Human Health
and Diseases
By Yashvi Thakkar
Introduction
In simple terms, Health can be defined as free from all diseases and infections.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is not only the absence
of disease or illness. It is a state of an active and energetic condition including the
physical, mental, and social well-being. A balanced diet and regular exercise play an
important role in maintaining a good health of an individual.
There are many factors which affect health, such as:
- poorly balanced diet
- genetic disorders
-stress and anxiety
- infectfrom pathogens
- intake of unhealthy food
- lack of exercise
Diseases:
A disease is an abnormal condition affect a healthy living organism. It is broadly
divided into infectious and non - infectious.
Infectious disease:
These diseases are caused by the pathogens, such as bacteria, virus, fungi,
parasites and can be easily transmitted from one person to another, hence it is
also known as a contagious or communicable disease. Common Cold,
Tuberculosis, flu, ringworm, malaria are some examples of infectious diseases.
Non-infectious disease:
Diseases which cannot be transmitted from one person to another are called non-
infectious disease, it is also known as a noncommunicable disease. These diseases
can be either caused by genetic disorders, unhealthy diets and few environmental
factors.
Common Diseases In
Humans
Typhoid:
Caused by - salmonella typhi
Type - Gram positive, rod shaped bacterium
Infectious site -
Intestines
Mode of transmission -
- Ingestion of contaminated food or water
-poor sanitation and hygiene
Symptoms-
-high fever , often rising up to 104*F
-Weakness and fatigue
-headache
-constipation
Tests -
Widely test or stool and urine test.
Prevention and treatment-
-Antibiotics
-vaccinations
-Maintain hygiene
- Safe drinking water and food
Pneumonia
Caused by - streptococcus pneumoniae and haemophilus influenzae (bacterial
diseases)
Infection site - alveoli of the lungs (fluid gets filled inside the alveoli)
Symptoms-
-Fever
-chills
-cough
-headache
Mode of transmission-
Spreads through inhaling droplets/ aerosols from an infected person or by sharing
utensils with them.
Prevention and treatment -
-Vaccination
-Antibiotics
-Avoid smoking
-Hygiene practices
Common cold
Caused by - Rhino virus
Infectious site - The infect the nose and respiratory passages but do not reach lungs
Symptoms -
-nasal congestion
-cough
-headache
This typically lasts for 3-7 days.
MALARIA
Caused by -
Malaria is caused by Plasmodium, a protozoan parasite.
Types- Plasmodium falciparum causing the most severe, potentially fatal form.
Mode of transmission-
Plasmodium enters the body as sporozoites through the bite of an infected
female Anopheles mosquito.
Life cycle in humans-
The parasite initially multiplies in liver cells, then infects red blood cells (RBCs),
causing them to rupture.
Symptoms-
RBS rupture releases haemocoin, a toxic substance that causes recurring chills
and high fever ever 3-4 days.
Life cycle in mosquitoes -
When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infect person, it ingests the
parasite, which then develops in the mosquitoes body into sporozoites stored in
its salivary glands.
Cycle of infection -
The mosquito transmits sporozoites to a new human host through its bite,
continuing the cycle.
Dual Hosts -
The malarial parasite requires two hosts - humans and mosquitoes - to
complete its life cycle, with the female
Amoebiasis -
Caused by Entamoeba Histolytica (protozoan parasite)
Affects - Small Intestine of human
Symptoms-
-constipation
-abdominal pain and cramps
- stools with excess mucus and blood clots
*Houselflies acts as a mechanical carrier, transmitting the parasite from infected
feces to food, leading to contamination.
*Infection mainly spreads through drinking water and food contaminated with faecal
matter.
Ascaris(round worm) and Wuchereria (filial worm) are helminths that are
pathogenic to humans.
Ascaris
- It is an intestinal parasite causing ascariasis.
Symptoms-
-Internal bleeding
-Muscular pain
-Fever
-Anaemia
-Intestinal blockage
*Infection spreads to healthy individuals through contaminated water, vegetables
and fruits.
Wuchereria (species W. Bancrofti and W. Malayi)
-filarial worms causing chronic inflammation.
-They primarily affect lymphatic vessels in the lower limbs , leading to elephantiasis
(filariasis)
-Genital organs may also be affected, causing severe deformities.
