Matrices and Determinants-BVM

Definition :A rectangular arrangement of numbers (which may be real or complex num-

bers) in rows and columns, is called a matrix. This arrangement is enclosed by open ( ) or
closed [ ] brackets. The numbers are called the elements of the matrix or entries of the matrix.
 Order of Matrix : A matrix having ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ columns is called a matrix of order
‘ m  n ’ or simply ‘ m  n ’ matrix (read as m by n matrix). A matrix A of order ‘ m  n ’ is
usually written in the following manner

 a11 a12 a13 ... ... a1 j ... ... a1n 

 
 a21 a22 a23 ... ... a2 j ... ... a2 n 
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
A  
 ai1 ai 2 ai 3 ... ... aij ... ... ain 
 
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 am1 am 2 am 3 ... ... amj ... ... amn  mn

In a compact form the above matrix is

represented by
A   aij  ,1  i  m,1  j  n (or ) A   aij  The numbers a11 , a12 ,......, etc. are known as
m n

the elements of the matrix A. The element aij in the matrix A belongs to i th row and j th
column.
Note: A matrix of order ‘ m  n ’ contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains
n elements and every column contains m elements.
3 1 5 
Eg : Order of matrix 6 2  7  is 2  3
 
 Types of matrices:
Row matrix: A matrix is said to be a row
matrix if it has only one row and any number of columns.
Eg : 5 0 3 is a row matrix of order 1 3
 Column matrix : A matrix is said to be a
column matirx if it has only one column and any number of rows.

2 
 
Eg : 3  is a column matrix of order 3 1
6 
 Singleton matrix : If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus, A   aij  mn is a singleton matrix, if
m=n=1
Eg :  2 ,  3 ,  a  ,  3 are singleton matrices.
 Null matrix (or) Zero matrix : If in a matrix all the elements are zeros then it is called a
 zero matrix and it is generally denoted by O. Thus A   aij  is a zero matrix if
m n

aij  0  i and j.

0 0 0 0 0
Eg :  0 ,
0   0
0 0 
are all zero

matrices, but of different orders.
 Rectangular matrix : In a matrix if the
number of rows is not equal to the number of columns then the matrix is called a rectangu-
lar matrix.

3 2 
 0
Eg :  5 
7 1  32
 Square matrix : If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is
called a square matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

 a23 
Eg :  a21 a22 is a square matrix of order 3 × 3.
 a31 a32 a33 
 Principal diagonal of a square
matrix : In a square matrix the diagonal from first element of the first row to the last
element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of the square matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

 a23 
Eg :  a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 

then a11 , a 22 ,a 33 constitutes diagonal of A

 Diagonal matrix : In a square matrix if all the elements outside the principal diagonal are
zeros, the elements of principal diagonal may or may not be zero, then the matrix is said to be
diagonal matrix.

2 0 0
 
Eg : 0 0 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3  3 , which can be denoted by diag  2,0, 4
0 0 4 

Note: If A = diag( d1 , d 2 , d3 ...d n ) then

An  diag  d1n , d 2 n , d 3n .....d n n 
 Identity matrix or Unit matrix :
A square matrix in which each element in the principal diagonal is ‘1’ and rest are all zeros
is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. Thus, the square matrix A   aij  is an identity

1, if i  j
matrix, if aij  
0, if i  j
 We denote the identity matrix of order n by I n .

1 0 0
1 0
Eg : I2   , I3  0 1 0 are identity matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively..
0 1
0 0 1
 Scalar matrix : A square matrix whose all non diagonal elements are zeros and diagonal
elements are equal is called a scalar matrix. Thus, if A   aij  is a square matrix and

 , if i  j
aij   , then A is a scalar matrix.
0, if i  j

5 0 0
3 0  
Eg : 0 3 , 0 5 0
0 0 5 
Unit matrix and null square matrices are also scalar matrices.
 Triangular matrix : A square matrix  aij  is said to be triangular matrix if each element
above or below the principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types
Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix  aij  is called the upper triangular matrix,
if aij  0 when i  j .

3 1 2
 
Eg :  0 4 3  is an upper triangular matrix of order 3 × 3.
 0 0 6 

Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix  aij  is called the lower triangular matrix, if
aij  0 when i  j .

