MET402 Mechatronics

MODULE II
Syllabus:
Directional control valves, pressure control valves, process control valves. Rotary actutors.
Development of simple hydraulic and pneumatic circuits using standard Symbols. Micro
Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS): Fabrication: Deposition, Lithography.

Micromachining methods for MEMS, Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) and LIGA process
es. Principle, fabrication and working of MEMS based pressure sensor, accelerometer
and gyroscope.

ROTARY ACTUATORS
GEAR MOTOR

 Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized fluid into rotary motion. Rotary actuators are
similar to electric motors but are run on hydraulic or pneumatic power.
 It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a housing with one gear attached to the drive shaft.
 The air enters from the inlet, causes the rotation of the meshing gear due to difference in the
pressure and produces the torque. The air exists from the exhaust port.
 Gear motors tend to leak at low speed, hence are generally used for medium speed applications.

Fig 2.1Gear Motor

Page | 1
 MET 402 Mechatronics

VANE MOTOR

 A rotary vane motor consists of a rotor with sliding vanes in the slots provided on the rotor.
 The rotor is placed eccentrically with the housing. Air enters from the inlet port, rotates the
rotor and thus torque is produced.
 Air is then released from the exhaust port (outlet).

Fig 2.2 Vane Motor

LIMITED ROTATION ACTUATORS

 It consists of a single rotating vane connected to output shaft.

 It is used for double acting operation and has a maximum angle of rotation of about 270°.
 These are generally used to actuate dampers in robotics and material handling applications.
 Other type of limited rotation actuator is a rack and pinion type actuator.

Fig 2.3 Limited Rotation Actuators

Page | 2
 MET402 Mechatronics

RACK AND PINION ROTARY ACTUATORS

 Figure shows a double-rack design that has fluid in the area where the pinion runs.
 This configuration requires a high-pressure shaft seal but assures that the rack and pinion is
well lubricated.
 With fluid piped to the CW port, the output shaft turns clockwise.
 With fluid piped to the CCW port, the output shaft turns counter clockwise.
 This design works best in pneumatic or low-pressure hydraulic applications.

Fig 2.4 Rack and Pinion Rotary Actuator

VALVES
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
 Directional control valves are used to control the distribution of energy in a fluid power system.
 They provide the direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a particular direction.
 These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of the fluid flow. These
valves regulate the flow direction in the hydraulic circuit.
 These control valves contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to enter and leave.
The number of ports is usually identified by the term ‘way’.

Directional control valves can be classified in the following manner:

According to type of construction:

1. Poppet valves 2. Spool valves

According to number of ports:

1. Two- way valves 2. Three – way valves 3. Four- way valves.

According to number of switching position:

1. Two – position 2. Three - position

According to actuating mechanism:

1. Manual actuation 2. Mechanical actuation 3. Solenoid actuation
4. Hydraulic actuation 5. Pneumatic actuation 6. Indirect actuation
Page | 3
 MET402 Mechatronics

ACCORDING TO TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION

1. CHECK VALVES

Fig 2.5 Inline Check Valve Fig 2.6 Right Angle Check Valve

 These are unidirectional valves and permit the free flow in one direction only.
 These valves have two ports: one for the entry of fluid and the other for the discharge.
 They are consists of a housing bore in which ball or poppet is held by a small spring force.
 The valve having ball as a closing member is known as ball check valve. The various types of
check valves are available for a range of applications.
 These valves are generally small sized, simple in construction and inexpensive.
 Generally, the check valves are automatically operated. Human intervention or any external
control system is not required.
 These valves can wear out or can generate the cracks after prolonged usage and therefore they
are mostly made of plastics for easy repair and replacements. An important concept in check
valves is the cracking pressure.
 The check valve is designed for a specific cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream
pressure at which the valve operates.
 The simplest check valve is an inline check valve. The ball is held against the valve seat by a
spring force. Fluid flow is not possible from the spring side but the fluid from opposite side can
pass by lifting the ball against. However, there is some pressure drop across the valve due to
restriction by the spring force. Therefore these valves are not suitable for the application of
high flow rate. When the operating pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in
this design.
 The advantages of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and suitability with
high pressure applications.
 Sometimes, the right angle check valve is used for the high flow rate applications. The pressure
drop is comparatively less in right angle check valve.

2. POPPET VALVES

 When the closing member is not a ball but a poppet energized by a spring is known as poppet
valve.
Page | 4
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.7 Restriction Check Valve Fig 2.8 Pilot Operated Check Valve

 Some valves are meant for an application where free flow is required in one direction and
restricted flow required in another direction. These types of valves are called as restriction
check valve. These valves are used when a direction sensitive flow rate is required
 Another important type of check valve known as pilot operated check valve. The function of
the pilot operated check valve is similar to a normal check valve unless it gets an extra pressure
signal through a pilot line. Pilot allows free flow in one direction and prevents the flow in
another direction until the pilot pressure is applied. But when pilot pressure acts, the poppet
opens and the flow is blocked from both the sides. These valves are used to stop the fluid
suddenly.

3. SPOOL VALVE

 The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It consists of a shaft sliding in a bore
which has large groove around the circumference. This type of construction makes it look like a
spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance between moving spool and housing (valve body).
 The quality of seal or the amount of leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of
fluid and the level of the pressure. The grooves guide the fluid flow by interconnecting or
blocking the holes (ports).
 The standard terms are referred as Port ‘P’ is pressure port, Port ‘T’ is tank port and Port ‘A’
and Port ‘B’ are the actuator (or working) ports.
 The actuators can move in forward or backward direction depending on the connectivity of the
pressure and tank port with the actuators port.

Fig 2.9 Spool Valve

Page | 5
 MET402 Mechatronics

ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF PORTS

1. TWO WAY VALVES

 Two way valves have only two ports. These valves are also known as on-off valves because
they allow the fluid flow only in direction.
 Normally, the valve is closed. These valves are available as normally open and normally closed
function. These are the simplest type of spool valves.
 When actuating force is not applied to the right, the port P is not connected with port A as
shown in figure. Therefore, the actuation does not take place. Similarly, in the open condition
the pressure port P is connected with the actuator port A

Fig 2.10 Valve Closed Fig 2.11 Valve Opened

2. THREE WAY VALVES

 When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port, it is known as three
way valve.
 In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts another one.
 As shown in figures, only one actuator port is opened at a time. In some cases a neutral position
is also available when both the ports are blocked.
 Generally, these valves are used to operate single acting cylinders.

Fig 2.12 Three Way Valve: Position 1

Fig 2.13 Three Way Valve: Position 2

Page | 6
 MET402 Mechatronics

3. FOUR WAY VALVES

 It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the directions. The four
ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the actuator.
 The primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize and exhaust two working ports A and
B alternatively.

