HISTORY OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.

TRANSITION FROM THE LATE STONE AGE TO THE EARLY IRON AGE
-The late Stone Age was characterised by the use of fine stone tools while early Iron Age was
characterised by use of iron tools.
TOOLS OF THE LATE STONE AGE
-Scrapers; digging sticks; clubs; flakes and microliths.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE LATE STONE AGE
-They gathered fruits, roots and vegetables.
-They hunted small animals.
-They cultivated crops on a limited scale.
-They caught fish.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE LATE STONE AGE
-They lived in caves.
-They traveled and lived in smaller groups.
-They worked communally.
-There was division of labour.
-No centralized political system.
-They were nomadic.
-They were ruled by a family head.
TOOLS OF THE EARLY IRON AGE
-Iron hoes, Iron axes, iron spearheads, iron arrowheads, fishing hooks, and iron knives
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE
-They hunted on a large scale.
-They cultivated crops such millet, sorghum and watermelons.
-They mined minerals such as iron, copper, gold, silver and tin.
-They manufactured tools such hoes, axes and spears.
-They caught fish on a large scale.
-They reared animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
-They gathered fruits and vegetables.
-They traded among themselves and also with foreigners.
-They made pottery.
-They made baskets.
-They were raiding.
-Tribute was paid as a sign of respect to the chiefs.
-There was also specialisation.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ACTIVITIES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE
-Lived in permanent houses made of poles and dagga.
-They lived in large groups of up to 200.
-Built storage barns made of clay.
-They lived in clans and were ruled by a chief.
-Chiefs or headmen made laws and distributed land.
-Subjects of the chiefs paid tribute as a sign of loyalty.
-There was social division of labour based on sex.
-There was emergence of religious ceremonies and rituals such as rainmaking.
-They buried their dead.
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-They believed in a supreme human being, God.
-They paid bride price to their in laws using cattle.
-They were polygamous.
-Classes began to appear as a result of different skills such blacksmithing, trading and hunting.
EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF IRON ON THE PEOPLE OF SOUTHERN
AFRICA.
BENEFITS
-Improvement of accommodation due to the introduction of iron hoes [digging] and iron axe
[cutting down trees for poles].
-Increased man‟s mobility due to manufacturing of canoes.
-More and varied food due to increased economic activities.
-Long life expectancy due to abundant food.
-Economic activities increased.
-Development of trade provided a source of foreign goods.
-Security improved due to large groups.
-Storage facilities improved as a result of building of permanent houses.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
-Increased exploitation of the poor by the rich.
-Increased exploitation of women by men.
-Increased deaths due to wars.
-Beginning of land degradation.
-There was competition for hunting grounds, pasture and arable land.
-Emergence of classes led to exploitation the lower classes.
EARLY IRON AGE SITES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Ziwa; Gokomere; Mabveni; Malipati; Hwange
LATER IRON AGE STATES IN ZIMBABWE
-They include Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa, Rozvi and the Ndebele states.
-They have got similar economic, political and social organization.
-They were created to a larger extent due to cattle rearing, mining, trade, metal manufacturing
and warfare.
GREAT ZIMBABWE
ORIGINS
-It was created by the Shona people between 1200AD to 1450AD.
-It was started by the people of Leopard Kopje at Mapungubwe on the Southern side of Shashe-
Limpopo confluence.
-It became a centre of power and capital of the thriving Shona states with an estimated
population of 10000 people at its peak.
-Increased cattle rearing and gold mining among Leopard Kopje shona people created more
wealth for the ruling class.
-As the ruling class grew richer, they married more wives and beared more children for which
some were recruited into the army.
-This enabled them to conquer rival to establish control over existing land resources on the more
fertile soils of the Zimbabwean plateau.
-As they grew wealthier and powerful, they to built Great Zimbabwe.
REASONS FOR BUILDING OF GREAT ZIMBABWE

