we'll print you busted dealer wins
and then return true and remember once
the program gets to a return statement
none of the following statements in the
block are run
[Music]
now we'll use a few lf statements to
check for various other conditions so
we'll add an lf statement to see if the
dealer got over 21
and then we'll print dealer busted you
win and then return true
[Music]
oh and i just copied all this but this
should be an l if not if
and then we'll add an lf statement to
check if both players have a blackjack
and then we'll print both players have a
blackjack tie
and then return true
[Music]
and then we'll add an elf statement to
check if player hand has a blackjack and
then we'll print you have blackjack you
win
and then return true
and then we'll check if the dealer hand
has a blackjack and then say dealer has
blackjack dealer wins
and return true
[Music]
okay we're done with all the hand when
conditions but the game can also end if
both players choose not to get more
cards so we're going to add a new
argument to the check winner method with
a default value it's going to be game
over equals false
so we'll add game
over
equals false
if it's true that means both players
have chosen not to get more cards now
we'll use the new argument
the string of if and lf statements
should only be run
if it's not a game over and we'll make
sure the line returned false is not in
the if statement
so
here we'll say
if
not game
over
and then i'll just select all these and
put them
in here
so if game over is true we'll check if
the player hand's value is more than the
deal hands value and if so we'll print
you in
so we can do this with an else here
else
if player
[Music]
and then we'll do an lf for if it's a
tie
so this is an lf
and we'll say if these are
equal to each other
and we'll print
tie
and then make sure we have the correct
emoji for a tie
[Music]
and then else the dealer is one
so we'll just do
else
[Music]
and then at the exact same level of
indentation as the else we just added
we'll add return true this will make the
method return true if game over equals
true
now let's go back to the play method
inside the while loop
and then we'll do an if statement and
we'll do if and then we'll call the
check winner function with the player
hand and the dealer hand so let's go
back up here
if self dot check
winner
and then we'll enter the player hand and
the dealer hand
[Music]
so if this is true that means we should
go on to the next game
to do that we do continue
so continue is going to just go to the
next iteration of the loop and the loop
we're on is this loop so when we go to
the next iteration we start a new game
at this point in the game the player
will be able to choose hit or stand
so inside the while loop but not inside
the if statement we just added we'll
create a variable called choice and set
it to be an empty string
the player should be able to keep
choosing until the value of their hand
is over 21. so right under the choice
variable we'll add a while loop that
loops while player hand's value is less
than 21 and inside the loop we'll add a
line to get the choice
that's either going to be hit or stand
[Music]
and then we'll just add this to convert
whatever the answer is whatever the user
put in we are going to convert it to
lowercase
the while loop we just added should also
stop if the user's choice is stand or or
s so we'll update the line that starts
the while loop to also stop if the
choice isn't s or stand so just do and
choice
not in
and this is there's a few ways to do it
but this is kind of a new way that i'm
just showing you here
[Music]
so we are checking if choice is not in
this list and inside the list we have
two elements s or stand so if choice is
not in that if the choice is not s or
stand then we'll continue the loop
and then after the input we'll print an
empty line
also we want the program to keep asking
the user for a choice until the user
enters a valid choice
the valid choices are hs hit and stand
so right after the last print statement
at the same indentation we'll add a
while loop that will keep looping until
the user enters a valid choice
and inside that while loop we'll ask for
input again
but we'll specify it can be h or s as
well
[Music]
so this is going to look very similar to
this line but it's going to kind of
clarify things just a little bit
and then we'll print another empty line
the last while loop we checked if choice
was not in a list
outside of the recently added a while
loop but inside the loop we just added
before that one we'll add an if
statement to check if choice is in the
list hit or h and if so we'll add a card
to the player's hand that is dealt from
the deck
and then right below that will display
the player's hand
outside all the while loops about the
player making a choice we'll check for a
winner we'll use the same if statement
and continue statement that we use last
time we checked for winner so i'll just
copy this
and then
we have to make sure it's lined up
correctly
okay so this is outside of this while
loop so after this all is all done we
check for a winner let's just add an
empty line there to
make it more clear that the while loop
is over
now we'll store the value of the
player's hand in a variable named player
hand value with underscores for spaces
[Music]
and we'll do the same thing with the
dealer's hand
[Music]
remember i could use the command d or
control d to select two words at once
and change them both at the same time
okay the dealer should keep drawing
cards until dealer hand value is more
than 17 so we'll make this happen with a
while loop
and inside the loop we'll make sure the
dealer is dealt a card from the deck and
that dealer hand value is updated
so you can try that yourself but i'm
going to show you right now while
dealer
hand value
is less than 17.
then we will do dealer
hand dot
add card
okay and after this while loop will
display the dealer's hand and when we
call the display method we'll make sure
to set show all dealer cards to true
[Music]
and since it's the end of the game
that's why we're just showing all the
cards
now we'll check for a winner just like
before
then we'll print final results
then we'll print your hand colon and
then the player hand value
[Music]
and then the dealer's hand
now we'll call the check winner function
one final time
but this time it should not be an if
statement and we'll pass in the hands
like before but this time we'll add a
third argument of true to indicate that
the game is over
and at this point in the code the game
is over
so outside the outer while loop and in
the play method we'll add the final line
of saying
thanks for playing
so it's going to be outside that while
loop and we'll put print
and just to demonstrate it i use an
escape character to add a new line so
this slash in is going to add a new line
and then do thanks for playing and when
i line this up for with the while loop i
realize that this entire function should
not be lined up with the while loop
sometimes it gets tricky with um
figuring out the exact right indentation
so if i
kind of go up straight up here
i should say see that this should be
lined up with this play function
so i'm going to come back down to this
function
i'm going to
copy this all
and i'm just going to do shift tab
to indent it all one less
this happens sometimes when running
python code sometimes the indentation
can get all mixed up but that should be
correct now and i think the red squiggly
lines here on the return true are not a
mistake in the code but a mistake in the
error checking because it comes after
that emoji and it doesn't know how to
handle the emoji but it's perfectly fine
for code to have emojis okay let's run
the program and try it out so i'll press
play how many games i want to play i'll
do three
so game of one of three so i can see i
have 17 i don't know what the dealer has
but i'm going to s for stand
okay it's always good to test so it says
deal is missing one required positional
argument so let's go up to
it says line 139 so this can kind of
help us know where to go so let's go up
to 139
and yeah i want to deal a single card so
i'm going to deal one card here
and
were there any other times i did use
deal
i want to
deal one card here
and
yeah i got the deal one up here so i
just think i just forgot the deal one in
those places
so uh thanks to these error messages
whenever you have a problem make sure to
read the error messages and it can often
give you a very good idea of what you
need to do wrong because even says deal
is missing one required positional
argument the number so that can really
help figure out what's wrong with your
code so let's try that again we'll do
three games
and then this time i will hit
and i'm going to stand
okay so now we have another error
so it says 173
and oh this i can already see this is
spelled wrong so let's go to
173
and
make sure i spell that correctly
and make sure i spell that correctly
okay let's try again
how many games you want to play three
i'm going to hit
and hit
okay so the first game
you busted dealer wins and now we're on
game number two i'll hit
and this time i will stand
okay dealer busted you win now we're on
game three of three
and i will hit
and i will stand
and final results your hand 20 dealer's
hand 19
you win
thanks for playing
we just completed this whole game
okay we've reached the end of the course
so you've learned the basics of python
and if you've been coding along you've
written two python programs good luck on
your programming journey thanks for
watching and remember use your code for
good bye bye bye
bye bye
okay