- Transmission occurs through the bite of female mosquito vectors.
Fungal diseases -
Fungi from the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton, and Epidermophyton
cause ringworm, a common infectious disease in humans.
Symptoms-
Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and scalp, accompanied by intense itching.
-Heat and moisture promote fungal growth, especially in skin folds (e.g.,groin
between toes).
-Ringworm is commonly contracted from soil or by using personal items (towels,
clothes, combs) of infrequent individual.
* • Maintaining personal and public hygiene is crucial for preventing infectious
diseases.
• Personal hygiene measures include:
• Consuming clean drinking water, food, and produce
• Public hygiene measures include:
• Proper waste and excreta disposal
• For airborne diseases (e.g., pneumonia, common cold), avoid close contact with
infected individuals.
IMMUNITY
*ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
-It is pathogen specific. Also, characterised by memory.
- This means when our body encounters a pathogen for the first time it produces a
response called primary response which of low intensity.
-Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary
or anamnestic response.
The primary and secondary immune responses involve two types of lymphocytes:
*B-lymphocytes
*T-lymphocytes
*B-lymphocytes:
-Produce antibodies in response to pathogens in the blood.
-Each antibody has four peptide chains : two light chains and two heavy chains.
-Different antibody types include-
IgA,IgM,IgE,IgG and IgD
*T-lymphocytes -
-Do not secrete antibodies but help B-cells
Produce them.
-Antibody-based responses are known as
THE HUMORAL IMMUNE
RESPONSE(antibody mediated).
-The other type of acquired immune
response is THE CELL MEDIATED
IMMUNE RESPONSE (CMI).
*ACTIVE IMMUNITY -
-Triggered when a host is exposed to antigens.
-Antibodies are produced by the host’s body.
-Response is slow and develops fully over time.
-Can be induced by immunisation or natural infection
*PASSIVE IMMUNITY
-Involves direct administration of ready-made antibodies.
-Provides immediate protection against foreign agents.
Examples include -
Mother’s milk : Colostrum (yellowish fluid) contains IgA antibodies for newborn
immunity.
Placental transfer : Foetus receives antibodies from the mother during pregnancy.
Vaccination and immunisation -
*Vaccination
-Introduces antigenic proteins or weakened pathogens to the body .
-Stimulates antibody production to neutralise pathogens during actual infection.
-Generates memory B and cells for faster response in future exposures.
*Passive immunisation
-Involves injecting performed antibodies for rapid protection, as in cases of tetanus or
snakebite.
*Recombinant DNA technology
-Enables production of antigenic polypeptides in bacteria or yeast.
-Allows large-scale vaccine production, improving availability.
Allergy-
-An exaggerated immune response to environmental antigens, called allergens .
-Common allergens include dust mites, pollen, and animal dander.
-IgE antibodies are produced in response to allergens.
*Symptoms-
Sneezing, watery eyes, runny nose, and breathing difficulty.
*Cause-
Release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from mast cells.
Diagnosis-
Small dose of allergens are tested on patients to identify the specific allergen.
*Treatment-
Anti-histamines, adrenaline and steroids help relieve allergy symptoms.
Autoimmunity-
-Memory based acquired immunity in higher vertebrates allows
differentiation between foreign organisms and self-cells.
-This ability includes:
*Recognition of both foreign molecules and organisms, a primary focus in
immunology.
*In some cases, the immune system mistakenly attacks self-cells, causing auto-
immune diseases.
-EXAMPLE of autoimmune disease: Rheumatoid arthritis, a condition affecting many
people.
Immune system in human body-
-The human immune system includes lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and molecules
like antibodies.
*FUNCTION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM -
-Recognizes, responds to, and remembers foreign antigens.
-Involved in allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs
-sites for the origin, maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes.
-primary lymphoid organs- Bone marrow and thymus, where immature
lymphocytes develop into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
-secondary lymphoid organs - spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches and
appendix.
-These organs provide sites for lymphocytes to interact with antigens and proliferate
into effector cells.
*Bone marrow- primary lymphoid organs were all blood cells, including
lymphocytes are produced.
Thymus-
*Lobed organ near the heat large at birth but reduces in size with age.
*Provides an environment for T-lymphocytes development and maturation.
