UNIT-2 SMART WORLD &

SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
 First Industrial Revolution
Second Industrial Revolution
Third Industrial Revolution
Industry 4.0
Four design principles
• Interconnection —
• the ability of machines, devices, sensors, and people to connect and communicate with each other via the Internet
of things, or the internet of people (IoP)

• Information transparency —
• the transparency afforded by Industry 4.0 technology provides operators with comprehensive information to make
decisions.

• Technical assistance —
• the technological facility of systems to assist humans in decision-making and problem-solving, and the ability to
help humans with difficult or unsafe tasks

• Decentralized decisions —
• the ability of cyber physical systems to make decisions on their own and to perform their tasks as autonomously as
possible.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
•Sensors are devices that responds to a physical stimulus heat, light, sound,
pressure, magnetism, motion, etc , and convert that into an electrical signal.

•Devices which perform an output function are generally called Actuators and
are used to control some external device, for example movement.

•Both sensors and actuators are collectively known as Transducers. Transducers

are devices used to convert energy of one kind into energy of another kind.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION

Historic evolution from “Sensor 1.0” to smart sensors, i.e. “Sensor 4.0”
 SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
•Sensors are electrical, opto-electrical, or electronic devices consisting of materials that
help to determine the presence of a particular entity or function.
•Sensors can operate either actively or passively.
 SENSORS: 1. TEMPERATURE SENSORS
A temperature sensor is a device that has the ability to collect temperature concerned
information from a resource, and then changes it into information that can be understood
by another device . These sensors have the ability to measure the thermal characteristics
of gases, liquids, and solids.
These sensors can be divided into two groups:
(a) low-temperature sensors, with a range of -100 to 400 ⸰C, using sensing materials such
as phosphors, semi-conductors, and liquid crystals.
(b) high-temperature sensors with a range of 500 to 2000 ⸰C
Following table shows the different sub-types of temperature sensor, along with their key
features.
SUB-TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SENSORS: 2. PRESSURE SENSORS
•Pressure sensors have the ability to capture pressure changes and transform them into an
electrical signal, where the applied pressure defines its quantity. These sensors can also
be used to detect atmospheric changes.
•For example, barometric pressure sensors have the ability to detect changes in the
atmosphere that are helpful for the prediction of weather patterns and changes.

Following table shows the different along with their key features
SUB-TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS
 SENSORS: 3. POSITION SENSORS
•These sensors are used to sense the positions of valves, doors, throttles etc. These sensors are
equipped with location tracking abilities that help to determine the precise positions of work-in-
progress, tools, and other production-relevant items within the facility.
•For Example, Motion sensors (which trigger actions such as illuminating a floodlight by detecting
movement of an object) and proximity sensors (which detect that an object has come within the
range of a sensor).

Following table shows the different along with their key features.
SUB-TYPES OF POSITION SENSORS
 SENSORS: 4. FORCE SENSORS
•Force sensors are designated to translate applied forces (such as tensile, compressive force, etc.)
into electric signals which reflect the degree of force . These signals are then sent to indicators,
controllers, or computers that inform operators about the processes, or serve as inputs that help to
achieve control over machinery and processes.
•For instance, load cells measure compressive forces, strain gauges measure the internal resistance
forces
Following table shows the different, along with their key features.
SUB-TYPES OF FORCE SENSORS
 SENSORS: 5. FLOW SENSORS
•These sensors have the ability to sense the movement of gases, liquids, or solids within a pipe or a
conduit. These sensors have extensive uses in processing industries, and allow operation of the
machinery at an optimum performance level. A flow sensor can be electronic, using ultrasonic
detection of the flow, or partially mechanical.
•For instance, flow sensors in automobiles measure air intake in the engine and adjust fuel delivery
to the fuel injectors in order to provide optimum fuel to the engine.
Following table shows the different along with their key features.
SUB-TYPES OF FLOW SENSORS
 SENSORS: 6. SMART SENSORS
•With the integration of computing and IoT in industrial processes, ordinary sensors have
been transformed into smart sensors providing them with abilities to carry out complex
calculations with collected data.
Attributes of smart sensors
•Smaller in size
•Flexible
•Equipped with signal conditioning, embedded algorithms, and digital interfaces.
•Predict and monitor real time scenarios
•Take corrective actions instantly
Building blocks of smart sensor
 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF INTELLIGENT SENSORS
•Convert real-time information into digital data.
•Collecting raw data
•Adjusting sensitivity
•Filtering,
•Motion detection,
•Analysis
•Communication
•For instance, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are one of the applications of smart sensors,
whose nodes are connected with one or more other sensors and sensor hubs, making a
communication technology of some kind.
FEATURES OF SMART SENSORS
 SMART SENSOR: CALIBRATION CAPABILITY

The ability of a sensor to determine its normal function is termed calibration capability.

SMART SENSOR: SELF-DIAGNOSIS OF FAULTS

•Smart sensors carry out self-diagnosis by observing internal signals for evidence of
faults.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
TYPES OF SMART SENSORS
(a) SMART SENSOR HYBRID
Three different types of configurations are shown in which all the components are
placed on a chip. This is called standardization. In the first hybrid system, a sensor is
connected with ADC and bus interface with the help of universal sensor interface. The
second configuration shows the connection of sensor analog system with the digital
circuit and bus interface. In the third configuration, sensor is combined with the interface
circuit already to provide duty cycle and bit stream as shown in figure
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
(b) INTEGRATED SMART SENSORS
If we integrate all functions from sensor to bus interface in one chip, we get an
integrated smart sensor as shown in figure below
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
SMART SENSOR ARCHITECTURE
The basic architectural components of smart sensor are listed as follows:
Sensing element/transduction element
Amplifier
Sample and hold
Analog multiplexer
Analog to digital converter (ADC)
Offset and temperature compensation
Digital to analog converter (DAC)
Memory
Serial communication
Processor
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
SMART SENSOR ARCHITECTURE
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
ADVANTAGES OF SMART SENSORS

The smart sensor takes over the conditioning and control of the sensor signal,
reducing the load on the central control system, allowing faster system operation.
Direct digital control provides high accuracy, not achievable with analog control
systems and central processing.
The cost of smart sensor systems is presently higher than that of conventional
systems, but when the cost of maintenance, ease of programming, ease of adding
new sensors is taken into account, the long- term cost of smart sensor systems is less.
Individual controllers can monitor and control more than one process variable.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
DISADVANTAGES OF SMART SENSORS

If upgrading to smart sensors, care has to be taken when mixing old devices with
new sensors, since they may not be compatible.
If a bus wire fails, the total system is down, which is not the case with discrete
wiring. However, with discrete wiring, if one sensor connection fails, it may be
necessary to shut the system down. The problem of bus wire failure can be
alleviated by the use of a redundant backup bus.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
APPLICATIONS OF SMART SENSORS