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-storing of wealth
-shelter
-display of power
-sign of outward achievement of the ruling class
-security
-religious beliefs
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE
-Availability of water from Mutirikwi river.
-Availability of good pasture.
-Availability of wildlife for meat and ivory.
-Availability of salt.
-Emergence of influential and ambitious leaders keen on ruling larger political unit and levying
tribute.
-Strong army.
-Availability of granite rock.
- Accessibility to both internal and external trade - it was near trade routes and was a trade
centre.
-It was a religious centre.
-Hills like Nemamwa provided defence during times of war.
-Fall of Mapungubwe.
-Availability of minerals such as gold, iron and copper.
-It was a religious centre.
-It was free from tsetse fly and mosquitoes.
-Polygamy increased population.
-They owned a lot of cattle.
-They were united.
-Good rainfall supplies.
-Fertile soils for growing crops.
-control of surplus production by leaders.
-Abundance of wood fuel.
-Development of iron technology.
- Geographical location.
-Hill was regarded as sacred for religious purpose.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF GREAT ZIMBABWE

1. Animal Rearing-they kept animals such as cattle, goat and sheep
However cattle the most important assert. It was a sign of wealth, used as food and also as
payment of lobola.Cattle was used for trade.
2. Crop cultivation-they grew crops such as finger millet, sorghum and rapoko.
3. Mining-they mined minerals such as iron, gold and copper.
4. Hunting-they hunted animals such as kudu, hare; impala form meat and rhino and elephant for
ivory.
5. Trade-they Practised barter trade. There was internal trade with locally available goods.
External trade was done with the Swahili people and Arabs from Persia and India.
Imported goods comprised glass beads, cloth; jewellery, brass ware, cowrie shells, and fine

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glazed pottery in exchange with gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, animal skins, soapstone bowls,
axes, cattle and grain.
6. Gathering-collection of wild fruits, a variety of vegetables, wild honey and mushrooms.
7. Raiding-they also raided weaker groups for cattle and grain.
8. Manufacturing-they made tools like hoes, spearheads, arrow heads, knives, and axes
9. Pottery-women made clay pots for domestic use and for sale.
10 Basketry-they made different types of baskets eg.winnowing baskets.This was mainly done
by men.
11. Subject people paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty. It was paid in form of grain, cattle,
labour, tools, boys and girls.
12. The people of Great Zimbabwe also practised fishing.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
-Great Zimbabwe was a patrineal society.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-Polygamy was practised and it was a source of labour and soldiers.
-They practised the Kuronzera system.
-There was sexual division of labour.
-They believed in God and National spirits.
-They believed in ancestral spirits and the Hungwe Bird.
-They believed in witch craft.
-The king was chosen by spirit ceremonies and led at ceremonies.
-They believed that spirits lived in pools, mountains and forests.
-They celebrated the birth of a new child and a new daughter in law.
-Incest and bestiality were taboo.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE GREAT ZIMBABWE
-At the top of the political ladder was the king. He was an absolute ruler. He was the military,
political, religious and judicial leader. He was also the chief distributor of land.
-In governing the state he was helped by a council of elders called, Dare in Shona.
-Below the council was the provincial and district chiefs who were in control of the provinces
and districts respectively. They were appointed by the king. Their posts were hereditary.
-Lesser chiefs paid tribute to the king as sign of loyalty. It was paid in form grain, labour, cattle,
tools, baskets, boys and girls.
-The state had a large army which was there to protect the state from intruders, to maintain law
and order in the state, to punish rebellious chief and to collect tribute.
-There were also important officials such as the Queen Mother, king‟s sons in law, army
commander, spirit mediums, royal doctor and provincial chiefs.
SOCIAL GROUPS WITHIN THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Farmers; miners; traders; hunters; soldiers; potters; herbalists; blacksmiths; stonemasons;
gatherers and sculptors.
DUTIES OF THE ARMY
-Protected the state from enemies.
-Collected tribute.
-Conquered neighbouring states.
-Raided neighbouring states.
-Punished rebellious chiefs