Fig 2.14 Four Way Valve

ACCORDING TO NUMBER/WAYS OF SWITCHING POSITION

1. THREE POSITION FOUR WAY (3/4) VALVES
 Three position four way (3/4) valves are used in double-acting cylinders to perform advance,
hold and return operation to the piston.
 These types of valves have three switching positions. They have a variety of possible flow path
configurations but have identical flow path configuration.
 When the centered path is actuated, port A and B are connected with both the ports P and T
respectively. In this case, valve is not active because all the ports are open to each other. The
fluid flows to the tank at atmospheric pressure. In this position work cannot be done by any part
of the system. This configuration helps to prevent heat buildup.
 When left end (port B) is actuated, the port P is connected with ports B and T is connected with
port. Similarly, when the right end is actuated the port P is connected to A and working port B
is connected to port T.
 The three position valves are used when the actuator is needed to stop or hold at some
intermediate position. It can also be used when the multiple circuits or functions are
accomplished from one hydraulic power source.

Fig 2.15 Three Position Four Way Valve: Closed Center

Page | 7
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.16 Three Position Four Way Valve: P to B and A to T

Fig 2.17 Three Position Four Way Valve: P to A and B to T

2. TWO POSITION FOUR WAY (2/4) VALVES

 The two position four way valves have only two switching positions and do not have any mid
position. Therefore, they are also known as impulse valves.
 These valves can be used to operate double acting cylinders. These are also used to reciprocate
or hold an actuator.
 The operation is faster because the distance between ports of these valves is smaller. Hence
these valves are used on machines where fast reciprocation cycles are needed such as punching
and stamping etc.

Fig 2.18 Two Position Four Way DCV: P to B and A to T

Page | 8
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.19 Two Position Four Way DCV: P to A and B to T

ACCORDING TO ACTUATION MECHANISM

1. MANUAL ACTUATION

 In this type, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators are hand lever, push button and
pedals etc.

2. MECHANICAL ACTUATION

 The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements such as roller and cam, roller
and plunger and rack and pinion etc.
 In these arrangements, the spool end is of roller or a pinion gear type. The plunger or cam or
rack gear is attached to the actuator.
 Thus, the mechanical elements gain some motion relative to the actuator (cylinder piston)
which can be used for the actuation.

3. SOLENOID ACTUATION

 The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical actuation.

 The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic force which pulls the armature into the coil.
This movement of armature controls the spool position.
 The main advantage of solenoid actuation is its less switching time.

Fig 2.20 Working of Solenoid to Shift Spool of Valve

Page | 9
 MET402 Mechatronics

4. HYDRAULIC ACTUATION

Fig 2.21 Pilot Actuated DCV

 This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated valve.

 In this type of actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the spool. The pilot port is
located on one end of the valve. Fluid entering from pilot port operates against the piston and
forces the spool to move forward.
 The needle valve is used to control the speed of the actuation.

5. PNEUMATIC ACTUATION

 DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air against a piston at either end of the
valve spool.
 The construction of the system is similar to the hydraulic actuation.
 The only difference would be the actuation medium. The actuation medium is the compressed
air in pneumatic actuation system.

6. INDIRECT ACTUATION OF DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

 The direction control valve can be operated by manual, mechanical, solenoidal (electrical),
hydraulic (pilot) and pneumatic actuations. The mode of actuation does not have any influence
on the basic operation of the hydraulic circuits.
 Mostly, the direct actuation is restricted to use with smaller valves only because usually lot of
force is not available. The availability of limited force is the greatest disadvantage of the direct
actuation systems.
 In practice, the force required to shift the spool is quiet higher. Therefore, the larger valves are
often indirectly actuated in sequence.
 First, the smaller valve is actuated directly and the flow from the smaller valve is directed to
either side of the larger valve. The control fluid can be supplied by the same circuit or by a
separate circuit.
 The pilot valve pressure is usually supplied internally. These two valves are often incorporated
as a single unit.
 These valves are also called as Electro-hydraulic operated DCV.

Page | 10
 MET402 Mechatronics

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

 In practice, the speed of actuator is very important in terms of the desired output and needs to
be controlled. The speed of actuator can be controlled by regulating the fluid flow. A flow
control valve can regulate the flow or pressure of the fluid.
 The fluid flow is controlled by varying area of the valve opening through which fluid passes.
The fluid flow can be decreased by reducing the area of the valve opening and it can be
increased by increasing the area of the valve opening. A very common example to the fluid
flow control valve is the household tap.
 The pressure adjustment screw varies the fluid flow area in the pipe to control the discharge
rate. The pressure drop across the valve may keep on fluctuating.
 In general, the hydraulic systems have a pressure compensating pump. The inlet pressure
remains almost constant but the outlet pressure keeps on fluctuating depending on the external
load. It creates fluctuating pressure drop. Thus, the ordinary flow control valve will not be able
to maintain a constant fluid flow.

Fig 2.22 Flow Control Valve

 A pressure compensated flow control valve maintains the constant flow throughout the
movement of a spool, which shifts its position depending on the pressure.
 Flow control valves can also be affected by temperature changes. It is because the viscosity of
the fluid changes with temperature. Therefore, the advanced flow control valves often have the
temperature compensation.
 The temperature compensation is achieved by the thermal expansion of a rod, which
compensates for the increased coefficient of discharge due to decreasing viscosity with
temperature.

TYPES OF FLOW CONTROL VALVES

1. PLUG OR GLOVE VALVE

 The plug valve is quite commonly used valve. It is also termed as glove valve.
 This valve has a plug which can be adjusted in vertical direction by setting flow adjustment
screw.

Page | 11
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.23 Plug or Glove Valve

 The adjustment of plug alters the orifice size between plug and valve seat. Thus the adjustment
of plug controls the fluid flow in the pipeline.
 The characteristics of these valves can be accurately predetermined by machining the taper of
the plug.
 The typical example of plug valve is stopcock that is used in laboratory glassware.
 The valve body is made of glass or teflon. The plug can be made of plastic or glass.
 Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications. Stopcock grease is used in high
vacuum applications to make the stopcock air-tight.

2. BUTTERFLY VALVE

 It consists of a disc which can rotate inside the pipe. The angle of disc determines the
restriction.
 Butterfly valve can be made to any size and is widely used to control the flow of gas.
 The resilient butterfly valve uses the flexibility of rubber and has the lowest pressure rating.
 The high performance butterfly valves have a slight offset in the way the disc is positioned. It
increases its sealing ability and decreases the wear.
 For high-pressure systems, the triple offset butterfly valve is suitable which makes use of a
metal seat and is therefore able to withstand high pressure. It has higher risk of leakage on the
shut-off position and suffer from the dynamic torque effect.
 Butterfly valves are favored because of their lower cost and lighter weight. The disc is always
present in the flow therefore a pressure drop is induced regardless of the valve position.