INDUSTRIAL In industries machines and equipment are monitored and controlled for
pressure, temperature , humidity level and also for vibrations
AUTOMOTIVES Communications between engine, transmission, suspension, braking
and other controls has long been anticipated.
FINGER PRINT RECOGNISITION A fingerprint sensor is an electronic device used to
capture a digital image of the fingerprint pattern. The captured image is called a live
scan. This live scan is digitally processed to create a biometric template (a collection of
extracted features) which is stored and used for matching.
PATTERN RECOGNISITION The sensor uses incident light or backlight to detect the
contours of an object and compares them with the contours of one or several models in a
reference image.
 SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
APPLICATIONS OF SMART SENSORS
TELECOMMUNICATION A smart card known as a Wireless Identity Module, is similar to
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) used on existing GSM cellular phones. The card
guarantees 100-percent security for e-commerce transactions by providing authentication
of the parties involved, by means of encryption and digital signatures.
DEFENCE APPLICATIONS Smart cameras that can operate sophisticated software
analytics onboard the camera itself, and then report alarms remotely using IP networking
facilities. It has ability to perform object detection, crowd pattern analysis, secure zone
intrusion detection, and so on boost the efficiency and accuracy of a human operator who
is likely monitoring multiple banks of displays. Smart sensor equipments helps in monitoring
a wide variety of parameters like EMI, fatigue loading, thermal cycling, vibration and
shock levels, acoustic emissions and corrosive environments
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
DIGITAL PROCESSING AND MANIPULATION (SMART SENSORS)

The main circuit block required before digital control and manipulation of sensor
data can take place is the analog-digital converter.
Once the sensor data is digitized, a variety of signal processing schemes can be
used to correct for a number of errors and shortcomings. These include offset
cancellation, auto-calibration, self-testing, fault detection and correction and
linearity correction.
Auto-calibration is a very desirable function for smart sensors. Most sensors
should be adjusted for changes in gain and offset.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
SIGNAL PROCESSING OF SMART SENSORS
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
SIGNAL PROCESSING OF SMART SENSORS

The signals recorded by many sensors are typically low in amplitude, Integration
of interface electronics and signal processing circuitry at the sensor site (monolithic or
hybrid) serves a number of functions, including signal amplification, impedance
transformation, signal filtering and buffering, and multiplexing.
CMOS amplifiers are perhaps the most suitable since they provide high gain and
high input impedance through a relatively simple and compact circuit and are
readily compatible with integration of high-density digital circuitry on the same chip.
In addition to signal amplification, impedance transformation and signal filtering
are also required.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
7. Nuclear Sensors
Nuclear sensors are very uncommon due to two reasons: they are costly and have strict
safety regulations for their use. Recent developments have made the availability of
low-level radiation sources for safe use of these sensors.
8. Micro-Sensors (MEMS Sensors)
Micro-sensors contain two and three dimensional micro-machined structures that are a
part of microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices. These sensors can be regarded
as small sized transducers, as they convert mechanical signals from an energy source
into electrical form. Currently, sensors that measure temperature, pressure, force, speed,
sound, magnetic field, optical, biomedical, and chemical features are being used
successfully by industries.
SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
9. Nano-Sensors (NEMS)
Nano-sensors, based on nanotechnology, are the most recent development in sensing
technology. These are a part of nano-electromechanical system (NEMS) devices which
include Nano-actuators as well.

Following Table summarizes the main characteristics of these sensors [7,8,9].

SENSORS AND THEIR INTEGRATION
INTEGRATION OF SENSOR

•The integration and development of sensors, devices, and protocols based

on the IoT are important enablers of applications, for both industries and
the general population, by helping to make smart buildings a reality.

•IoT technology allows for the interaction between smart things and the real
world, providing a method for harvesting data from the analogue world
and producing information and knowledge in the digital world.
INTEGRATION OF SENSOR
•For example, a smartphone has built-in sensing and communication
capabilities, such as sensors for acceleration, location, along with
communication protocols that support Wi-Fi, SMS, and cellular. They also
have NFC (near field communication ) and RFID (radio frequency
identification ), both of which can be used for identification.

•Consequently, the smartphone provides the means to capture data and

communicate information. Also, the ubiquity and user acceptance of the
smartphone makes them an ideal HMI (human machine interface ) for smart
buildings, where users need to control their own environmental conditions.
 UNIT-2 SMART WORLD &
SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
What is a Renewable Energy Source?
•Renewable energy source include such a natural source which can be replaced by natural
ecological cycles. That is, they renew thus never gets deplete.
•Tidal, wave, geothermal, wind and solar energies are the known renewable energy
sources.
•The energy coming from sun and wind can be characterized as both sustainable and
renewable energy sources.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Energy Sources
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Energy Sources
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Comparison of renewable and conventional energy systems
Based on Renewable Energy system Conventional Energy system

Examples Wind, solar, biomass, tidal etc. Coal, oil, gas etc.

Source Natural local environment Concentrated stock

Initial average intensity Low intensity, less than 300 High intensities, more than
W/݉ଶ 100,000 W/݉ଶ

Lifetime of supply Infinite Finite

Cost at source Free Increasingly expansive

Equipment cost per kW capacity Expensive, commonly 1000 Moderate, perhaps 500
USD/kW USD/kW (without emissions
control) Expansive, perhaps more
than 1000 USD/kW (with
emissions control)
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Comparison of renewable and conventional energy systems
Based on Renewable Energy system Conventional Energy system

Output Fluctuating, most of the times, Steady

unpredictable
Scale Small and moderate scale often Increased scale often improves
economic, large scale may supply costs, large scale
present difficulties frequently favored
Dependence Self-sufficient and islanded Systems depended on outside
systems supported inputs
Pollution and environmental Usually little environment harm, Environmental pollution intrinsic
damage especially at moderate scale and common, specialy of air and
water
Cost at source Free Increasingly expansive
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Types of Renewable energy sources
1. Electricity generation through PV (Photovoltaic systems)
•PV systems use electronic component to convert solar radiation into electricity. • Greater
the intensity of sunlight, greater is the flow of electricity.
•Photovoltaic (PV) systems which convert solar power directly into electricity are being
installed in increasing numbers in many countries. Feed-in-tariffs, which provide
guaranteed payment per unit of electricity (p/kWh) for renewable electricity generation
have been particularly important in stimulating the uptake of PV.
•The PV module contains a number of photovoltaic cells connected in series and in parallel.
Different configurations of DC–DC converters are used, for example, boost, push–pull, full
bridge, and flyback converter. The DC voltage on the inverter side of the DC–DC
converter is normally maintained to be constant by the inverter control.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Types of solar PV systems
(a) Grid-tied system (b) Off-grid systems