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-Maintained law and order in the state.
-Herded the king‟s cattle
DUTIES OF THE KING
-Distribution of land.
-Chief judge.
-Religious leader.
-Chief administrator.
-Custodian of state property.
-Installation of lesser chiefs.
-Commander in chief of the army.
-Receiving and sharing tribute.
-Cocluding alliances or treaties.
-Controlling trade.
-Control of the hunting grounds.
-Declaring war.
-Protecting citizens.
-Controlling mining activities.
-Receiving foreign visitors.
-Presiding over the council or dare.
DUTIES OF SPIRIT MEDIUMS
-Chose and installed the king.
-Gave advise to the king.
-Healed the sick.
-Led at ceremonies.
-Consulted the ancestral spirits during times of crises.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE
-Civil wars e.g. between Nyatsimba Mutota and Chagwa.
-Succession disputes.
-It was too big to be ruled by one king.
-Rise of the Mutapa state.
-Loss of control over long distance trade to the Mutapa state.
-Successive droughts.
-Shortage of resources in the area such as salt.
-Availability of better resources in the Dande area.
-Overpopulation.
MUTAPA STATE
ORIGINS
THEORY ONE
-It was one of the Later Iron Age states of Zimbabwe.
-Its origin is derived from oral tradition, written records and archaeology.
-According to oral tradition the Mutapa‟s origins is assumed at Great Zimbabwe.
-It is assumed to be the direct successor of the Great Zimbabwe state.
-It is suggested that in 1420, Nyatsimba Mutota, the first king of Mutapa, was sent by his father,
King Chibatamatosi to search for salt in the North Zambezi Valley. His scouts discovered vast
salt deposits there. This resulted in the movement of Mutota to the modern Mount Darwin area.

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-He is said to have settled among the Tonga , the Tavara and the Korekore people of the Dande
Region by conquest. They gave him the praise name Munhumutapa, meaning „lord of conquered
people‟.
Mutota established his capital at Chitako Changonya near Mount Fura in Dande.
-Mutota is said to have made an alliance with Dzivaguru.
THEORY TWO
-However archaeologists argue that the direct successor of the Great Zimbabwe state was the
Torwa state whose capital was at Khami.
-This was evidenced by the type of ruins and artifacts similar to those of Great Zimbabwe. This
means therefore that it was an offshoot of the Great Zimbabwe state.
-But there is no evidence to support when the Torwa state existed.
-Documents written by Portuguese suggest that the Mutapa State existed before the collapse of
the Great Zimbabwe state and that these states were interrelated.
NB Despite the failure to find concrete evidence of Mutapa origins historians agree that the state
grew into one of the largest and powerful states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe.
EXPANSION OF THE MUTAPA STATE
-Mutota conquered Barwe, Manyika, Uteve and Madanda.
-Mutota still desired to control trade routes, tribute, gold and ivory resources.
-At its peak the Mutapa state was bounded in the east by the Indian ocean, in the west by the
Kalahari desert, in the north by the Zambezi River, and in the south by the Limpopo river.
-Mutota and Matope created a very vast empire and had to appoint vassal chiefs to control
provinces.
BENEFITS OF THE EXPANSION OF MUTAPA TO THE PEOPLE
-Peace and protection by a strong army
-area conducive to trade and farming
-access to foreign goods through trade
-ruling class levied tribute from vassal chiefs
- access to more resources: gold, game animals , ivory, fertile soils
-unity enhanced by religion – alliance with Dzivaguru cult
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
-Civil wars at Great Zimbabwe.
-Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe.
-Shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe such as salt.
-Inability of Great Zimbabwe to hold different lineages.
-Need to start new states by some individuals such as Mutota.
-Need to control long distance trade at the Zambezi Valley.
-Successive droughts at Great Zimbabwe.
NAMES OF MUTAPA KINGS
Nyatsimba Mutota; Nyanhewe Matope; Nyamhita Nehanda; Nyahuma;Chikuyo Chisamarengu;
Chivero Nyasoro; Negomo Mapunzagutu; Gatsi Rusere; Nyambo Kapararidze; Mavura Mhande;
Chioko; Mukombwe, Nyakunembire Neshangwe
PROVINCES OF THE MUTAPA STATE
Guruuswa/ Torwa , Mbire , Barwe, Manyika,Madanda/ Danda ,Uteve, Dande- Chidima, Fura,
Chikova, Sango
MUTAPA ECONOMIC SYSTEM