1 0 0 
 
Eg :  2 3 0  is a lower triangular matrix of order 3 × 3
 4 5 2 

 Trace of a matrix : The sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the trace
of matrix A, which is denoted by tr ( A). Trace is also called as spur.
n

i.e., tr  A   aii  a11  a22  .....ann

i 1

Properties of trace of a matrix :

Let A   aij  nn and B  bij  nn and  be a

scalar i) tr   A  tr  A 

ii) tr  A  B   tr  A  tr  B 

iii) tr  AB   tr  BA
 iv) tr  I n   n v) tr  AB   tr  A  .tr  B 
vi) If A,B,C are square matrices of order n,
then Tr (ABC) = Tr (BCA) = Tr (CAB)
 Equality of matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if
i) A and B are of the same type (order)
ii) The corresponding elements of A and B
are equal.
a b c   2 0 1
Eg : A    and B   
d e f  1 3 5 
are equal iff a = 2, b = 0, c = 1, d = -1,
e = -3, f = 5
 Addition of matrices : If A and B are two matrices of the same type, then their sum
denoted by A+B is defined to be the matrix of the same type and is obtained by adding the
corresponding elements of A and B.
i.e., If A   aij  mn and B  bij  mn then A  B  [Cij ]mn where Cij  aij  bij
 Properties :
i) A+B = B+A (commutative law)
ii) (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (Associative law)
iii) A+O=O+A = A where O is zero matrix which is called additive identity.
iv) A    A   O    A   A , where   A is obtained by changing the sign of every element
of A, which is additive inverse of the matrix A.
 Difference of two matrices : If A and B are two matrices of the same type then A-B is
defined as A+(-B)
Note: If two matrices A and B are of different orders, we can not define A+B and A-B.
 Multiplication of a matrix by a
scalar: Let A   aij  mn be a matrix and k be a number, then the matrix which is obtained
by multiplying every element of A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it is
denoted by kA.
Thus, if A   aij  mn ,

then kA  Ak   kaij  mn .

 Properties of scalar multiplication :
If A, B are matrices of the same order and  ,  are any two scalars then
i)   A  B    A   B

ii)      A   A   A

iii)    A    A     A

iv)   A      A     A
 Multiplication of matrices : Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB
if the number of columns in A is same as the
number of rows in B thus, if
 A   aik mp , B  bkj  pn then
p

AB  Cij 
m n
where Cij   aik bkj
k 1

W.E-1: A matrix X has (a+b) rows and (a+2)

columns, while the matrix Y has (b+1) rows and (a+3) columns. Both matrices XY and YX
exist. Find a and b.
Sol. Type of X is (a+b)  (a+2)
Type of Y is (b+1)  (a+3)
Since both XY, YXexist
a+2=b+1 and a+b=a+3  a=2, b=3
order of X is 5  4, order of Y is 4  5
XY  YX
( order of XY is 5  5 and YX is 4  4)
 Properties of matrix multiplication :
If A,B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
i) AB  BA ,(Generally not commutative)
ii)  AB  C  A  BC  =ABC, (Associative law)
iii) IA  A  AI , where I is identitiy matrix for
matrix multiplication.
iv) A  B  C   AB  AC , (Distributive law)
v) (A + B).C = AC + BC, (Distributive law)
vi) If AB  O, then either A or B need not be equal to O .
vii) If AB = AC then B need not be equal to C
even if A  O .
 Remember that if A and B are two square
matrices of the same order, then
i)  A  B   A2  B 2  AB  BA
2

ii)  A  B   A2  B 2  AB  BA
2

iv)  Am   Amn   An 
n m
iii) Am An  Am  n
v) I n  I n  N
vi) If a square matrix, which is commutative with every square matrix of the same order for
multiplication then it is necessarily a scalar matrix.
 Transpose of a matrix : The matrix
obtained from a given matrix A by changing its rows into columns or columns into rows is
called transpose of matrix A and is denoted by AT or A'
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m  n , then order of AT is n  m
 Properties of transpose of a matrix :
 i   AT 
T
Let A and B be two matrices then, A

ii)  A  B   AT  BT ,A and B being of the

T
same order
 iii)  kA   kAT , k be any scalar
T

iv)  AB   BT AT , A and B being conformable

T

for the product AB

v)  A1 A2 A3 .... An 1 An   AnT AnT1 .... A3T A2T A1T
T

vi) A=B  AT  B T
 Symmetric matrix:A square matrix A   aij  is called symmetric matrix if aij  a ji
 i, j i.e., AT  A

a h g
 f 
Eg :  h b
is a symmetric matrix
 g f c 

 Skew-Symmetric matrix :A square matrix A   aij  is called skew -symmetric matrix if

aij   a ji  i, j i.e., AT   A .