•Electricity is fed directly into the power supply. •Electricity is generated and stored in batteries for use
Excess electricity being sold to energy companies locally.
using grid. •Off-grid systems are great for customers who can’t easily
•A grid-tied system is a basic solar installation that connect to the grid. This may be because of geographical
uses a standard grid-tied inverter and does not have location or high cost of bringing in the power supply.
any battery storage. This is perfect for customers •The benefits of an off grid system is that a person can
who are already on the grid and want to add solar become energy self-sufficient and can power remote
to their house. places away from the grid.
•Grid-tied systems are simple to design and are very •You also have fixed energy costs and won’t be getting a
cost effective because they have relatively few bill from your energy use. Another neat aspect of off grid
components. systems is that they are modular and you can increase the
•The main objective of a grid-tied system is to lower capacity as your energy needs grow. You can start out with
your energy bill and benefit from solar incentives. a small, budget-conscious system and add on over time.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
•One disadvantage of this type of system is that when the power goes out, so does your
system. This is for safety reasons because linemen working on the power lines need to
know there is no source feeding the grid. Grid-tied inverters have to automatically
disconnect when they don’t sense the grid. This means that you cannot provide power
during an outage or an emergency and you can’t store energy for later use. You also can’t
control when you use the power from your system, such as during peak demand time.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
•Because the system is your only source of power, many off-grid systems contain multiple
charging sources such as solar, wind and generator. You have to consider weather and
year round conditions when designing the system. If your solar panels are covered in snow,
you need to have another way to keep your batteries charged up. You also will most likely
want to have a back-up generator just in case your renewable sources are not enough at
times to keep the batteries charged.
•One disadvantage is that off-grid systems may not qualify for some incentive programs.
You have to also design your system to cover 100% of your energy loads, and hopefully
even a little bit more. Off-grid systems have more components and are more expensive
than a standard grid-tied system as well.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
(c) Solar parks
A photovoltaic power station is called solar park. A photovoltaic power station, also known
as a solar park, solar farm, or solar power plant is a large-scale photovoltaic system (PV
system) designed for the supply of merchant power into the electricity grid. They are
differentiated from most building-mounted and other decentralized solar power
applications because they supply power at the utility level, rather than to a local user or
users. The generic expression utility-scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of
project.
Most Solar parks are ground mounted PV systems, also known as free-field solar power
plants. They can either be fixed tilt or use a single axis or dual axis solar tracker. While
tracking improves the overall performance, it also increases the system's installation and
maintenance cost. A solar inverter converts the array's power output from dc to ac, and
connection to the utility grid is made through a high voltage, three phase step
up transformer of typically 10 kV and above.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Pros
• Nonpolluting
• Most abundant energy source available
• Systems last 15-30 years
Cons
• High initial investment
• Dependent on sunny weather
• Supplemental energy may be needed in low sunlight areas
• Requires large physical space for PV cell panels
• Limited availability of polysilicon for panels
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
2. Wind energy systems
•Wind generation systems involves converting the potential and/or kinetic energy in air into
electrical energy.
•Wind turbines allow us to harness the power of the wind and turn it into energy. When the
wind blows, the wind turbine's blades spin clockwise, capturing energy of the wind. This
triggers the main shaft of the wind turbine, connected to a gearbox within the nacelle, to
spin. The gearbox sends that energy to the generator, converting it to electricity. Wind
electricity then travels to a transformer, where voltage levels are adjusted to match with
the grid.
•Wind farms are now being developed both onshore and offshore. Placing a wind turbine
in the sea is more challenging and expensive but offshore wind farms enjoy a stronger
and more consistent wind resource and reduced environmental impact.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Lift-type wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way
the turbine spins
a) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
b) Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Advantages of HAWT
• The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
• High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation.
Disadvantages of HAWT
• Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
• Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position.
• HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine
from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
A vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) is a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft
is set transverse to the wind (but not necessarily vertically) while the main components are
located at the base of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to
be located close to the ground, facilitating service and repair. VAWTs do not need to be
pointed into the wind, which removes the need for wind-sensing and orientation
mechanisms.
A vertical axis wind turbine has its axis perpendicular to the wind streamlines and vertical
to the ground. A more general term that includes this option is "transverse axis wind
turbine" or "cross-flow wind turbine."
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Advantages of VAWT
• No yaw mechanisms is needed.
• A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
• VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
• VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
• VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where rooftops,
mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Disadvantages of VAWT
• Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do not take
advantage of higher wind speeds above.
• Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages
mentioned, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has often
made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Sizes and Applications

Size Small Intermediate Large

Rating <=10 kW 10-250 kW 250 kW-2+MW

Applications Homes, Farms, Remote Village Power, Hybrid Central Station ,Wind,
Applications (e.g. water Systems, Distributed Power Farms, Distributed Power
pumping, telecom sites,
icemaking)
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
3. Hydro energy systems
•Power in flowing water is the combination of head and flow. Both must be present to
produce electricity.
•Water is diverted from a stream into a pipeline, where it is directed downhill and through
the turbine (flow). The vertical drop (head) creates pressure at the bottom end of the
pipeline. The pressurized water emerging from the end of the pipe creates the force that
drives turbine.
•Hydropower is a mature technology with units varying in size from a few kW to hundreds
of MW.
•Electric power output will always be slightly less than water power output due to turbine
and system inefficiencies.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Components of Hydroelectric System
• Water Diversion (Intake)
• Pipeline (Penstock)
• Powerhouse
• Turbine
• Drive System
• Generator
• AC Controls
• DC Controls
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Head
•Head is water pressure, which is created by the difference in elevation between the water
intake and the turbine. Head can be expressed as vertical distance (feet or meters), or as
pressure, such as psi.
•Net head is the pressure available at the turbine when water is flowing, which will always
be less than the pressure when the water is turned off (static head), due to the friction
between the water and the pipe. Pipeline diameter has an effect on net head.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Flow
Flow is water quantity, and is expressed as "volume per time", such as gallons per minute
(gpm), cubic feet per second (cfs), or liters per minute.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Water Diversion (Intake)
• The intake is typically the highest point of a hydro system, where water is diverted from
the stream into the pipeline that feeds turbine.
• A diversion can be as simple as a screened pipe dropped into a pool of water, or as big
and complex as a dam across an entire creek or river.
A water diversion system serves two primary purposes:
1. It provides a deep enough pool of water to create a smooth, air-free inlet to pipeline
2. Remove dirt and debris
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Water Diversion (Intake)
• The intake is typically the highest point of a hydro system, where water is diverted from
the stream into the pipeline that feeds turbine.
• A diversion can be as simple as a screened pipe dropped into a pool of water, or as big
and complex as a dam across an entire creek or river.
A water diversion system serves two primary purposes:
1. It provides a deep enough pool of water to create a smooth, air-free inlet to pipeline
2. Remove dirt and debris
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Pipeline (Penstock)
• The pipeline, or penstock, not only moves the water to turbine, but is also the enclosure
that creates head pressure as the vertical drop increases.
• In effect, the pipeline focuses all the water power at the bottom of the pipe, where the
turbine is actually present.
• In contrast, an open stream dissipates the energy as the water travels downhill.
• Pipeline diameter, length, material, and routing all affect efficiency.
• As a rule of thumb, a small-diameter pipeline reduce available horsepower, even though
it can carry all available water.
• Large diameter pipelines have less friction as the water travels through. These losses are
also called head losses.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Powerhouse
The powerhouse is simply a building or box that houses:
• Turbine • Generator • Controls
Its main function is to provide a place for the system components to be mounted, and to
protect them from damages. Its design can affect the system efficiency, especially with
regard to how the water enters and exits turbine.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Turbine
The turbine is the heart of the hydro system, where water power is converted into the
rotational force that drives the generator. For maximum efficiency, the turbine should be
designed to match specific head and flow.
There are many different types of turbines, and proper selection requires considerable
expertise. Water turbines can mainly classify as:
1. Reaction Turbines :Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it
moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the
water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
2. Impulse Turbines : Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on
the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in
momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the
force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished
energy. An impulse turbine is one which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor
blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the
fluid.