Fig 2.24 Butterfly Valve

Page | 12
 MET402 Mechatronics

3. BALL VALVE

Fig 2.25 Ball Valve

 This type of flow control valve uses a ball rotated inside a machined seat. The ball has a
through hole as shown in figure. It has very less leakage in its shut-off condition.
 These valves are durable and usually work perfectly for many years. They are excellent choice
for shutoff applications.
 They do not offer fine control which may be necessary in throttling applications.
 These valves are widely used in industries because of their versatility, high supporting
pressures (up to 1000 bar) and temperatures (up to 250°C).
 They are easy to repair and operate.

4. BALANCED VALVE

Fig 2.26 Balanced Valve

 It comprises of two plugs and two seats.

 The opposite flow gives little dynamic reaction onto the actuator shaft. It results in the
negligible dynamic torque effect.
 However, the leakage is more in these kind of valves because the manufacturing tolerance can
cause one plug to seat before the other.
 The pressure-balanced valves are used in the houses. They provide water at nearly constant
temperature to a shower or bathtub despite of pressure fluctuations in either the hot or cold
supply lines.

Page | 13
 MET402 Mechatronics

5. GATE VALVE

Fig 2.27 Gate Valve

 Gate valves are used as ‘stops’ to shut off fluid flow or to open the line to full flow.
 Gate valves provide an opening with minimum pressure drop.
 Basic gate valves are no compensated type i.e. they are not compensated for changes in fluid
pressure or temperature.

6. NEEDLE VALVE

Fig 2.28 Needle Valve

 Needles valves provide finer control of flow in small diameter pipes.

 They have sharp pointed conical disc and matching seat.
 Needle valves are normally made up of steel bar.
 Needle valves are also used as stop valves in hydraulic circuit to shut off the flow of fluid
from
one part of a circuit to another part.
 Needle valves are suitable for throttling i.e. the flow area is slowly reduced as the valve
is closed, gradually reducing the quantity of fluid passing through the valve.
Page | 14
 MET402 Mechatronics

7. GLOBE VALVE

Fig 2.29 Globe Valve

 Globe valves have a round disk to control or stop the fluid flow.
 The flow area of the globe valve is more than that of the needle valve. Hence, globe valve will
have a larger flow capacity at a lower pressure drop than a needle valve of the same size.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

 The pressure relief valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive
pressure.
 This is one of the most important components of a hydraulic system and is essentially required
for safe operation of the system. Its primary function is to limit the system pressure within a
specified range.
 It is normally a closed type and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value
by diverting pump flow back to the tank

1. DIRECT TYPE OF RELIEF VALVE

Fig 2.30 Direct type pressure relief valve

Page | 15
 MET402 Mechatronics

 This type of valves has two ports; one of which is connected to the pump and another is
connected to the tank.
 It consists of a spring chamber where poppet is placed with a spring force. Generally, the spring
is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the system. The poppet is held in position by
combined effect of spring force and dead weight of spool.
 As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess fluid bypassed to the
reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value.
 A drain is also provided in the control chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small leakage
to the tank and thereby prevents the failure of the valve.

2. UNLOADING VALVE

Fig 2.31 Unloading Valve

 This valve consists of a control chamber with an adjustable spring which pushes the spool
down.
 The valve has two ports: one is connected to the tank and another is connected to the pump.
The valve is operated by movement of the spool.
 Normally, the valve is closed and the tank port is also closed. These valves are used to permit a
pump to operate at the minimum load.
 It works on the same principle as direct control valve that the pump delivery is diverted to the
tank when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool. The pilot pressure maintains a
static pressure to hold the valve opened. The pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump
delivery is needed in the system.
 As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed and the spool
moves down due to the self-weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is diverted to the
hydraulic circuit.
 The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control chamber to prevent the
valve failure.
 The unloading valve reduces the heat build-up due to fluid discharge at a pre-set pressure value.

Page | 16
 MET402 Mechatronics

3. SEQUENCE VALVE

 The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow in a predetermined sequence. It is
used to operate the cycle of a machine automatically.
 A sequence valve may be of direct-pilot or remote-pilot operated type.
 Its construction is similar to the direct relief valve. It consists of the two ports; one main port
connecting the main pressure line and another port (secondary port) is connected to the
secondary circuit. The secondary port is usually closed by the spool. The pressure on the spool
works against the spring force.
 When the pressure exceeds the pre-set value of the spring; the spool lifts and the fluid flows
from the primary port to the secondary port.
 For remote operation; the passage used for the direct operation is closed and a separate pressure
source for the spool operation is provided in the remote operation mode.

Fig 2.32 Sequence Valve

4. COUNTERBALANCE VALVE

Fig 2.33 Counterbalance Valve

Page | 17
 MET402 Mechatronics

 It is used to maintain the back pressure and to prevent a load from failing. The counterbalance
valves can be used as breaking valves for decelerating heavy loads.
 These valves are used in vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine tools where
position or hold suspended loads are important.
 Counterbalance valves work on the principle that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot
pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring force. Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the
load to descend under control.
 This valve is normally closed until it is acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source. Therefore,
a lower spring force is sufficient.
 It leads to the valve operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption
reduces, pump life increases and the fluid temperature decreases.

5. PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

Fig 2.34 Pressure Reducing Valve

 Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made possible by using
pressure reducing valve. These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure. Generally, they are
used for the operation of branch circuits where the pressure may vary from the main hydraulic
pressure lines.
 These are open type valve and have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a movable
spool. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the spring (control) chamber.
 A free flow passage is provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from the
outlet port tends to throttle the passage through the valve.
 The pilot pressure opposes the spring force and when both are balanced, the downstream is
controlled at the pressure setting.
 When the pressure in the reduced pressure line exceeds the valve setting, the spool moves to
reduce the flow passage area by compressing the spring.
 It can be seen from the figure that if the spring force is more, the valve opens wider and if the
controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the
flow.

Page | 18
 MET402 Mechatronics

DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC

CIRCUITS USING STANDARD SYMBOLS

Fig 2.35 Symbols for Ports

GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS OF HYDRAULIC / PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENTS

Page | 19
MET402 Mechatronics

Page | 20
MET402 Mechatronics

Page | 21
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.36 Symbols for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Elements

EXAMPLE 1
Control of a single acting cylinder

C = Single acting cylinder P = Pump, E = Electric Motor, T = Tank, F = Filter, R = Relief Valve,
D =2-position, 3 way DCV Manually operated and spring return

 Figure below shows a two- postion, three way, manually operated, spring offset directional
control valve ( DCV ) used to control the operation of a single – acting cylinder.
 In the spring offset mode, full pump flow goes the tank via the pressure relief valve. The spring
in the rod end of the cylinder retracts the piston as oil from the blank end ‘A’ drains back to the
rank.
 When the valve is manually actuated the pump flow goes to the cylinder blank end ‘A’ via
DCV 1 position. This extends the cylinder. At full extension, pump flow goes through the relief

Page | 22
 MET402 Mechatronics

valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows the cylinder to retract as the DCV shift into its spring –
offset mode.