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1. They cultivated crops such as rapoko, millet, beans, water melons and maize.
2. They kept animals such as cattle, sheep and goats for meat, milk and cattle was used to pay
lobola and for trade.
3. They mined such minerals as iron, gold silver, tin and copper. Gold was used mainly for
export while other minerals such as iron were used to manufacture tools.
4. They practised both internal and external trade. For long distance trade they traded with the
Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese. They imported ceramics, jewellery, beads, knives, cloth, cowrie
shells and guns.
5. The subjects of the king and foreigners paid tribute. The foreigners paid in form of curva for
them to be allowed to trade and also for their protection whilst they were in the state.
6. They hunted animals such as hare and kudu for meat; elephant and the rhinoceros for ivory
and the cheetah and leopard for their precious skin.
7. Women made different types of pottery.
8. Men made different types of baskets.
9. Mutapa people also caught fish to add proteins to their diet.
10. They raided their neighbouring states for grain, cattle, women and boys.
11. They manufactured different types of tools mainly from iron e.g. hoes and axes.
12. The Mutapa people also gathered fruits and vegetables.
MUTAPA SOCIAL ORGANISATION
-They were a patrilineal society.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-Polygamy was practised and this was a source of soldiers and labour.
-There was sexual division of labour.
-They practised the kuronzera system.
-They celebrated the birth of a new child and the coming of a new daughter in law.
-They practised such ceremonies as the rain-making.
-Incest and bestiality were taboo.
-They believed in God, Musikavanhu [creator] and National spirit (Mhondoro), and ancestral
spirits.
-These were worshipped through the spirit mediums (masvikiro). Spirits played an important role
in the installation of kings.
-The Mutapas consulted spirit mediums in times of crises such as war and drought, epidemics,
succession disputes.
-They believed that spirits lived in pools, thick forests and mountains.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They the king was chosen by the spirit mediums and therefore they believed in divine kingship.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-The king was the overlord. He was the political, religious, military and the judicial leader.
-The king was also the chief distributor of land.
-His post was hereditary.
-The king was helped to rule the state by a council of elders, Dare.
-Below them were provincial and district chiefs who were in charge of the provinces and district
respectively. They were installed by the king and their positions were hereditary.
-The power of the king rested in the army.
-Allegiance was done through the payment of tribute. It ensured the loyalty of lesser chiefs.

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-Allegiance was also done through the Royal Fire.
-Under the chiefs were headmen.
-There were also important officials such as the Queen Mother, king‟s sons in law, army
commander, provincial chiefs and spirit mediums.
COURT OFFICIALS OF THE MUTAPA STATE.
Chamberlain, Chancellor, military commander,head drummer, chief cook, head door-keeper, tax
collectors, messengers,ambassadors, Queen Mother,Provincial chiefs, District chiefs, Village
chiefs.
IMPORTANCE OF TRIBUTE IN THE MUTAPA POLITICAL SYSTEM
-It ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king.
-Ensured lesser chiefs would not be too rich, powerful and ambitions.
-Enhanced the wealth, influence and power of the king.
IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION TO THE STABILITY OF THE MUTAPA STATE
-Helped in choosing kings and in their installation
-were consulted by kings and chiefs in times of crises.
-treating of ill people
-religious ceremonies such as rainmaking
-regularly consulted by rulers
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
-Loss of control of long distance trade to other states like the Rozvi and the Torwa.
-Civil wars caused by succession disputes.
-Growth of Portuguese control further undermined the Mutapa kings e.g. Portuguese supported
rebels like Mavura Mhande
-Mutapa ruled a vast area and this resulted in lack of communication and failure to control the
whole area.
-Some chiefs break away such as Barwe, Uteve, Torwa, Mbire and Guruuswa felt independent
enough to start their own kingdoms.
-Some tributary states refused to pay tribute such as Barwe, Manyika and Uteve.
-Some more organized and powerful states emerged such as the Torwa and the Rozvi state.
-There some weak leaders such as Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere.
ROZVI STATE
ORIGINS
-The origin of the Rozvi state is so controversial. There are 2 main theories which have been put
forward.
1. Some historians believe that they were once subjects of the Mutapa people.
-Their leader Dombolachingwano was once a cattle herder. H e was given some cattle and he
managed to grow reach and created his army.
-He is believed to have revolted against the Mutapa when the state was at its decline.
-With his powerful he was able to conquer and subdue the Torwa people.
-It is these people who nicknamed his people the Rozvi, meaning destroyers.
-He established his capital at Danangombe [Dhlodhlo] in Matebeleland.
-The capital was transferred to different areas by different leaders e.g. Naletale, Manyanga.
-At its peak the Rozvi state is believed to have covered such areas as Guruuswa, Mbire, Buhera,
Bocha, Duma and parts of South Eastern Highlands.
-In 1695 the Rozvi helped Mutapa Mukombwe to drive away the Portuguese from the