The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of water,
and the type of impeller selected.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM

Drive System
The drive system couples the turbine to the generator. At one end, it allows the turbine to
spin at the rpm that delivers best efficiency. At the other, it drives the generator at rpm
that produces correct voltage and frequency. The most efficient and reliable drive system
is a direct 1:1 coupling between the turbine and generator. This is possible for many sites,
but not for all head and flow combinations.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM

Generator
The generator converts the rotational energy from the turbine shaft into electricity.
Efficiency is important at this stage too, but most modern, well-built generators deliver
good efficiency. Direct current (DC) generators, or alternators with rectifiers, are typically
used with small household systems, and are usually augmented with batteries for reserve
capacity, as well as inverters for converting the electricity into the AC, required by most
appliances.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Controls
AC Controls: Pure AC hydro systems have no batteries or inverters. AC is used by loads
directly from the generator, and surplus electricity is burned off in dump loads - usually
resistance heaters. Governors and other controls help ensure that an AC generator
constantly spins at its correct speed. The most common types of governors for small hydro
systems accomplish this by managing the loads on the generator.
With no load, the generator would "freewheel", and run at a very high rpm. By adding
progressively higher loads, it can be eventually slow down until it reaches the exact rpm
for proper AC voltage and frequency. As long as it maintain this "perfect" load, known as
the design load, electrical output will be correct.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
DC Controls: A DC hydro system works very differently from an AC system. The alternator
or generator output charges batteries. A diversion controller shunts excess energy to a
dump load. An inverter converts DC electricity to AC electricity for home use. • DC systems
make sense for smaller streams with potential of less than 3 kW.
AC systems are limited to a peak load that is equivalent to the output of the generator.
With a battery bank and large inverter, DC system can supply a high peak load from the
batteries even though the generating capacity is lower.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
3. Oceanic Energy Conversion Systems energy systems
•There are mainly three types of oceanic energy conversion systems (OECS):
–Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
– Tidal energy conversion (TEC)
–Wave energy conversion (WEC)
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) utilizes the temperature difference between the
warm surface of ocean water and cold deep ocean water to generate electricity. For OTEC
to produce a net output of energy, the temperature difference between the surface water
and water at the depth of around 1 km (called subsurface) is required to be atleast 20⁰C.
The concept of OTEC is based on the utilization of temperature difference in a heat engine
to generate power.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Tidal Energy Conversion (TEC) utilizes the
concept of storing water during high tides
and releasing it during low tides through a
turbine, generating electric power. The tidal
phenomenon is the periodic motion of the
ocean water, caused by celestial bodies,
principally the moon and the sun, on the
different parts of the rotating earth. Tides
are formed due to gravitational forces
between earth and celestial bodies.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Wave Energy Conversion (WEC) utilizes the
energy in oceanic waves to produce a net
power output. The waves travel for thousands
of miles from their point of propagation,
continually strengthened by new winds as they
pass by. As a result, waves retain their energy
long after the winds that create them die down.
Waves are caused by the transfer of energy
from wind to sea. The rate of transfer depends
on:
– wind speed
– distance over which it interacts with water
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
4. Biomass
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. Biomass can
equally apply to both animal and vegetable derived material. Biomass is fuel, that is
developed from organic materials, a renewable and sustainable source of energy used to
create electricity or other forms of power.

Fourth-generation (clean) biofuels: This system not only captures and stores carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere but it also reduces CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
4. Geothermal
•Volcanoes, geysers, hot springs and boiling mud pots are the visible evidences of the great
reservoirs of heat that lie within the beneath the earth’s crust.
•The extraction and utilization of this large quantity of heat requires a carrier to transfer
the heat towards the accessible depths beneath the earth’s surface.
•Generally, the heat is transferred from depth to sub-surface regions firstly by conduction
and then by convection, with geothermal fluids acting as the carrier in this case.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
•In the future Smart Grid there will be increasing connection to the distribution network of
renewable energy sources, electric vehicles and heat pumps.
•More flexible loads will be expected to support the grid by accepting varying supplies of
energy from renewable sources and by controlling peaks in demand.
•For sensitive loads such as computers and high value manufacturing plants, the quality of
supply will be important.
•Therefore visibility, controllability, and flexibility will be essential features throughout the
future power system with power electronics playing a key role.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
WHY HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM?
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
WHY HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM?
•Stochastic and unpredictable weather behavior.
•Its availability varies depending on the location.
•That is why, it is necessary to complement renewable with other sources like
batteries. Because of this intermittent nature of renewable, single renewable
energy source tends to be problematic in terms of energy yield and
operational cost.
•Two or more renewable are being combined to form a hybrid renewable
energy system (HRES).
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
WHY HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM?
•Improve electrical power production,
•to minimize cost
•to reduce negative effects associated with burning fossil fuels
• to improve the overall system efficiency.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
•In recent times, the integrated renewable energy system is gaining more attention,
because a hybridized system can be efficiently applied to supply high efficiency and
reliable electricity to the end-users, unlike a single-renewable source.
•A HRES can be applied in stand-alone or grid-connected modes.
•Stand-alone system must have a large storage to handle the load.
•While in a grid-connected mode, the storage can be small, and the deficient power can
be acquired from the grid.