0 h g
 h 0 f 
Eg : 
  g  f 0 
Note: i) All principal diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are always zeros
ii) Trace of a skew-symmetric matrix is zero
 Properties of symmetric and
Skew-symmetric matrices :
i) If A is a square matrix, then A  AT , AAT , AT A are symmetric matrices
ii) If A is square matrix then A  AT is a
skew-symmetric matrix.
iii) If A is a symmetric matrix, then  A, KA, AT , An , A1 , BT AB are also symmetric matrices,
where n  N , K  R and B is a square matrix of order that of A
iv) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then
a) A2n is symmetric matrix for n  N
b) A2 n 1 is a skew-symmetric matrix for n  N
c) kA is also skew-symmetric matrix, where kR
v) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then
a) A  B, AB  BA are also symmetric matrices,
b) AB-BA is a skew-symmetric matrix,
c) AB is a symmetric matrix, when AB=BA
vi) If A, B two skew-symmetric matrices, then
a) A  B ,AB-BA are skew-symmetric
matrices
b) AB+BA is a symmetric matrix.
vii) a) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix and B is a square matrix of order that of A then
BT AB is also skew-symmetric matrix.
 b) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then C T AC is a zero matrix.
viii) Every square matrix A can be uniquely
expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-
symmetric matrices of same order
ix) If A,B are symmetric matrices of same order and X  AB  BA , y  AB  BA then XY  YX  0
1 T  1 T 
  
i.e., A   A  A    A  A  .
2  2 

Note: If a matrix A is both symmetric and
skew-symmetric then A is null matrix.
 Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT  I  AT A i.e.,
A1  AT
1 2 2
1
W.E 2: If A   2 1  2  then A is__
3 
 2 2 1 

1 2 2 
Sol: A  2 1 2 
1
T

3 
 2 2 1 

 1 2 2  1 2 2 
A. A   2 1 2   2 1 2 
1
T 1
3 3
 2 2 1   2 2 1 

9 0 0 
 0 9 0 
1
9 I
0 0 9 

Similarly AT A  I
A is Orthogonal matrix
 Properties of Orthogonal matrix :
i) Every orthogonal matrix is non -singular.
ii) Every orthogonal matrix is invertible.
iii) If A is orthogonal, then AT and A1 are also orthogonal.
iv) If A and B are orthogonal matrices of same order then AB and BA are also orthogonal.
v) The sum of the squares of elements of any row or column of an orthogonal matrix is 1.
vi) The sum of the products of the corresponding elements of any two rows or columns is 0
vii) If A is an orthogonal matrix and B = AP (P-non-singular matrix) then PB 1 is also orthogonal
matrix.
 Special types of matrices :
i) Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A2  A
 2 2 4 
 
Eg : A =  1 3 4  is an idempotent matrix.
 1 2 3
Properties :
i) If A, B are two idempotent matrices and AB = BA = O then A+B is idempotent matrix.
ii) If A is idempotent matrix then I-A is also idempotent
iii) Every non-singular idempotent matrix is
always unit matrix
iv) If AB=A , BA=B then A and B are
idempotent matrices and An  B n  A  B
ii) Involutory matrix: A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A2  I
0 1 
Eg : 1 0 is an involutory matrix.
 
iii) Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists atleast
one p  N such that A p  O , where the least value p is called index of the nilpotent matrix A

1 1 3
 
Eg : A=  5 2 6  is a nilpotent matrix of index 3.
 2 1 3
Note: Trace of a nilpotent matrix is zero.
iv) Periodic matrix: A matrix A is called a periodic matrix if Ak 1  A where k is a

positive integer. The least value of k is said to be period of A

v) Conjugate of a matrix: The matrix
obtained from any given matrix A containing
complex numbers as its elements, on replacing its
elements by the corresponding conjugate
complex numbers is called conjugate of A and is denoted by A .

1  2i 2  3i 3  4i 
 
Eg : A   4  5i 5  6i 6  7i  then
 8 7  8i 7 

1  2i 2  3i 3  4i 
A   4  5i 5  6i 6  7i 
 8 7  8i 7 
vi) Transposed conjugate of a matrix: The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix

A is called transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A or A* .The conjugate of the trans-
pose of A is the same as the transpose of the conjugate of A

 
i.e., AT   A   A .
T

1  2i 2  3i 3  4i 
Eg : A   4  5i 5  6i 6  7i 
 8 7  8i 7 
  1  2i 4  5i 8 
then A   2  3i

5  6i 7  8i 
 3  4i 6  7i 7 

vii) Hermitian matrix: A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be Hermitian matrix if A  A

 3 3  4i 5  2i 
 2  i 
Eg :  3  4i 5
 is Hermitian matrix.
 5  2i 2  i 2 
Note: All the principal diagonal elements of herimitian matrix are real.
viii) Skew Hermitian matrix : A square
matrix A is said to be a skew-Hermitian if A   A
 3i 3  2i 1  i 
 2  4i 
Eg : 3  2i 2i
 1  i 2  4i 0 
is a skew-hermitian matrix.
Note: All the principal diagonal elements of
skew-hermitian matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
ix) Unitary matrix: A square matrix A is said to be unitary, if A A  I  AA
The determinant of unitary matrix is one and it is non-singular.