Fig 2.37 Control of Single Acting Cylinder

EXAMPLE 2
Control of a Double acting cylinder
C = Double acting cylinder, P = Pump, E = Electric Motor, T = Tank, F = Filter, R = Relief Valve,
D =3 position 4 way Tandem center Manually operated and Spring Centered DCV

 Figure shows a circuit used to control a double – acting hydraulic cylinder. When the four way
valve is in centered configuration, the cylinder is hydraulically locked as the ports A and B is
blocked.
 The pump flow is unloaded back to the tank at essentially atmospheric pressure. When the four
way valve is actuated into the 1st position, the cylinder is extended against its load force F load
as oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder from port P through port A .
 Also, oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the tank via the four way valve
from port B through port T. Note that the cylinder would not extend if this oil were not allowed
to leave the rod end of the cylinder.
 When the four way valve is actuated into the 2st position , the cylinder is retracts against as oil
flows to the rod end of the cylinder from port P through port B. Oil in the blank end of the
cylinder is returned to the tank from port A to port T.
 At the end of the stroke, there is no system demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes through
the relief valve at its pressure- level setting unless the four- way valve is deactivated. In any
event the system is protected from any cylinder overloads.

Page | 23
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.38 Control of Double Acting Cylinder

EXAMPLE 3

A double acting cylinder guides machined axles to an assembly unit. The axle is guided when
the operator presses a pushbutton and an axle is sensed by using a 3/2 way limit switch. Upon
release of the push button, the cylinder is retracted automatically. Design the pneumatic
circuit for the given application.

Step 1 Initial position:- The piston rod of the cylinder (1.0) assumes the retracted end position. The
final control valve (1.1) generates the signal through the right – hand air route to supply air to the
piston rod side of the cylinder as a result of the spring returns

Step 2 Push button operation:- The 3/2 roller operated valve (1.4) generates signal output when it
senses the axle. If the 3/2 push button valve (1.2) is also pressed, the pressure is applied on both
input sides of the dual pressure valve (1.6), and satisfies the requirement of AND condition for the
valve 1.6 to produce the output. As a result of the pilot signal, the final control valve actuates to
reverse the switching to the left hand air route of the cylinder. Now the cylinder moves to its
forward end position. If both 3/2 valves 1.2 and 1.4 are actuated, the cylinder remains in the
forward position.

Step 3 Retraction of cylinder:- If at least one of the 3/2 valves 1.2 or 1.4 is released, then pilot air
supply is ceased and spring return of the final control valve reverses the switching to its original
position. Therefore the piston travels to its initial position.

Page | 24
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.39 Proposed Circuit

Page | 25
 MET402 Mechatronics

MICRO ELECTRO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (MEMS)

 Micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) are a process technology used to create tiny
integrated devices or systems that combine mechanical and electrical components.
 They are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch processing techniques and can range
in size from a few micrometres to millimetres.
 These devices (or systems) have the ability to sense, control and actuate on the micro scale,
and generate effects on the macro scale.
 Typical MEMS consist of components with a size of 1 to 100 μm.
 It usually consists of a central unit that processes data, the microprocessor and several
components that interact with the outside such as e.g. pressure sensors, accelerometers or
gyroscopes.
 In the most general form, MEMS consist of mechanical microstructures, microsensors,
microactuators and microelectronics, all integrated onto the same silicon chip.

Fig 2.40 MEMS Components

 MEMS devices are very small; their components are usually microscopic. Levers, gears,
pistons, as well as motors and even steam engines have all been fabricated by MEMS

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

 Although MEMS is also referred to as Micro Systems Technology (MST), strictly speaking,
MEMS is a process technology used to create these tiny mechanical devices or systems, and
as a result, it is a subset of MST.

Page | 26
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.41 Classifications of Microsystems Technology

Transducer:- A transducer is a device that transforms one form of signal or energy into another
form. The term transducer can therefore be used to include both sensors and actuators and is the
most generic and widely used term in MEMS.

Sensor:- A sensor is a device that measures information from a surrounding environment and
provides an electrical output signal in response to the parameter it measured. The major energy
domains include:

 Mechanical - force, pressure, velocity, acceleration, position

 Thermal - temperature, entropy, heat, heat flow
 Chemical - concentration, composition, reaction rate
 Radiant - electromagnetic wave intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization reflectance,
refractive index, transmittance
 Magnetic - field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability
 Electrical - voltage, current, charge, resistance, capacitance, polarization

Actuator:- An actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal into an action. It can create a
force to manipulate itself, other mechanical devices, or the surrounding environment to perform
some useful function.

APPLICATIONS OF MEMS

Automotive:- Automotive airbag sensor, Internal navigation sensors, Brake force sensor and
suspension control accelerometers, Fuel level and vapour pressure sensor.
Electronics:- Disk drive heads, Earthquake sensors, Inkjet printer head, Overhead projection
display.
Medical:- Medical pressure sensor, Implanted pressure sensor, Pacemakers
Communications:- Fibre – optic network components, RF relay switches and filters, Splitters
and couplers, Voltage controlled oscillators
Defence:- Aircraft control, Embedded sensors, Data storage, Arming systems, Surveillance

Page | 27
 MET402 Mechatronics

MEMS FABRICATION
MATERIALS USED IN MEMS FABRICATION

SILICON

 Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in
the modern world. It is also an attractive material for the production of MEMS, as it displays
many advantageous mechanical and chemical properties.
 Single crystalline silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material. This means that when
silicon is bent there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy loss.
 This property makes it to the ideal material, where many small motions and high reliability
are demanded, as silicon displays very little fatigue and can achieve service lifetimes in the
range of billions to trillions of cycles.

POLYMERS

 Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry,
crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to be produced.
Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of
material characteristics.
 MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection moulding,
embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to micro fluidic applications
such as disposable blood testing cartridges.

METALS

 Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the
advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their
limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability.
 Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly
used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten,
platinum, and silver.

CERAMICS

 The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide and other ceramics
are increasingly applied in MEMS fabrication due to advantageous combinations of material
properties.