•Thus HRES operating model is classified into Island mode where the generated electricity is
consumed locally and grid connected mode where the renewable energy source is
connected to the grid
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
•It is interesting, to note that, among the renewable energy sources, wind power is the
fastest growing in terms of global annual and cumulative installed capacity. Wind energy
is almost everywhere around the world. But the wind speed strength varies depending on
the particular area. Wind energy can be operates during the day and night times, unlike
other renewable.
•Solar is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available on earth
(SEIA 2013). Solar energy can be defined as radiant light and heat from the sun and is
harnessed by human using technologies. The amount of energy harnessed from the sun is
depending on radiation and scientists define radiation in two different ways which are
energy in wave form (electromagnetic wave) or energy in particle form (photons).
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
Macro grid
The physical framework of which electric power is produced using diverse generators to
supply the load using electric conductors and cables overhead or underground transmission
and distribution networks, usually use assorted transmission and distribution equipment.
The Following figure represents electric power of three phase grid emanating from the
generating station through step up transformer connected to three phase transmission lines
and connected to step down transformer that distributes electric power to various consumer
load. The grid in the figure is a three phase alternating current network for alternating
current (AC) loads, and conversely, a direct current (DC) model are also use for diverse
loads. Illustrates multiple grids made available and categorized as micro, and large
networks connected to diverse conventional and renewable energy generators.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
 HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
Micro grid
•Micro grid is said to be a network designed to integrate distributed energy resources,
control operation, power quality, energy management infrastructure for load demand and
power supply stability.
•It is the smallest facility common among the grid with diverse generators using extra low
voltage three phase-four wire supply down to single phase three wire or two wires supply
configuration to provide electricity supply to consumers load.
•Furthermore, micro grid is considered to be a group of distributed resources (DER) and
loads forming an electrical network.
•It has a grid of low-voltage distribution energy resource (DER), energy storage system
(ESS) and/or micro sources such as photovoltaic, fuel cell, wind turbine, etc.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
•Micro grid may have controllable energy sources such as biomass, hydro, fossil fuel or
uncontrollable energy sources like solar and wind or may be flow-of-the-river that is
dependent on daily, monthly and annual rain falls. Controlling solar and wind-micro grid is
challenging it involves measuring the parameters such as solar irradiance or Insolation, PV
array voltage, PV array current, ambient temperature, wind speed, and AC load pattern
for a year evaluation. Conversely, the renewable energy storage loss, energy converter
average yield, peak period parameters are used for evaluation of micro grid power
performance
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
Diverse generations (DGs)
•A single source of electric power delivery to the consumer, local load is a diverse
generation strategy such as conventional fossil fuel generation like oil, coal, etc. or
renewable energy method such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, etc. Diesel or
gasoline generators that are usually and commonly use in the rural areas are all
categorized as small diverse electric generators’ power sources. The integration of diverse
energy sources for the operation, control, power management in real time power system
make up a micro grid.
•Obviously, micro grid has distribution structure like the macro grid except that it is a
smaller size, in a tiny network, and has a low power capacity. Diverse generation is made
into a hybrid design mix whenever the hybrid energy storage is integrated into the micro
grid structure to reliably evacuate power to the load.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
•Hybrid energy system (HES)
•Hybrid energy system is the engineering design of hybridizing power supply components
or pairing them, for example, arranging diverse energy resources to work in parallel
(equivalent) is very common in power. So, hybridizing is defined as forming crossbreed of
pairs of agent for working together to achieve a purpose.
•Thus, hybridizing is to manually or automatically synchronize two or more electric power
generator resources or components to supply electric power to the grid, therefore forming
hybrid energy system.
•Hybrid energy system is an infrastructural design that integrates diverse or multiple
energy converters to energy storage, energy conditioners, energy management system. By
and large hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) is an extension of HES that uses mix
diverse resources as hybrid or all hybrid renewable energy resources to supply the electric
power system.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
•HES assume several design types such as multiple fossil fuel energy sources, diesel
generator-SPV renewable energy sources or other hybrid renewable energy resources
mixture.
•The hybrid system reliability can be improved through the integration and optimization of
essential components such as energy resources, energy storage and energy management.
Hybrid energy renewable systems are economical, less or no fossil fuel consumption for all
RER (Renewable Energy Resources), and have no or less greenhouse gas emission. Solar,
hydro and other renewable energy sources are environmentally safe and have adequate
power generation potentials. Therefore the integration of these sources with energy
storage as hybrid system has economic returns.
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM
Hybrid renewable energy power system (HREPS)
Hybrid renewable energy power system (HREPS) is a cross breed or mixture of matching
(parallel) power system infrastructure designed to offer power supply reliability. Hybrid
renewable energy power system (HREPS) has enormous designs or models that consists of
five common subunits, namely-
(i) renewable energy resource (RER) or energy harvester
(ii) electrical system (energy conditioners)
(iii) energy storages system (ESS)
(iv) a common Bus
(v) electronic logic controller (ECS)
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
SMART ENERGY SYSTEM
The three main components that enable the success of a smart energy system are
listed below:
• System sizing o Taking into account the required capacity of solar panels, wind
turbines and batteries. In accordance with the daily energy requirement, the “size” of
the system can be calculated.
• System engineering o When knowing the system’s energy requirements per day,
such as solar panel and battery capacity, the actual system can be designed. This will
necessitate deciding upon the size and quantity of solar panels, wind turbines and
batteries.
• System monitoring o This revolves around access to information regarding a system’s
operational efficiency.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
SMART ENERGY SYSTEM
The flow cycle shown by figure indicates the progression from system sizing to the
actual monitoring that will allow users to determine if changes are needed to be
made.
Smart Grid, Smart Metering,
Smart Agriculture
WIll come in exam 100%
 What is Smart Grid ?
• In the world of the Smart Grid, consumers and utility companies alike
have tools to manage, monitor and respond to energy issues.

• The flow of electricity from utility to consumer becomes

• A two-way conversation
• Saving consumers money
• Energy, delivering more transparency in terms of end-user use
• Reducing carbon emissions.
 What is Smart Grid ?

Reporting
Hardware
+ Management + Software

Intelligent Communications Infrastructure

 What is Smart Grid ?
• Modernization of the electricity delivery system so that it
• Monitors
• Protects
• Automatically optimizes the operation of its interconnected elements –
from the central and distributed generator through the high-voltage
network and distribution system
• to industrial users and building automation systems
• to energy storage installations
• to end-use consumers and their thermostats, electric vehicles, appliances and
other household devices
• The Smart Grid in large, sits at the intersection of Energy, IT and
Telecommunication Technologies.
 Challenges in Smart Grid
• Present Infrastructure is inadequate and requires augmentation to
support the growth of Smart Grids.

• Most renewable resources are intermittent and can not be relied on

(in its present form) for secure energy supply

• Regulatory Policies to deal with consequences of Smart Grid; like off

peak, peak tariffs and other related matters.

• Grid Operation : Monitoring & control

Energy Meters

• induction type energy meters,

• analog or digital electric energy meters,
• three phase or single phase energy meters,
• electromechanical energy meters,
• microcontroller based wireless energy meters,
• smart energy meters
SMART METERS
A smart meter is an electronic device that records consumption of electric energy in intervals of an
hour or less and communicates that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring and
billing.

• Smart meters enable two-way communication between the meter and the central system.