 Determinant of a square matrix :

The determinant of the square matrix
a b1 
A 1 is the unique number a1b2  a2b1 and is denoted by
 a2 b2 

a1 a2
Det A  A   a1b2  a2b1
b1 b2
 Minor of an element in a square
matrix: Let A  aij  be a square matrix. The minor of an element aij in A is the determi-
nant of the square matrix that remains after deleting the i th row and jth column of A. It is
denoted by M ij .
 Cofactor of an element of a square
th
matrix : The cofactor of an element in the i th row and the j column of a matrix is
defined as its minor multiplied by ( 1)i  j . If Aij is the cofactor of aij , then Aij  ( 1)i  j M ij

 a11 a12 a13 

a a a23 
Let A =  21 22 
 a31 a32 a33 
 a11 a12
i) Minor of a23 is  M 23   a a32
31

 a11a32  a31a12
ii) Cofactor of a31 is

a12 a13
A31  (1)31 M 31  
a22 a23

iii) The cofactors of a11 , a12 , a13 ..... are denoted by A11 , A12 , A13 ,.......

 a1 b1 c1   A1 B1 C1 
a b2 c2  A B2 C2 
iv) For the matrix  2  , the cofactor matrix is given by  2 
 a 3 b3 c3   A3 B3 C 3 

a1 c1
Eg : B2  ( 1) 2 2  (a1c3  a3c1 )
a3 c3
 Determinant of Third Order Matrix
The determinant of a square matrix is equal to the sum of the products of the elements of a
row (or column) with their corresponding cofactors
a1 b1 c1
If   a2 b2 c2   = a A + a A + a A
1 1 2 2 3 3
a3 b3 c3
= b1 B1 + b2 B2 + b3B3
= c1 C1 + c2 C2 + c3C3
Properties of determinants:
i) The determinant of a square matrix changes its sign when any two rows (or columns) are
interchanged
ii) If two rows (columns) of a square matrix are identical or proportional then the value of the
determinant is zero.
iii) If all the elements of a row (column) of a square matrix are multiplied by a number
K then the
determinant of the resulting matrix is equal to K times the determinant of the original matrix.
iv) If each element of a row (column) of a square
matrix is the sum of two terms then its determinant can be expressed as the sum of two deter-
minants of two square matrices of the same order.
a1  x a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 x a2 a3
b1  y b2 b3 b1 b2 b3  y b2 b3
=
c1  z c2 c3 c1 c2 c3 z c2 c3
v) If the elements of a row (column) of a square matrix are added with K times the correspond-
ing elements of any other row (column) then the value of the determinant of the resulting
matrix is unaltered
x1 y1 z1 x1  ky1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2  x2  ky2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3 x3  ky3 y3 z3
 vi) The sum of the products of the elements of any row (column) of a squre matrix with
the cofactors of the corresponding elements of any other row (column) is zero.
a1 b1 c1
  a2 b2 c2
 a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1 C2 = 0
a3 b3 c3
a1 A3 + b1 B3 + c1 C3 = 0
a2 A1 + b2 B1 + c2 C1 = 0
vii) If the elements of a square matrix are Polynomials in x and two rows (columns) become
identical when x = a then x–a is a factor of its determinant and
if three rows are identical then (x–a)2 is a factor

Note: i) A  AT , AB  A B = B A
ii) KA  K n A , n  order of A.

iii) If   aij is a determinant of order n, then the value of the determinant Aij , where Aij is
the cofactor of aij is,  n1 .
iv) Determinant of nilpotent matrix is 0
v) Determinant of an orthogonal matrix = 1or -1
vi) Determinant of a Skew - symmetric matrix of odd order is 0.
vii) Determinant of Hermitian matrix is purely real.
viii) Determinant of triangular matrix is zero
W.E-3: In a square matrix, the elements of a column are 2, 5k+1, 3 and the cofactors of another
column are 1-5k, 2, 4k-2. Then find k
Sol. The sum of the products of the elements of any column of a square matrix with the cofactors
of the corresponding elements of any other column is zero.
 2(1  5k )  (5k  1)2  3(4 k  2)  0
1
12k  2  0  k  6