OTHER MATERIALS

 Besides silicon also some metals and polymers can be used to form MEMS elements or
functional layers.
 The common fabrication processes for metals such as gold, nickel, copper, titanium, silver
and several more are electroplating, evaporation and sputter deposition.
 Polymeric MEMS can be produced by using injection moulding, embossing or stereo
lithography. These MEMS devices are especially well suited to micro fluidic applications
such as disposable blood testing cartridge.

Page | 28
 MET402 Mechatronics

FABRICATION METHODS FOR MEMS

1. Deposition

 Chemical vapour deposition

 Physical vapour deposition
 Deposition by expitaxy

2. Patterning

 Lithography
 Photolithography

3. Ion implantation

4. Diffusion

5. Oxidation

6. Etching (Bulk Micromachining)

 Wet
 Dry

LITHOGRAPHY

 Photolithography is the photographic technique to transfer copies of a master pattern,

usually a circuit layout in IC applications, onto the surface of a substrate of some material
(usually a silicon wafer). Various steps in photo lithography are
o Wafer cleaning
o Barrier layer application
o Photoresist application
o Prebaking/ soft baking
o Mask alignment
o Exposure
o Development
o Hard baking
o Etching
o Stripping
o Wafer cleaning - Surface conditioning prepares the wafer to accept the photoresist by
providing a clean surface. The wafers are chemically cleaned to remove organic, ionic and
metallic impurities.
o Barrier layer application - The substrate is covered with a thin film of some material,
usually silicon dioxide (SiO2), in the case of silicon wafers, on which a pattern of holes will
be formed.
o Photoresist application - A thin layer of an organic polymer, which is sensitive to
ultraviolet radiation, is then deposited on the oxide layer; this is called a photoresist. It is
applied on to the wafer surface by high speed centrifugal spinning known as spin coating. It
Page | 29
 MET402 Mechatronics

produces a thin layer of photoresist on the wafer surface. Chemicals commonly used as
photoresists are; poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA), polymethyl glutarimide (PMGI) etc.

Two types of photo resists are used,

o Positive Photoresist – in these resists exposure to the uv light changes the

chemical structure of the resist so that it becomes more soluble in the developer.
The exposed resist is then washed away by the developer solution.
o Negative Photoresist – Exposure to UV light causes the negative resist to
become polymerized and more difficult to dissolve. It remains on the surface
wherever it is exposed and the developer removes only the unexposed portions.

Fig 2.42 Photolithography

o Prebaking/ Softbaking – After applying the photoresist to the desired thickness, a softbake
is used to remove the residual solvents of the photoresist. Photoresist is prebaked at 900C to
1000C for 5 – 30 minutes. After the softbaking, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.
o Mask alignment - A photomask, consisting of a glass plate (transparent) coated with a
chromium pattern (opaque), is then placed in contact with the photoresist coated surface.
"Align" is one of the most critical steps in the entire microsystems fabrication process. A
misalignment of one micron or smaller can destroy the device and all the devices on the
wafer. Each layer must be aligned properly and within specifications to the previous layers
and subsequent layers

Page | 30
 MET402 Mechatronics

o Exposure - The wafer is exposed to the ultraviolet radiation transferring the pattern on the
mask to the photoresist. The wafer is exposed by UV (ultraviolet) from a light source
traveling through the mask to the resist. A chemical reaction occurs between the resist and
the light. Only those areas not protected by the mask undergo a chemical reaction.
o Development - Portions of the photoresist are dissolved by a chemical developer. With
positive resist, the exposed resist is dissolved while the unexposed resist remains on the
wafer. With negative resist, the unexposed resist is dissolved while the exposed resist
remains. Most commonly used developer is tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide.
o Hard Baking – It hardens the photoresist for the next process. The temperature of the
hardbaking is higher than that of the softbaking after coat (1200C – 1500C). After the
hardbaking the wafer is cooled to room temperature.
o Etching – It is performed either using wet chemicals such as acids or using dry etching. The
photoresist wall resists the etching and protects the material covered by the resist.
o Stripping – After etching the remaining photoresist is removed by wet or dry stripping.
Commonly used stripping medium are phenol based organic compounds like acetone.

DEPOSITION
CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is the most important process in microfabrication. It is

used extensively for producing thin films by depositing many different kind of foreign
materials over the surface of silicon substrates, or over other thin films that have already
been deposited to the silicon substrate.
 CVD usually takes place at elevated temperatures and in vacuum in high class clean rooms.
 Materials for CVD may include:

(a) Metals: Al, Ag, Au, W, Cu, Pt and Sn.

(b) Organic materials: Al2O3, polysilicon, SiO2, Si3N4, piezoelectric ZnO, SMA TiNi

 There are three available CVD processes in microfabrication:

 APCVD: (Atmospheric-pressure CVD)
 LPCVD (Low-pressure CVD), and
 PECVD (Plasma-enhanced CVD)

Working principle of CVD:

Fig 2.43 Horizontal Reactor

Page | 31
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.44 Vertical Reactor

 CVD involves the flow of a gas containing diffused reactants (normally in vapor form) over
the hot substrate surface.
 The gas that carries the reactants is called “carrier gas”.
 The “diffused” reactants are foreign material that needed to be deposited on the substrate
surface.
The carrier gas and the reactant flow over the hot substrate surface, the energy supplied by
the surface temperature provoke chemical reactions of the reactants that form films during
and after the reactions.
 The by-products of the chemical reactions are then let to the vent.
 Various types of CVD reactors are built to perform the CVD processes (horizontal and
vertical).

PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

EVAPORATION

Fig 2.45 Evaporation

 Evaporation involves two basic processes: a hot source material evaporates and condenses
on the substrate. It resembles the familiar process by which liquid water appears on the lid of
a boiling pot.
Page | 32
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Evaporation takes place in a vacuum, i.e. vapours other than the source material are almost
entirely removed before the process begins. In high vacuum (with a long mean free path),
evaporated particles can travel directly to the deposition target without colliding with the
background gas.
 Resistive heating method is used for heating the target material. Voltage and current is
manually controlled.
 Electron beam can also be used for heating the target material.

SPUTTERING

 PVD is used to deposit titanium, titanium nitrate, tantalum, tantalum nitrate, aluminum and a
very thin film of copper called seed layer.
 The PVD equipment will be about 4 ft in height and 4 ft in diameter. The material to be
deposited (e.g. titanium) will be at the top, as shown in schematic Fig 3.6.