• Unlike home energy monitors, smart meters can gather data for remote reporting. Such an
advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) differs from traditional automatic meter reading (AMR) in
that it enables two-way communications with the meter.
Advanced Metering
Infrastructure
 Demand Response
 Incentive/Disincentive by tariff
 Signaling for load control
 Load curtailment beyond sanctioned limit
 Tamper Detection
 Network Problem identification
 Reduced AT&C losses
 Energy Audit
 Billing Efficiency
Important for exam
Draw the diagram in exam Advanced Metering Infrastructure
 Benefits of having a smart meter?

• More accurate bills Smart meters mean the end of

• Faster and easier energy switching: Because your usage
estimated bills, the end of having to remember to
data is so easily accessible, the aim is to make energy
provide meter readings and/or have a stranger come
switching as quick as just a half hour.
into your home to read your meter
• Bringing energy system into the 21st
• Better understanding of your usage With the
Century: The future is smart, and smart meters are part
smart
of the effort to create a smart grid, which is part of
meter display, you can see the direct impact your
providing low-carbon, efficient and reliable energy to
habits and lifestyle have on your bill. This is particularly
households.
useful to prepayment meter customers, who can better
track how their usage impacts their available credit. By
• Innovative energy tariffs: Using the data collected on
making your energy usage easier to understand, you
when and how households are using energy, suppliers
can make smarter decisions to save energy and money,
can create more competitive time-of-use tariffs with
including feeling more confident switching energy
cheaper prices for off-peak use.
Supplier.
SMART FARMING, SMART INFRASTRUCTURE
Objectives of smart farming
• Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes;
• Adapting and building resilience to climate change;
• Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions

Advantages of Smart Agriculture

• It allows farmers to maximize yields using minimum resources such as water,
fertilizers, seeds etc.

• Solar powered and mobile operated pumps save cost of electricity.

Disadvantages of Smart Agriculture
• The smart agriculture needs availability of internet continuously.

• The smart farming based equipment require farmers to understand and learn the
use of technology. This is major challenge in adopting smart agriculture farming
at large scale across the countries.
 LOGO

WIRELESS SYSTEMS
 LOGO CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION
 1G TECHNOLOGY
 2G TECHNOLOGY
 MODELS OF 1G & 2G
 2.5 TECHNOLOGY
 3G TECHNOLOGY
 4G TECHNOLOGY
 5G TECHNOLOGY
 WIRELESS APPLICATIONS
 WIRELESS SERVICES
 EVOLUTION FROM 1G TO 5G TECHNOLOGY
 CONCLUSION
Page 2
 LOGO INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS WIRELESS ?
The word wireless in dictionary is defined“having no wires ” .
In networking terminology , wireless is the term used to
describe any computer network where there is no physical
wired connection between sender and receiver, but rather
the network is connected by radio waves and or microwaves
to maintain communications.
Wireless networking utilizes specific equipment such as
Network interface cards (NICs) and Routers in place of wires
(copper or optical fibre).
Page 3
 LOGO 1G TECHNOLOGY

1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone

technology, mobile telecommunications which was first
introduced in 1980s and completed in early 1990s.
It's Speed was upto 2.4kbps.
It allows the voice calls in 1 country.
1G network use Analog Signal.
Advance Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) was
first launched in USA in 1G mobile systems.

Page 4
LOGO DRAWBACKS OF 1G

Poor Voice Quality

Poor Battery Life
Large Phone Size
No Security
Limited Capacity
Poor Handoff Reliability
1G Wireless System

Page 5
 LOGO 2G TECHNOLOGY

2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is

based on GSM.
 It was launched in Finland in the year 1991.
 2G network use digital signals.
 It’s data speed was upto 64kbps.

Features Includes:

 It enables services such as text messages,

picture messages and MMS (multi media message).

 It provides better quality and capacity .

Page 6
 LOGO DRAWBACKS OF 2G

 2G requires strong digital signals

to help mobile phones work. If there
is no network coverage in any specific
area , digital signals would weak.

 These systems are unable to

handle complex data such as Videos.
2G Wireless System

Page 7
LOGO WIRELESS MODELS OF 1G & 2G

1G WIRELESS SYSTEMS 2G WIRELESS SYSTEMS

Page 8
 LOGO 2.5G TECHNOLOGY

2.5G is a technology between the second (2G) and

third (3G) generation of mobile telephony.
2.5G is sometimes described as 2G Cellular
Technology combined with General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS).

Features Includes:
 Phone Calls
 Send/Receive E-mail Messages
 Web Browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera Phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. Mp3
song Page 9
 LOGO 3G TECHNOLOGY

3G technology refer to third generation which was

introduced in year 2000s.

Data Transmission speed increased from

144kbps- 2Mbps.

Typically called Smart Phones and

features increased its bandwidth
and data transfer rates to accommodate
web-based applications and audio
and video files.

Page 10
 LOGO FEATURES OF 3G TECHNOLOGY

 Providing Faster Communication

 Send/Receive Large Email Messages

High Speed Web / More Security

Video Conferencing / 3D Gaming

 TV Streaming/ Mobile TV/ Phone Calls

 Large Capacities and Broadband Capabilities

 11 sec – 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min Mp3 song.

Page 11
 LOGO DRAWBACKS OF 3G TECHNOLOGY

 Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services

It was challenge to build the infrastructure

for 3G

 High Bandwidth Requirement

 Expensive 3G Phones.

 Large Cell Phones

Page 12
 LOGO 4G TECHNOLOGY

High-speed data access

High quality streaming video
Combination of wi- fi and wi-max
Capable of providing 100Mbps – 1Gbps speed.
One of the basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC.
MAGIC:
Mobile Multimedia
Anytime Anywhere
Global Mobility Support
Integrated Wireless Solution
Customized Personal Services
Also known as Mobile Broadband Everywhere.
Page 13
 LOGO 4G (Anytime, Anywhere)

The next generations of wireless technology that promises

higher data rates and expanded multimedia services.
Capable to provide speed 100Mbps-1Gbps.
High QOS and High Security
Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements,
anywhere.

Features Include:
 More Security
 High Speed
 High Capacity
 Low Cost Per-bit etc.

Page 14
 LOGO DRAWBACKS OF 4G

Battery uses is more

Hard to implement

Need complicated hardware

Expensive equipment required

to implement next generation
network.

Page 15
 LOGO COMPARISON BETWEEN 3G Vs 4G

The basic difference between 3G and 4G is in data transfer and signal

quality.

Technology 3G 4G
Data Transfer Rate 3.1 MB/sec 100 MB/sec

Internet Services Broadband Ultra Broadband

Mobile - TV Resolution Low High

Bandwidth 5-20 MHz 100MHz

Frequency 1.6-2 GHz 2-8 GHz

Download and upload 5.8 Mbps 14 Mbps

Page 16
 LOGO WIRLESS MODELS OF 3G & 4G

 3G WIRELESS SYSTEM  4G WIRELESS SYSTEM

Page 17
LOGO 5G TECHNOLOGY

Page 18
 LOGO
5G TECHNOLOGY

5G technology refer to short name of fifth Generation

which was started from late 2010s.