1 1 1
  
1 1 1

W.E-4 : If  ,  ,  are roots of x 3  px 2  q  0 , where q  0 then   
1 1 1
  

1 1 1
Sol. we have       0    0
  
 1 1 1
  
1 1 1
Let   C1  C1  C2  C3
  
1 1 1
  

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  0
      
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
    0  0
      
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  0
      

1 1 p 1 p  q
2 3 2p 4  3 p  2q
W.E-5: =
3 6  3 p 10  6 p  3q

1 1 p 1 p  q
Sol.   2 3  2 p 4  3 p  2 q
3 6  3 p 10  6 p  3q

c2  c2  pc1 and c3  c3  qc1

1 1 1 q
 2 3 43p
3 6 10  6 p C 3  C3  PC 2

1 1 1
  2 3 4  1
3 6 10

1 x x 1
W.E- 6. If f ( x)  2x x( x  1) x ( x  1)
3 x( x  1) x ( x  1)( x  2) x ( x 2  1)

then f (2015)  [EAM-2012]

Sol. Taking x common from C2 , x  1 from C3 and ( x -1) from R3 , we get

1 1 1
f ( x )  x ( x  1)( x  1) 2 x x 1 x
3x x2 x

Applying C1  C1  C3 , C2  C2  C3 ,we get

 0 0 1
f ( x )  x ( x 2  1) x 1 x
2x 2 x

=0 [ C1 and C2 are proportional]

Thus f (2015) = 0

 Product of Determinants of the same Order :

a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
c2 and  2   2 2  2
Let 1  a2 b2
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3

Then row by row multiplication of 1 and  2 is given by

a11  b11  c1 1 a1 2  b1 2  c1 2

1 2  a21  b2 1  c2 1 a2 2  b2  2  c2 2
a31  b3 1  c3 1 a3 2  b3  2  c3 2

a1 3  b13  c1 3

a2 3  b2 3  c2 3
a3 3  b3 3  c3 3
Note: Multiplication can also be performed row by column; column by row or column by
column as required in the problem.
 Derivative of Determinants :
f1  x  g1  x 
Let   x   f x g x ,
2  2 

where f1  x  , f 2  x  , g1  x  and g 2  x  are the functions of x. then,

f1 '  x  g1'  x  f  x  g1  x 
'  x    1'
f 2  x  g 2  x  f 2  x  g '2  x 
Also
f1 '  x  g1  x f1  x  g1'  x 
  x 
'

f 2'  x  g 2  x  f 2  x  g 2'  x 
Thus, to differentiate a determinant, we differentiate one row (or column) at a time, keeping
others unchanged.
x b b
1  a x b   x b
W.E-7: If , 2 are the two
a a x a x

d
given determinants then ( 1) 
dx
 x b b  (constant )  0 
d
dx
 
Sol: Given 1  a x b  d 
a a x  ( x)  1 
 dx 

1 0 0 x b b x b b
d
(1 )  a x b  0 1 0  a x b
dx
a a x a a x 0 0 1

x b x b x b
    3 2
a x a x a x
 Integration of Determinants :
f  x g  x
If   x  
1 2 ,then
b b
b
 f  x  dx  g  x  dx
   x  dx  a a
a
1 2

Here, f  x  and g  x  are functions of x and 1 , 2 are constants.

Note:This formula is only applicable, if there is a variable only in one row or column, other-
wise expand the determinant and then integrate.
 Singular and non-singular matrix :
If the determinant of a square matrix is zero then it is called a singular matrix otherwise
non-singular matrix.
Note: i) A is singular  AT is singular
A is non-singular  AT is non-singular
ii) If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same type, then AB is non-singular of the same
type.
iii) If product of two non-zero square matrices is a zero matrix, then both of them must be
singular matrices.
 Adjoint matrix of a square matrix :
If the elements of a square matrix are replaced by corresponding co-factors then the transpose
of the resulting matrix is called the adjoint of the matrix.Adjoint matrix of A is denoted by
Adj A
a b1 c1  A A2 A3 
 1   1
If P   a2 b2 c2  then Adj P   B1 B2 B3 
   
 a3 b3 c3  C C2 C 3 
 1

Where A1 , B1 , C1..... are the co-factors of a1 , b1 , c1.....