Fig 2.46 Schematic of PVD Chamber

 The tungsten will be in the form of a disc of 1 inch thickness and 5 or 6 inches diameter. At
the bottom, silicon wafer will be kept.
 Apart from these, there will be facilities to allow gases into the chamber and to evacuate the
chamber with vacuum pump and electrical connections to apply very high voltage (of the
order of 10000 V).
 The negative plate will be near the tungsten and the positive plate will be near the wafer.
 Tungsten (or any other material in its place) is called target.
 First the air in the chamber must be removed and vacuum must be created. Then argon gas
sent inside and a low pressure will be maintained.
 If high voltage is applied to the plates, a plasma will be generated. The plasma will have
electrons and positive argon ions. The plasma cannot be generated by normal 230 volts.
 The positive argon ions will be attracted towards the negative plate. They will move towards
the negative plates and hit the tungsten with high force. That is why tungsten is called target
in this process.

Page | 33
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.47 Argon Ions Hitting

Aluminium Target

Fig 2.48 PVD Process Near Wafer

 Since the argon ions impinge on the target with large force, some of the target atoms will
break and come out, as shown in Fig 3.7.

 The number of tungsten atoms bounce back for each argon ion hitting the target is
called sputtering yield. It depends on the speed of the argon ions, the angle of the impact and
also on the bond strength of the target.

Page | 34
 MET402 Mechatronics

 The atoms from the target will come towards the wafer with some force. Not all of them will
deposit on the wafer. Some will be deposited, while some will bounce back. Some may even
bounce back and remove some of the materials already deposited on the wafer.

 Among the tungsten atoms that fall on the wafer, the fraction that stick to the wafer is called
sticking coefficient. If all the atoms that fall on the wafer stick to it, then the sticking
coefficient is one. If none of them stick, then the sticking coefficient is zero. Typically, the
sticking coefficient is about 0.7 to 0.8.

DEPOSITION BY EXPITAXY

 Both CVD and PVD processes are used to deposit dissimilar materials on the silicon
substrate surfaces. Epitaxy deposition process is used to deposit polysilicon films on silicon
substrate surfaces.
 Most polisilicons are doped pure silicon crystals randomly oriented. They are used to
conduct electricity at desired locations on silicon substrates.
 This process is similar to CVD with carrier gas with reactants that release the same material
as the substrates.
 Reactor is very similar to those used in CVD, except that many of the carrier gas used is H2.
For safety reason, N2 gas is used to drive out any O2 gas in the system before the process
begins.

Fig 2.49 Horizontal Reactor

ETCHING
 Bulk micromachining involves the removal of part of the bulk substrate. It is a subtractive
process that uses wet anisotropic etching or a dry etching method such as reactive ion
etching (RIE), to create large pits, grooves and channels.
 Materials typically used for wet etching include silicon and quartz, while dry etching is
typically used with silicon, metals, plastics and ceramics.

WET ETCHING

 Wet Etching is an etching process that utilizes liquid chemicals or etchants to remove
materials from the wafer, usually in specific patterns defined by photoresist masks on the
wafer.
Page | 35
 MET402 Mechatronics

 In wet etching, the wafers are immersed in a tank of the etchant (mix of chemicals. There is
a chemical reaction between the wafer surface and the etchants that helps in material
removal.
 Either a photoresist layer or a hard mask like oxide or nitride layer is used to protect the rest
of the wafer.
 The time for etching depends on the amount and type of material that needs to be removed.
 KOH (potassium hydroxide) is a common etchant used to remove Si. Usually, 30% KOH
solution is used, which has a etch rate of ∼ 100 µm/hr at 90 ◦C.
 After etching, the wafers are rinsed, usually in DI water, for removal of etchant and then
finally dried.

Fig 2.50 Wet Etching

DRY ETCHING

 Dry etching refers to the removal of material, typically a masked pattern of semiconductor
material, by exposing the material to a bombardment of ions (usually a plasma of reactive
gases such as fluorocarbons, oxygen, chlorine, boron trichloride; sometimes with addition of
nitrogen, argon, helium and other gases) that dislodge portions of the material from the
exposed surface.

DEEP REACTIVE ION ETCHING (DRIE)

 Dry etching relies on vapour phase or plasma-based methods of etching using suitably
reactive gases or vapours usually at high temperatures.
 The most common form for MEMS is reactive ion etching (RIE) which utilizes additional
energy in the form of radio frequency (RF) power to drive the chemical reaction.
 Energetic ions are accelerated towards the material to be etched within a plasma phase
supplying the additional energy needed for the reaction.
 As a result the etching can occur at much lower temperatures (typically 150º - 250ºC,
sometimes room temperature) than those usually needed (above 1000ºC).
 RIE is not limited by the crystal planes in the silicon, and as a result, deep trenches and pits,
or arbitrary shapes with vertical walls can be etched.

Page | 36
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) is a much higher-aspect-ratio etching method that
involves an alternating process of high-density plasma etching (as in RIE) and protective
polymer deposition to achieve greater aspect ratios.
 Etch rates depend on time, concentration, temperature and material to be etched. To date
there are no universally accepted master equations to predict etch performance and
behaviour.

Fig 2.51 Deep Reactive Ion Etching

Advantages of DRIE

 Fine resolution
 High aspect ratio
 High etch rate
 High sensitivity and precision

Disadvantages of DRIE

 Usage of high plasma power

 Single wafer at a time
 Specialized hardwares are required and hence expensive

Applications of DRIE

o Sensors and actuators

o Printer heads
o Accelerometer for air bags
o Capacitor in DRAM memory circuits

Page | 37
 MET402 Mechatronics

ION IMPLANTATION
 It is physical process used to dope silicon substrates.
 It involves “forcing” free charge-carrying ionized atoms of boron, Phosphorous or Arsenic
into silicon crystals.
 These ions associated with sufficiently high kinetic energy will be penetrated into the silicon
substrate. Physical process is illustrated as follows:

FIG 2.52 Ion Implantation

DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is another common technique for doping silicon substrates. Unlike ion
implantation, diffusion takes place at high temperature.
 Diffusion is a chemical process. The profile of the spread of dopant in silicon by diffusion is
different from that by ion implantation:

Fig 2.53 Diffusion

Page | 38
 MET402 Mechatronics

OXIDATION

Fig 2.54 Oxidation

 SiO2 is an important element in MEMS and microsystems. Major application of SiO2 layers
or films are:
o To be used as thermal insulation media
o To be used as dielectric layers for electrical insulation
 SiO2 can be produced over the surface of silicon substrates either by:
o Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
o Growing SiO2 with dry O2 in the air, or wet steam by the following two
chemical reactions at high temperature:
 Si (solid) + O2 (gas) → SiO2 (solid)
 Si (solid) + 2H2O (steam) → SiO2 (solid) + 2H2 (gas)

Fig 2.55 Principle of Thermal Oxidation

Page | 39
 MET402 Mechatronics

MICROMACHINING METHODS FOR MEMS

 Bulk Micromachining
 Surface Micromachining
 LIGA

SURFACE MICROMACHINING

 Surface micromachining is a process that uses thin film layers deposited on the surface of a
substrate to construct structural components for MEMS. Unlike bulk micromachining that
builds components within a substrate, surface micromachining builds on top of the substrate.
 Most commonly used materials for surface micromachining:
Substrate: silicon
Sacrificial material: SiO2 or phosphosilicate glass (PSG) s
Structural material: polysilicon
 The dimensions of these surface micromachined structures can be several orders of
magnitude smaller than bulk-micromachined structures.
 The prime advantage of surface-micromachined structures is their easy integration with IC
components, because the wafer is also the working area for IC elements.