Complete wireless communication

with almost no limitations.

It is highly supportable to WWWW

(Wireless World Wide Web).

Page 19
 LOGO
BENEFITS OF 5G TECHNOLOGY

High Speed, High Capacity

5G technology providing large broadcasting of data in Gbps .
Multi - Media Newspapers, watch T.V programs with the
clarity as to that of an HD Quality.

Faster data transmission that of the

previous generations.
Large Phone Memory, Dialing Speed,
clarity in Audio/Video.
Support interactive multimedia , voice,
streaming video, Internet and other
5G is More Effective and MoreAttractive.

Page 20
 LOGO
COMPARISON BETWEEN 4G Vs 5G

The following basic differences between 4G and 5G are:

Page 21
LOGO
EVOLUTION OF 1G TO 5G TECHNOLOGY

Page 22
LOGO 5G WIRELESS ACCESS

Page 23
LOGO FEATURE OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

5G

4G
Page 24
 LOGO COMPARISON OF 1G TO 5G TECHNOLOGIES

Technology 1G 2G/2.5G 3G 4G
5G
Deployment 1970/1984 1980/1999 1990/2002 2000/2010 2014/2015
Bandwidth 2kbps 14-64kbps 2mbps 200mbps >1gbps
Broadbandwidth/ Unified ip &seamless
Technology Analog Digital combo of
cdma/ip 4G+WWWW
cellular cellular technology
LAN/WAN/WLAN/PA
N

Digital Integrated high Dynamic information Dynamic information

Service Mobile access, variable access, variable
voice,short quality audio,
telephony messaging video & data
devices devices
with AI capabilities

Multiplexing FDMA TDMA/CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA

Circuit/circuit for Packet except

Switching Circuit access network&air
All packet All packet
interface for air interface

Core network PSTN PSTN Packet Internet Internet

network
Handoff Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal&V Horizontal&V
Page 28 ertical ertical
 LOGO
WIRELESS APPLICATIONS

Wireless applications are those

which we use free space as the
transmission medium & do not
involve cabling like fibre or
copper cables.

Page 26
 LOGO WIRELESS SERVICES

Wireless solution for:

 Business and Industry

 Schools , Colleges

 Doctors , Pilots

 Police and Vehicles etc.

Page 27
 LOGO CONCLUSION

 All totally the best way to help all users is to use 5G as the
next wireless system and in totally it is safety and secure
for public, this the need that demands the solution.
 Today’s wired society is going wireless and if it has
problem, 5G is answer.
 5G technology is going to give tough competition to
Computers and Laptops.
 It will be available in the market 2022 at affordable cost
with more reliability than previous mobiles.

Page 28
 What is communication?
● The transmission of data from one computer to another, or from one
device to another.

● A communications device, therefore, is any machine that assists data

transmission.
For example, modems, cables, and ports are all communications
devices.

● Communications software refers to programs that make it possible to

transmit data.
(i.e) Software that makes it possible to send and receive data over
telephone lines through modems.
What is Protocol ?
● It is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of
frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by peer
entities within a layer.

● Protocols are normally defined in a layered manner and provide all or

part of the services specified by a layer of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model (will explain in further slide).

● Protocol are used for communications between entities in a

systems.

● Entities use protocols in order to implement their service

definitions.

The key elements of a protocol are:

Syntax : Include Time data formats and signal levels
Semantics: Includes control information and error handling
Communications Protocol
● communications protocol is a system of digital rules for
message exchange within and/or between computers.

● The way they organize and transmit the data in bit and
bytes of electronic signals.(encode the data).

● A protocol can therefore be implemented as hardware,

software, or both. Communications protocols have to
be agreed upon by the parties involved.

● To reach agreement a protocol may be developed into

a technical standard.
 Continue...

A communications protocol must define the following:

● Rate of transmission (in bps)

whether transmission is to be synchronous or asynchronous

Sender Stop Data Start Stop Data Start Receiver

I n t e r v a l s (Asynchronous)

Sender Data Receiver

( synchronous )

● Whether data is to be transmitted in half-duplex or full-duplex mode

 Communication Protocols

• Describes the rules that govern the

transmission of data over the communication
Network.
• Provide a method for orderly and efficient
exchange of data between the sender and the
receiver.
 Roles of Communication Protocol
1. Data Sequencing – to detect loss or duplicate
packets.
2. Data Routing – to find the most efficient path
between source and a destination.
3. Data formatting – defines group of bits within a
packet which constitutes data, control,
addressing and other information.
4. Flow control – ensures resource sharing and
protection against traffic congestion by
regulating the flow of data on communication
lines.
 Roles of Communication Protocol
5. Error control – detect errors in messages. Method
for correcting errors is to retransmit the erroneous
message block.
6. Precedence and order of transmission – condition
all nodes about when to transmit their data and
when to receive data from other nodes. Gives
equal chance for all the nodes to use the
communication channel.
7. Connection establishment and termination –
8. Data security – Prevents access of data by
unauthorized users.
 The OSI Model
• OSI is short for Open Systems Interconnection.
• OSI model was first introduced by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984
– Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one
computer to another.
– Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for
transmittal

• Contains specifications in 7 different layers that

interact with each other.
 What is “THE MODEL?”
• Commonly referred to as the OSI reference
model.
• Open system interconnection (OSI) model is a
framework for defining standards for linking
heterogeneous computer systems, located
anywhere.
• The OSI model is a theoretical blueprint that
helps us understand how data gets from one
user’s computer to another.
• It is also a model that helps develop standards
so that all of our hardware and software talks
nicely to each other.
 7 Layer OSI Model
• Why use a reference model?
– Serves as an outline of rules for how protocols can be used
to allow communication between computers.
– Each layer has its own function and provides support to
other layers.
• Other reference models are in use.
– Most well known is the Transmission control protocol
(TCP)/ internet Protocol (IP) reference model.
What Each Layer Does

2
 Application Layer
• Gives end-user
applications access to
network resources

• Where is it on my
computer?
– Workstation or Server
Service in MS Windows

3
 Presentation Layer
• Provides common data
formatting between
communicating
devices
• Components make
sure the receiving
station can read the
transferred data

3
 Session Layer
• Allows applications to
maintain an ongoing
session
• Example – NetBIOS
• Where is it on my
computer?
– Workstation and
Server Service (MS)
– Windows Client for
NetWare (NetWare)
3
 Transport Layer
• Provides reliable data
delivery
• It’s the TCP in TCP/IP
• Receives info from
upper layers and
segments it into packets
• Can provide error
detection and correction