Spleen-
*Large, bean-shaped organ containing lymphocytes and phagocytes.
*Filters blood by trapping microorganisms and acts as a reservoir for erythrocytes.
Lymph nodes-
*Small structures along the lymphatic system.
*Trap microorganisms and anitigens in the lymph, leading to lymphocyte activation
and immune response.
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)-
*Lymphoid tissue in the lignin of major tracts(respiratory, digestive, urogenital).
*Comprises about 50% of the body’s lymphoid tissue.
AIDS
-Stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
-A deficiency of the immune system acquired during an individual’s lifetime;not a
congenital disease.
-First reported in 1981 and has caused over 25 million deaths globally.
Cause:
-It is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus(HIV), a retrovirus with an RNA
genome.
Transmission:
-Through sexual contact with an infect person.
-Via transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products.
-By sharing infected needles.
-From an infected mother to child through the placenta.
High risk groups-
-Individuals with multiple sexual partners.
-Intravenous drug users.
-Individuals needing repeated blood transfusions.
-Children born to HIV- infected mothers.
*HIV/AIDS is not transmitted by touch or casual physical contact .
*It spreads only through body fluids, so physical and psychosocial support for
HIV-AIDS patients is essential.
*Symptoms of AIDS may take 5-10 years to appear after initial HIV infection.
HIV Replication process -
-After entering the body, HIV targets the macrophages.
-Viral RNA is converted to viral DNA by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
-Viral DNA integrates into the host’s DNA and directs the production of new virus
particles.
-Macrophages act as an HIV factory by continuously producing viruses.
Infection of Helper T-Cells-
-HIV also infects helper T-lymphocytes (TH-CELLS)
-It replicates in these cells, releasing new viruses into the blood.
The virus attacks additional T-cells, progressively reducing their count.
Health impact :
-The infected person experiences fever, diarrhea,and weight loss.
-The decline in helper T-cells weakens the immune system,making the person
vulnerable to infections from bacteria (eg., Mycobacteria), viruses, fungi, and
parasites (eg., Taxoplasma).
- The patient becomes severely immune-deficient and cannot fight infections.
Diagnosis and treatment-
-ELISA test is commonly used for AIDS diagnosis.
- Anti-retroviral drugs can slow disease progression but cannot prevent death, which
remains inevitable.
AIDS Prevention-
-Since AIDS has no cure, prevention is crucial.
-HIV usually spreads due to conscious behaviours rather than inadvertent causes.
Educational initiatives-
-National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and NGOs work to educate people on
AIDS prevention.
-WHO runs programs to cure HIV Spread.
Prevention Measures-
*Safe blood practices: Ensure HIV free blood from blood banks.
*Disposable needles and syringes- Required in all medical settings.
*Free Condom distribution and safe sex advocacy.
*Control of drug abuse and regular HIV testing in at-risk populations.
Community sports-
-HIV/AIDS should be openly addressed to prevent further spread.
-HIV/AIDS patients need support rather than social stigma.
-Collective societal efforts are essential to prevent the disease’s spread.
CANCER
*Cancer is a major cause of death globally; it affects millions in India alone.
*It is caused by uncontrolled cell growth due to failure in regulatory mechanisms.
Types of tumours-
-Benign tumours: confined to one location, do not spread and cause minimal
harm.
-Malignant tumours: Composed of rapidly growing neoplasticism cells, invade
surrounding tissues, and spread to other body parts(metasis).
Cause of cancer-
*Carcinogens- physical (e.g., X-rays, gamma rays, etc) chemical and biological
agents.
*Oncogenes- Certain viruses and genes can lead to cancerous cells
transformation.
Cancer Detection-
*Biopsy- Examines tissue samples microscopically.
*Imaging- X-rays, CT scans, and MRI help detect internal cancers.
*Molecular Techniques- Detect cancer specific genes and antigens, aiding
early diagnosis and identifying individuals at genetic risk.
Cancer Treatment-
*Surgery: Removal of tumors.
*Radiotherapy: Targets and kills cancer cells using radiation.
*Chemotherapy: Uses drugs to kill cancer but may have side effects.
*Immunotherapy: Biological response modifiers (e.g., alpha-interferon) boost
the immune system to fight cancer cells.