 Properties of adjoint matrix :
If A, B are square matrices of order n and I n is corresponding unit matrix, then
  i  A  adjA  A I n   adjA A

(Thus A adj  A  is always a scalar matrix)

n 1
ii) adjA  A
n2
iii) adj  adjA   A A; A  0
 n 12
iv) adj  adjA  A
 n 1r
v) adj  adj (adjA ......r times  A

vi) adj  AT    adjA

T

vii) adj  AB    adjB  adjA 

viii) adj  Am    adjA  , m  N

m

ix) adj  kA  k n1  adjA , k  R

x) adj  I n   I n xi) adj  O   O

xii) A is symmetric matrix  adj A is also symmetrix matrix.
xiii) A is diagonal matrix  adj A is also diagonal matrix.
xiv) A is triangular matrix  adjA is also triangular matrix.
xv) A is singular  adjA  0
 Inverse of a matrix : Let A be a non-
singular square matrix of order n, if there exist a square matrix B of the same order such that
AB  BA  I n then B is called the inverse of A
and we write it as A1 .

1 adj A
The inverse of A given by A 
det A
A matrix is said to be invertible, if it possesses inverse.
 Properties of inverse matrix : If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
i)  A1   A ii)  AT    A1 
1 1 T

1
iii)  AB   B 1 A1

iv)  Ak    A1  , k  N
1 k

1 1
v) adj  A1    adjA 
1
vi) A  A  A
1

vii) If A= diag( a1a2 ...an )

1
then A  diag a1 a2 ....an  1 1 1

viii) If A is symmetric matrix then A1 is also
symmetric matrix.
 ix) The inverse of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order does not exist.
x) A is a non singular scalar matrix  A1 is also a scalar matrix.
xi) A is triangular matrix, A  0  A1 is also triangular matrix.
xii) If A,B are symmetric matrices and commute then A1 B , AB 1 , A1 B 1 are also symmetric
matrices
Cancellation law with respect to
multiplication : If A is a non -singular matrix i.e., if A  0 , then A1 exist and
AB  AC  A1  AB   A1  AC 

  A1 A  B   A1 A  C  IB  IC  B  C
 AB  AC  B  C  A  0 .
 Elementary Transformations : Any one of the following operation on a matrix is
called an elementary transformation.
a) Interchanging any two rows (or columns) this transformation is indicated as
Ri  R j  Ci  C j 
b) Multiplication of the elements of any row (or columns) by a non-zero scalar quantity this
could be indicated as
Ri  kRi  Ci  kCi 
c) Addition of a constant multiple of the elements of any row to the corresponding element of
any other row, indicated as Ri  Ri  kR j .
 Equivalent Matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one is obtained
from the other by elementary transformations.
It is denoted by A ~ B
 Solution of Linear Equations by
Determinants :
1. Cramer’s Rule: (Solution of system of linear equations in two unknowns) The solution
of the system of equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1 , a2 x  b2 y  c2
1 
is given by x  and y  2 ,where
 
a1 b1 c b1 a c1
 , 1  1 and  2  1
a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2
,provided   0
2. Cramer’s Rule: (Solution of system of
linear equations in three unknowns) The solution of the system of equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 , a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2

 a1 b1 c1   x  d1 
a b c   y   d 
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3 its matrix form is  2 2 2     2   AX  B
 a3 b3 c3   z  d3 
 1  
is given by x  , y  2 and z  3 , where
  

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
  a2 b2 c2 1  d 2 b2 c2
; ;
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3

a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
 2  a2 d2 c2  3  a2 b2 d2
, Provided   0
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
Sub matrix: A matrix obtained by deleting finite number of rows or columns or both of a
given matrix A is called sub matrix of A.
Rank of a matrix : Let A be a non - zero matrix. The rank of A is defined as the maximum
of the orders of the non - singular square submatrices of A and is denoted by rank (A).
Note: i) If A is a non-zero matrix of order 3, then the rank of A is
a) 3 if A is non-singular
b) 2 if A is singular and there exist atleast
one of its 2  2 submatrices is non-singular
c) 1 if A is singular and every 2  2 submatrix
is singular
ii) A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non-zero matrix A, if
a) There exists at least one minor in A of order r which is not zero. and
b) Every minor in A of order greater than r is zero. It is written rank (A) = r.
iii) The rank of a null matrix is defined as zero
iv) The rank of identy matrix of order n is n
v) If A is a non-singular matrix of order n then rank  A  n .
vi) Elementary operations do not change the rank of a matrix.
vii) If A T is a transpose of A, then rank  A   rank  A 
T

viii) If A is the transposed conjugate of A, then rank  A   rank  A  .

ix) rank  A  B   rank  A   rank  B  .

x) If A and B are two matrices such that the product AB is defined, then rank (AB) can not
exceed the rank of the either matrix.
xi) If A   aij  mn is a matrix of Rank r then r  min m, n
 Echelon form of a matrix : In a matrix if the number of zeros before the first non zero
element in any row doesnot exceed number of such type of zeros in the very next row, then
the matrix is said to be in echelon form.