Fig 2.56 Surface Micromachining

 It should be noted that as miniaturization is immensely increased by surface

micromachining, the small mass structure involved may be insufficient for a number of
mechanical sensing and actuation applications.

Page | 40
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Surface micromachining requires a compatible set of structural materials, sacrificial

materials, and chemical etchants. The structural materials must possess the physical and
chemical properties that are suitable for the desired application. In addition, they must have
satisfactory mechanical properties.
 The sacrificial materials must have good mechanical properties to avoid device failure
during fabrication. These properties include good adhesion and low-residual stresses to
eliminate device failure by delamination and/or cracking.
 The etchants to remove the sacrificial materials must have excellent etch selectivity and they
must be able to etch off the sacrificial materials without affecting the structural ones. In
addition, the etchants must have proper viscosity and surface tension characteristics.

LIGA PROCESS

 LIGA is a Germal acronym for Lithographie ( Lithography), Galvanoformung

(Electroplating), Abformung (Molding).
 LIGA fabrication is used to create high-aspect ratio structures through the use of x- rays
produced by a synchrotron or relatively low aspect ratio structures through the use of UV
(ultraviolet) light.
 The LIGA process involves the following steps:
o A very thick (up to hundreds of microns) resist layer of polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA) is deposited onto a primary substrate.
o The PMMA is exposed to columnated X-rays and is developed.
o Metal is electrodeposited onto the primary substrate.
o The PMMA is removed or stripped, resulting in a freestanding metal structure.
o Plastic injection molding takes place.
 The LIGA-fabrication process is composed of:
 Exposure
 Development
 Electroforming
 Stripping
 Replication

Steps in LIGA Process

Step-1

 Coat thick photoresist (300 m to > 500 m) on a substrate with an electrically conductive
surface.

Step-2 Irradiation

 X-ray lithography with extended exposure from highly collimated X-radiation to penetrate
thick Resist with well- defined sidewalls.
 Irradiation involves exposing a thick layer of resist to high-energy beam of x-rays from a
synchrotron.
 The mask membrane is normally a low atomic number material such as diamond, beryllium,
or a thin membrane of a higher atomic number material such as silicon or silicon carbide.
Page | 41
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.57 Steps in LIGA Process

Step-3: Development

 In this step the pattern is etched into the resist substrate by the use of x- rays and desired
structure are formed.

Step-4: Electroforming

 Metal electroplated on the exposed conductive substrate surface. Electroforming is the same
as electroplating.
 Electroforming suggests that the plating is used to create an actual metal component

Step-5

 After photoresist removal, metal structure formed may be used as mold.

 Sacrificial techniques are combined with the basic LIGA process to create partially freed,
flexure-suspended structure or completely freed devices.

Advantages of LIGA

 No diffraction effect
 Simple to use
 Uniform refraction pattern
 High resolution for small feature size

Page | 42
 MET402 Mechatronics

Disadvantages of LIGA

 Distortion in absorber
 Mask is expensive to produce
 Slow and complicated process

Applications of LIGA

 Sensors and actuators

 Projectors
 Micro optical components
 Mass spectrometers

MEMS BASED PRESSURE SENSOR

 The basic structure of a piezoresistive pressure sensor consists of four sense elements in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration to measure stress within a thin, crystalline silicon
membrane.

Fig 2.58 MEMS Pressure Sensor

 The stress is a direct consequence of the membrane deflecting in response to an applied

pressure differential across the front and back sides of the sensor. The stress is, to a first
order approximation, linearly proportional to the applied pressure differential.
 The membrane deflection is typically less than one micrometre. The output at full-scale
applied pressure is a few millivolts per volt of bridge excitation (the supply voltage to the
bridge).
 The output normalized to input applied pressure is known as sensitivity [(mV/V)/Pa]. The
thickness and geometrical dimensions of the membrane affect the sensitivity, and
consequently, the pressure range of the sensor.
 Devices rated for low pressure (less than 10 kPa) usually incorporate complex membrane
structures, such as central bosses, to improve sensitivity.
 A common design layout positions the four diffused piezoresistive sense elements at the
points of highest stress, which occur at the center edges of the diaphragm.
Page | 43
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Two elements have their primary axes parallel to the membrane edge, resulting in a decrease
in resistance with membrane bending. The other two resistors have their axes perpendicular
to the edge, which causes the resistance to increase with the pressure load.
 It is necessary that the four piezoresistors have identical resistances in the absence of applied
pressure. Any mismatch in resistance, even one caused by temperature, causes an imbalance
in the Wheatstone bridge. The resulting output reading is known as zero offset, and is
undesirable.

FABRICATION OF MEMS BASED PRESSURE SENSOR

Fig 2.59 Fabrication of MEMS Based Pressure Sensor

 The fabrication of a silicon-fusion-bonded sensor begins with the etching of a cavity in a

bottom handle wafer. Silicon-fusion bonding of a second top wafer encapsulates and seals
the cavity. Electrochemical etching or standard polishing thins down the top bonded wafer
to form a membrane of appropriate thickness.
 A Clear wafer is placed on the surface. The surface should have the ability to rotate. On the
surface of the wafer, deposition of silicon nitride take place.
 After a few seconds, photoresist coat is applied to the surface and is allowed to undergo the
photoresist exposure by UV light through a mask with the desired pattern. After some time
photoresist development is occurred by tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide solution.
 Next etching process is taken place by reactive ions like Ar, CF3, CF4 etc. Finally
photoresist strip can be made by piranha clean method.
Page | 44
 MET402 Mechatronics

 After completing front surface, we need to rotate the wafer and the same process is repeated
to the other side also. Lift off resist coat is poured and by rotating the surface, it allows to
spread all along the surface.
 Photo resist coating is done by the same as above and then it is undergone in to a LOR and
PR exposure by UV light through a mask and then rinsed in the developer solution (LOR
and PR develop.).
 Then, deposition process takes place by chrome and gold disposition. It is a physical vapour
deposition method. Then PR strip lift of by acetone solution is done and then LOR strip off
is done finally through KOH anisotropic etching method.
 MEMS pressure sensor is created/ fabricated by placing a pyrex 7740 glass anodic bonding
on the surface.