3
 Network Layer
• Provides network-
wide addressing and a
mechanism to move
packets between
networks (routing)
• Responsibilities:
– Network addressing
– Routing
• Examples:
– IP from TCP/IP
3
– IPX from IPX/SPX
 Network Addresses
• Network-wide addresses
• Used to transfer data across subnets
• Used by routers for packet forwarding
• Example:
– IP Address
• Where is it on my computer?
– TCP/IP Software
 Data Link Layer
• Places data and
retrieves it from the
physical layer and
provides error
detection capabilities

3Graphic courtesy of http://www.hawkclan.com/zxonly/iso/slide2.html

 Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer
• MAC (Media Access Control)
– Gives data to the NIC
– Controls access to the media through:
• CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection
• Token passing
• LLC (Logical Link Layer)
– Manages the data link interface (or Service Access
Points (SAPs))
– Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). If the packet is bad the LLC
will request the sender to resend that particular packet.
 Physical Layer
• Determines the specs for
all physical components
– Cabling
– Interconnect methods (topology
/ devices)
– Data encoding (bits to waves)
– Electrical properties
• Examples:
– Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
– Wireless (IEEE 802.11b)

3Graphic courtesy of http://www.hawkclan.com/zxonly/iso/slide2.html

 Physical Layer (cont’d)
• What are the Physical Layer components on my
computer?
• NIC
– Network Interface Card
– It has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal
number permanently burned into it at the
manufacturer.
– The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a
computer
• Cabling
– Twister Pair
– Fiber Optic
– Coax Cable
How Does It All Work Together

2Cisco Academy Program Semester 1

 The TCP/IP Model
• Another Model is the TCP/IP Model.
• There is no universal agreement regarding how to
describe TCP/IP with a layered model.
• Most descriptions present three to five layers.
• We use the four layer structure that incorporates
the Presentation and Session layers with the
Application layer.
Comparing TCP/IP With OSI

2Cisco Academy Program Semester 1

 The TCP/IP Model (4 Layer)
• Application Layer
– Interacts with user processes
• Transport Layer
– TCP guarantees data is received and sent accurately
• Internet Layer
– IP separates upper layers from the network and manages
the connections across the network
• Network Access Layer
– Incorporates the Network and Physical layers of the OSI
model

4
4 http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-center/tc/html/TC0102.html
Human Machine
Interaction/ Human
Computer Interaction
UNIT-2
INDUSTRY 4.0
Introduction
Human Machine Interaction
Why HMI/HCI
Problematic Designs

People on both the side

of door pushing or pulling
at the same time.

How fast am I really going??

Solution:
Part of the door is see-
through
Problematic Designs
Normans Fundamental principles of
HMI

 Visibility - Can I see it?

 Affordance – How di I use it?
 Mapping – Where am I and Where can I go?
 Feedback – What is it doing now?
 Constraints- Why can’t I do it?
 Consistency – I think I have seen it before!
 Mental/Conceptual models – I think I know how it operates!
 Visibility

 Can see the state of a device and possible

actions
 Systems are more usable when they clearly
indicate
 their status
 the possible actions that can be performed
 the consequences of those actions
 Affordance

 Shows functionality by leaving visual clue.

 How something looks indicates how it’s can
be used
 Qualities if Affordance:
 Affordance exists relative to the action
capabilities if a particular actor/user.
 The existence of an affordance is
independent of the actors ability to perceive
it.
 An affordance does not change as the need
and goal of the actor changes.
 Eg. Safety handles inside train compartments
 Signifier

 A physical form of showing the functionality

to the user such as sound, a printed word, an
image, etc.

 Signifiers removes the ambiguity incase

Affordance is not clear enough to tell the
functionality to the user.

 Eg: A sound instruction in lift to close the

door, voice instructions to wait for card to be
removed or insert in ATM machines.
 Mapping

 Presents relationship between two objects.

 Mapping between actions to

consequences for user actions.

 Eg. Pointer movements mapping with

mouse movement.

 Mapping can be a good mapping or a

bad mapping.

 Bad mapping- When consequence for any

action is delayed or ambiguous.
 Feedback

 It is the principle of making it clear to the user what action has been taken and what has been
accomplished.

 The key is to design the experience to never leave the user guessing about what action they have taken and
the consequence of doing so.

 It helps in predicting the functionality as well.

 Sending information back to the user about what has been done

 Needs to be immediate and synchronized with user action

 Eg. – Mouse Click sound

 Constraints
 Restricting the possible
actions (the kind of
interaction) that can
be performed (can
take the place)

 Helps prevent user from

selecting incorrect
options
 Consistency

 Design interfaces to have similar operations and use similar elements for similar tasks

 For example: Always use ctrl key plus first initial of the command for an operation –
Ctrl+C, Ctrl+S, Ctrl+V ...

 Main benefit is consistent interfaces are easier to learn and use

 Mental Model

 Representations of systems derived from experience

 People understand and interact with systems based on mental representations developed
from experience
 They compare the outcomes of their mental models with the real-world systems:
 When the outcomes correspond, a mental model is accurate
 When the outcomes do not correspond, the mental model is inaccurate or incomplete
 A mental model allows the user to simulate the operation of the device
 A good mental model allows the user to predict the effects of their actions
 Common interaction styles

 command line interface

 menus
 natural language
 question/answer and query dialogue
 form-fills and spreadsheets
 point and click
 three–dimensional interfaces
Physiological Sensors: Sensing for HMI

 The sensing information to human bodies via the soft HMIs are divided into
(1) soft tactile sensor;
(2) motion sensors; and
(3) electro-physiology sensors.
 Soft tactile sensors

 Designed and categorized by their functions such as:

 pressure sensors, strain sensors and acoustic sensors.
 Pressure is one of the key physical parameter to evaluate the human
sensing ability.
 Several kinds of pressure sensors have been designed for HMI applications,
such as
 capacitive sensors, pressure sensitive rubber (PSR) sensors, piezoelectric
pressure sensors, liquid metal sensors, and ionic gel sensors.
 Pressure sensitive rubber (PSR) sensors
 To realize the visual display of pressure distribution,
 a user-interactive E-skin based on PSR sensor
 Motion Sensors

 Coordination and collaboration between humans and robots require motion sensing for
complicated tasks.

 Soft sensors producing signals conforming to limb/joint rotations or soft tissue deformations.

 They can be used to interpret human body motions from aspects of kinematics (angle, velocity
and acceleration), kinetics (pressures and forces) and energy/power (muscle forces and
deformations), which can be employed for motion intent recognition and robot control
Motion Sensors

Joint angle sensor for HMI application

Electrophysiology sensors

 Electromyography EMG signal reflects the activation of muscle fibers

innervated by motor neurons.

 It can be noninvasively acquired by the surface electromyography (sEMG)

electrodes

 Brain-computer interface (BCI) technology is a radically new

communication option for those with neuromuscular impairments that
prevent them from using conventional augmentative communication
methods