1 2 3 4 5
0 1 3 5 1

Eg : the matrix 0 0 1 2 1  is in the
 
0 0 0 0 0
Echelon form.
Note: The number of non zero rows of a matrix given in echelon form is its rank.
 Characteristic Equation of a Matrix:
If A is a matrix of order n  n then A   I  0 is called the characteristic equation of the
matrix A.

 a11 a12 a13 

 a23  , then its characteristic equation is A   I  0 takes the form
If A   a21 a22 
 a31 a32 a33 

 3  S1 2  S2  S3  0 where

S1  a11  a22  a33 = sum of the leading
diagonal elements of A.
a11 a12 a22 a23 a11 a13
S2   
a21 a22 a32 a33 a31 a33
= sum of the minors of the leading diagonals
elements of A
S3  A =determinant of the matrix A.

 1 1 0
 1 2 1
W.E-8 : If A=   then A3  3 A2  I 
 2 1 0

Sol. Characteristic equation of A is A   I  0

1  1 0
 1 2 1 0
2 1 

 (1   )   (2   )  1  1[  2]  0
  3  3 2  I  0 (or ) A3  3 A2  I  0
 Solution of system of non- homogenoeous linear equations in two un-
knowns :
a1 x  b1 y  c1 , a2 x  b2 y  c2

 a1 b1   x  c1 

Its matrix form is  a
 2 b2   y  c2 
 AX  D
a1 b1
i) a  b  system has unique solutions (consistent)  X  A1 D
2 2

a1 b1 c1
ii) a  b  c  System has no solution (inconsistent)
2 2 2

a1 b1 c1
iii) a  b  c  System has infintely many solutions (consistent)
2 2 2
 Solution of system of non-homogeneous linear equations in three unknowns
:
a1 x  b1 y  c1z  d1 , a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3 Its matrix form is

 a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
a b2 c2   y    d   AX  D
 2    2
 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 

(i) A  0 then the system has unique solution

(ii) A  0 then the system also has infinitely many solutions or no solution
Consistent System: A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one or
more) exist.
Inconsistent system:A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution does
not exist.
Solution of system of homogeneous linear equations in two unknowns :
 a1 x  b1 y  0 , a2 x  b2 y  0

 a1 b1   x  0
Its matrix form is  a 
 2 b2   y  0
 AX  O
a1 b1
(i) a  b  System has unique solution that is x = 0 = y (trivial solution)
2 2

a1 b1
(ii) a  b  System has infinitely many
2 2

solutions (non-trivial solutions)

(iii) The above system of equations is always consistent.
 Solution of system of homogeneous linear equations in three unknowns :
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 , a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  0
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  0 Its matrix form is

 a1 b1 c1   x  0
a b2 c2   y   0  AX  O
 2
 a3 b3 c3   z  0

(i) A  0 then the system has unique solution i.e x  y  z =0 (trivial solution)

(ii) A  0 then the system also has infinitely many solutions (non-trivial solutions)
(iii) The above system of equations is always
consistent.
 Solution of a system of Linear
Equations by Matrix-Rank method :
Let AX=B be a system of ‘n’ linear equations in ‘n’ variables.
 1. Write the augmented matrix [A B]
2. Reduce the augmented matrix to echelon form using elementary row-opeations
3. Determine the rank of the coefficient matrix A and augmented matrix [A B] by counting the
number of non-zero rows in A and [A B].
i) If rank  A  rank  AB ,then the system of equations is inconsistent.

ii) If rank  A  rank  AB = the number of

unknowns, then the system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution.
iii) If rank  A  rank  AB  the number of unknowns, then the system of equations is consis-
tent and has infinitely many solutions.
 Let AX  O be a homogeneous system of linear equations.
a) If rank  A  number of variables, then AX  O have a trivial solution
i.e. zero solution.
b) If rank  A  number of variables, then AX  O have a non-trivial solution. It will have
infinitely many solutions.
 Conditions for consistency :
The following cases may arise:
(i) If   0 , or Rank (A) = Rank [AB] =3 then the system is consistent and has a unique
solution, which is given by Cramer’s rule:
1  
x ,y  2 ,z  3
  