DRUGS, ALCOHOL AND ABUSE
-Three main types: opioids, cannabinoids, and coca alkaloids.
-Mostly derived from flowering plants; some come from fungi.
Opoids:
-Bindto specific opioid receptors in the central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract.
-Heroin(smack): Chemically diacetylmorphine, a white, bitter crystalline
compound.
-Derived from morphine, extracted from the poppy plant(Papaver somniferum).
-Typically taken by snorting or injection; acts as a depressant and slows down body
functions.
Cannabinoids:
-Chemicals that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
-Natural cannabinoids: Extracted from the inflorescence of Cannabis sativa.
-Used to produce marijuana, hashish, charts, and ganja.
-Commonly consumed by inhalation or oral ingestion; affects the cardiovascular
system.
Coca Alkaloid (Cocaine):
-Derived from the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) native South America.
-Disrupts dopamine transport, producing Euphoria and increased energy.
-Known as Coke or crack; usually snorted.
-High doses can cause hallucinations.
*Atropa belladonna and Datura also have hallucinogenic effects.
*Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines: used medically for mental
illness, but often misused.
*Morphine: Effective sedative and painkiller, especially post-surgery, but also
prone to abuse.
Drug Abuse:
Taking substances with hallucinogenic properties, historically used in rituals and
folk medicine, in non-medical amounts or frequency that impairs
physical ,psychological or physiological functions is considered drug abuse.
Adolescence and Drug/ Alcohol Abuse
A period and process where a child matures in attitudes and beliefs for societal
participation, typically between ages 12-18.
*Adolescence links childhood to adulthood, involving biological and behavioural
changes.
*It is a sensitive period for mental and psychological development.
CAUSES OF:
*Curiosity- Natural curiosity leads to experimentation with drugs or alcohol.
*Adventure and Excitement- The need for thrill can motivate drug and alcohol
use.
*Perceived Benefits- Effects of substances may seem appealing initially.
*Stress- Academic and examination pressures may push adolescents towards
substance use.
*Perception of Being “COOL” - Youth often view smoking, drugs and alcohol as
trendy or o progressive.
*Media Influence- Television, movies, internet and other media reinforce these
perceptions.
Addiction and Dependence
• Repeated use of drugs and alcohol creates psychological addiction due to effects
like euphoria and temporary well-being.
Over tim, tolerance develo, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect, which
deepens addiction.
•Even a single use of these substances can initiate addiction leading to a cycle of
dependency that’s challenging to break without support. Withdrawal symptoms like
Anxiety, Nausea, and sweating may occur if use stops, sometimes requiring medical
supervision.
• Dependency often results in individuals ignoring social norms to obtain drugs
or alcohol, causing social adjustment issues.
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse
• Immediate effects of drug/alcohol abuse include reckless behavior, violence,
coma, or death from overdose, especially with combined substances.
• Warning signs in youth: decline in academic performance, neglect of hygiene,
isolation, depression, aggression, strained relationships, and changes in eating/
sleeping habits.
• Abusers may resort to theft to fund their addiction, causing distress to families,
and intravenous drug users face higher risks of contracting AIDS and Hepatitis B.
• Long-term alcohol use in adolescence can lead to alcoholism in adulthood,
nervous system and liver damage, and harm to a fetus if used during pregnancy.
• Some athletes misuse substances like anabolic steroids to enhance
performance, which can cause severe health issues, including masculinization in
females, reproductive issues in males, mood swings, and stunted growth in
adolescents.
Prevention and Control
(i) Avoid undue peer pressure - Every child has his/her own choice
and personality, which should be respected and nurtured. A child
should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond his/her threshold
limits; be it studies, sports or other activities.
(ii) Education and counselling - Educating and counselling him/
her to face problems and stresses, and to accept disappointments
and failures as a part of life. It would also be worthwhile to channelise
the child’s energy into healthy pursuits like sports, reading, music,
yoga and other extracurricular activities.
(iii) Seeking professional and medical help - A lot of help is available
in the form of highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists, and de-
addiction and rehabilitation programmes to help individuals who
have unfortunately got in the quagmire of drug/alcohol abuse. With
such help, the affected individual with sufficient efforts and will power,can get rid
of the problem completely and lead a perfectly normal
and healthy life.
Bibliography
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