MEMS BASED ACCELEROMETER

 Accelerometer is an instrument for measuring the acceleration of a moving or vibrating
body.
 An accelerometer generally consists of a proof mass suspended by compliant beams
anchored to a fixed frame.
 The proof mass has a mass of m, the suspension beams have an effective spring constant
stiffness k and there is a damping factor (b) affecting the dynamic movement of the mass
generated by the air structure interaction.
 The accelerometer can be modelled by a second-order Mass-damper-spring system,
External acceleration displaces the support frame relative to the proof mass, which in turn
changes the internal stress in the suspension spring.
 Both this relative displacement and the suspension-beam stress can be used as a measure of
the external acceleration.

Fig 2.60 MEMS Accelerometer - Principle

 The mass develops a force which is given by the D‟Alembert‟s inertial force equation
F= m*a.
 This force displaces the spring by a distance x. Hence the total force externally is balanced
by the sum of internal forces given by,

Page | 45
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Stress is the defined as the force per unit area acting on the surface of a differential volume
element of a solid body.

 The strain, which can be defined as the deformation resulting from;

 Spring Constant (proportionality constant) that relates the force and the displacement in
Hooke‟s law. By increasing or decreasing the spring constant we can alter the movement of
the proof mass in the corresponding direction

CAPACITANCE ACCELEROMETER

 One of the most commonly used MEMS accelerometer is the capacitive type. The capacitive
MEMS accelerometer is famous for its high sensitivity and its accuracy at high
temperatures.
 The device does not change values depending on the base materials used and depends only
on the capacitive value that occurs due to the change in distance between the plates.
 If two plates are kept parallel to each other and are separated by a distance„d‟, and if „E‟ is
the permitivity of the separating material, then capacitance produced can be written as;

C0 = E0.E A/d = EA/d

EA = E0EA

A – Area of the electrodes

 A change in the values of E, A or d will help in finding the change in capacitance and thus
helps in the working of the MEMS transducer.
 Accelerometer values mainly depend on the change of values of d or A.
 A typical MEMS accelerometer is shown in the figure below. It can also be called a simple
one-axis accelerometer.
 If more sets of capacitors are kept in 90 degrees to each other you can design 2 or 3-axis
accelerometer.
 A simple MEMS transducer mainly consists of a movable microstructure or a proof mass
that is connected to a mechanical suspension system and thus on to a reference frame.
 The movable plates and the fixed outer plates act as the capacitor plates. When acceleration
is applied, the proof mass moves accordingly. This produces a capacitance between the
movable and the fixed outer plates.
 When acceleration is applied, the distance between the two plates displace as X1 and X2,
and they turn out to be a function of the capacitance produced.
Page | 46
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.61 MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer

FABRICATION OF MEMS ACCELEROMETER

Various steps involved in fabrication of MEMS accelerometer are;

 Deposition of silicon on wafer

 Oxidation
 Photolithography
 SiO2 Etching
 Silicon Etching
 SiO2 removal
 Metallization
 Two silicon layers are added to wafer oxide. One on above and another below. Then
oxidation process takes place on both sides. By photolithography, photoresist is placed on
the surface and allow UV light to pass through it for 15 to 20 sec through a mask followed
by photoresist development of TMAH (Tetramethyl Ammonium Hydroxide).
 After a while SiO2 and silicon etching process takes place and so PR layer is removed.
Finally we get V-groove formation by SiO2 removal method. Oxide layer is removed from
the surface and the structure is obtained finally by metallization process. 2nd level mask is
deposited by Al at a temperature of 6500C.

Page | 47
 MET402 Mechatronics

Fig 2.62 Fabrication of MEMS Accelerometer

Advantages of MEMS Accelerometer

 High sensitivity.
 Easy readout circuitry.
 Independent of temperature variation.
 Easy fabrication (two level mask).
 Large noise margin.
 Fabrication on silicon.
 Compatible with CMOS technology.

Applications of MEMS Accelerometer

 Automotive
o Crash detection & Air bag deploy-
ment.
 Consumer Electronics
o hard disk protection(laptops)
o screen rotation (mobile)
o Image stabilization (camera)
 Industrial
o Vibration detection (machine)
o crack detection (pulley)
 Aerospace & Defence
o Navigation
o Missile
guidance o Thrust
detection

Page | 48
 MET402 Mechatronics

MEMS BASED GYROSCOPE

 Gyroscope is a device used for measuring and maintaining orientation based on principle of
angular momentum.
 Mechanically, gyroscope is a spinning wheel/ disc mounted on axle and axle is free to
assume any direction.
 MEMS gyroscopes generally use a vibrating mechanical element as a sensing element for
detecting the angular velocity. They do not have rotating parts that require bearings and this
allows an easy miniaturization and the use of the manufacturing techniques typical of
MEMS devices.

Working Principle

 All MEMS gyroscopes with vibrating element are based on the transfer of energy between
two vibration modes caused by the acceleration of Coriolis.
 Corioli’s effect – an effect where by a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force
(Corioli‟s force) acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation.

Fig 2.63 Illustration of Corioli’s Principle

 Corioli’s Acceleration – It is an apparent acceleration that arises in rotating frame of

reference. It is proportional to the rate of rotation Ω.

 Corioli’s force is given by;

FABRICATION OF MEMS GYROSCOPE

 Silicon wafer is taken with implanted etch to stop on the bottom surface. Processing takes
place only on the top surface of the wafer. Anisotropic KOH etching is taken place on the
wafer surface and sacrificial layer is added on to it. An oxide layer is added on top. Through
etching process, the sacrificial layer is etched out.
 Sputter thin aluminium layer, pattern with PR mask. Then etch away aluminium from the
substrate to create leads.
Page | 49
 MET402 Mechatronics

 Use sol – gel method to add 2 micron layer of PZT and use another mask PR and etchant to
create piezo electric sheet. Sputter more aluminium leads and pattern with a third mask,
photoresist and etchant.

Fig 2.64 Fabrication of MEMS Gyroscope

 DC source creates an electrostatic force that moves the disc. Proper control of these
electrodes can put the system into resonance. Similarly, the sensing electrodes change to
gauge system change.

Page | 50
 MET402 Mechatronics

Advantages of MEMS Gyroscope

 Improved sensitivity
 Improved accuracy and reliability
 Easier to alter the parts of device as compared to its macro counter part

Disadvantages of MEMS Gyroscope

 Poly silicon is a brittle material

 Design complexity

Applications of MEMS Gyroscope

 Optical image stabilization

 Aircrafts, ships, satellites, missiles etc
 Automotive application – Air bag safety system, vehicle security system, Braking system
etc.

Page | 51