(ii) If   0 and at least one of the determinants 1 ,  2 ,  3 is non -zero,(or)  =0 and
 adjA B  0 (or) rank (A)  rank  AB  the given system is inconsistent i.e., it has no solu-
tion.
(iii) If   0 and 1   2   3  0 ,
(or)   0 and  adjA B  0

(or) rank (A) = rank  AB  < 3 then the system is consistent and dependent, and has infinitely
many solutions.
W.E-9: If the system of equations x  y  z  1 , x  2 y  4 z  n and x  4 y  10 z  n 2
are consistent.then the values of ‘n’ are__
1 1 1
Sol.   1 2 4 = 0
1 4 10
 system has no solution or infinitely many solutions. Given system is consistent It has infi-
nitely many solutions
1 1 1
1 2 n 0
 3  0
1 4 n2
 (1 - 2) (2 - n) (n - 1) = 0  n = 1, 2.
W.E-10: If 1 ,  2 are roots of ax 2  bx  c  0 , 1 ,  2 are roots of px 2  qx  r  0 and equations

b2
1 y   2 z  0, 1 y   2 z  0 have a non trivial solution, then 2  _____
q
Sol. 1 y  2z  0 and 1 y  2z  0 have a non trivial solution
1  2
    0  1 2   2 1  0
1 2

1 1    2 1   2
   1 
2 2 1   2 1   2

1  2   1   2 
2 2

 
1  2   41 2  1   2   41 2
2 2

b2 q2
a2 p2
 
b2 c q2 4r
2
4 
a a p2 p

b2 q2 b 2 b2  4ac
   
b 2  4ac q 2  4 pr q 2 q 2  4 pr
 Geometrical Transformations :
Reflection of a point R  x, y  in x-axis :
Let R '  x ' , y '  is the reflection of the point R  x, y  on x-axis. The matrix of reflection is
given by

 x'   1 0   x 
 '     
 y   0 1   y 

Reflection of a point R  x, y  in y-axis:

 1 0   x 
R  x' , y'     
 0 1  y 
 Note:(i) Reflection of a point R  x, y  through
origin is given by
 x1   1 0   x 
 1    
 y   0 1  y 
(ii) Reflection of point R  x, y  in the line y = x

0 1
is given by  
1 0
(iii) Reflection of point R  x, y  in the line

 0 1 
y = -x is given by  
 1 0 
(iv) Reflection of point R  x, y  in y   tan   x i.e y  mx or y   tan   x is

given by

 1  tan 2  2 tan  
 cos  sin    1  tan 2  
1  tan 2  
 
  sin 2 cos    2 tan  1  tan 2  
 
 1  tan 2  1  tan 2  

 1  m2 2m 
 
1  m2 1  m2
 
 2 m 1  m2 
 
 1  m2 1  m2 

 cos   sin   x

(v) Rotation of axes through an angle ' ' is given by R  x , y   
' ' '
  
 sin  cos    y
Standard Results :
a b c
b c a
1. = – (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc)
c a b
 a h g
2. h b f = abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2
g f c
1 a a 2 1 a bc
1 b b 2  1 b ca
3.   a  b  b  c  c  a 
1 c c2 1 c ab

1 a a3 1 a 2 bc
1 b b3  1 b 2 ca 
4.  a  b  b  c  c  a  a  b  c 
1 c c3 1 c2 ab

1 a2 a3 a a 2 bc
1 b2 b3  b b 2 ca
5.   a  b  b  c  c  a  ab  bc  ca 
1 c2 c3 c c2 ab

1 a a4
1 b b4 
6.  a  b  b  c  c  a 
1 c c4

a 2
 b 2  c 2  ab  bc  ca 

 n  1  n  2 
2 2
n2
 n  1  n  2   n  3
2 2 2
 8
7.
 n  2  n  3  n  4 
2 2 2

 n  1  n  2
2 2
n2
 n  3  n  4  n  5
2 2 2
 216
8.
 n  6   n  7   n  8
2 2 2

x  a a2 a3
x  b b2 b3
W.E-11: If = 0 and a  b  c then x 
x  c c2 c3
Sol: By given result

x a2 a3 a a2 a3
x b2 b3  b b 2 b3  0
x c2 c3 c c2 c3
 1 a2 a 3 1 a a2
x 1 b2 b3  abc 1 b b2  0
1 c2 c3 1 c c2

x ( a  b)(b  c )(c  a )(ab  bc  ca ) +

abc( a  b)(b  c)(c  a )  0
 abc
x  a  b  c 
( a  b )(b  c )( c  a )