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Zimbabwean Plateau.
-The Rozvi took over from the Mutapa as a new force to reckon with in the Zimbabwean Plateau.
2. Other historians have a simpler explanation. They say that the Rozvi was just a new name.
There was no invasion or conquest. The old Torwa state continued. Its just the name which
changed.
EXPANSION OF THE ROZVI STATE
-The Rozvi took advantage of the civil war in Torwa state and conquered it in 1684 . Dombo
became the Changamire and set up his capital at Danhangombe .
-Old Torwa rulers were not removed, they remained chiefs under Mambo .
-Butua was rich in cattle. Mambo enhanced his power by lending cattle to chiefs .
-Mambo was a religious head backed by priests through whom Mwari spoke .
-In 1693 all Portuguese were expelled by Rozvi army form Mutapa State. Rozvi now controlled
much of present day Zimbabwean Plateau .
-Controlled the Venda and Pedi (now part of South Africa).
-Portuguese at Zumbo paid tribute to Mambo. By that time Mutapa state was only confined to
Zambezi Valley .
NAMES OF ROZVI KINGS
Changamire Dombo; Nechadzike; Baswi; Lembewu; Rupandamanhanga; Gomoremvura;
Chirisamhuru 1; Chirisamhuru 2
ROZVI TOWNS
Naletale, Insukamini, Danhangombe(Dhlodhlo), Khami, Manyanga, Nhava YaTumbare,
Matendere, Manukweni.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-The king was the overlord. He was the political, military, religious and military leader. He was
also the chief distributor of land. His post was hereditary.
-He ruled with the assistance of a Court of Officials which included the spirit mediums,
provincial chiefs, Queen Mother, army commanders and priests.
-His power rested in the powerful army.
-The provinces were under provincial chiefs appointed by the king. The post was hereditary.
-Districts and villages were under district and village chiefs respectively.
-Vassal chiefs paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty. The Tumbare was the chief tribute
collector.
–The Tumbare was also the military commander and acted as regent when a king died until
another one was installed. In the case of a younger mambo Tumbare also acted as regent until the
young mambo is grown enough to rule.
-Mambo‟s senior wives played an important role in the King‟s court.
ROZVI SOCIAL SYSTEM
-It was a patrineal state.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-They paid bride price to their in laws.
-They practised the kuronzera system.
-They practised social division of labour based on sex.
-They practised the nhimbe system.
-They were polygamous.
-Bestiality and incest were taboo.

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-They celebrated the birth of a new child and the coming of a new daughter in law.
-They practised ceremonies such as rainmaking.
-They believed in God and the National Spirits and family ancestral spirits through the spirit
mediums.
-They consulted their ancestors through the spirit mediums in times of crisis.
-They believed in divine kingship.
-The king led at ceremonies.
-They believed that there were spirits in thick forests, pools and mountains.
-There was widespread belief in witchcraft.
ROZVI ECONOMIC SYSTEM
-They reared animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
-They cultivated crops such as millet, maize, watermelons and sorghum.
-They mined minerals such as gold, silver, iron and copper.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and for their precious skin.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushrooms.
-Women made different types of pots for cooking, carrying water and storing it.
-Men made different types of baskets like the winnowing basket.
-They raided their weaker neighbours for livestock, grain, boys and women.
-Vassal chiefs paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty.
-They manufactured tools such hoes, axes, spears and arrows.
- They practised both internal and external trade. For external trade they traded with the
Portuguese. The Portuguese were not allowed into the interior. Trade was done through
middlemen called the Vashambadzi. It was done at trading centres such as Tete, Sena, Zumbo,
Masekesa, Dambarare, and Sofala. Imports included glass beads, cloth, guns. Exports included
beads, cattle, precious animal skins and grain.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE ROZVI STATE
-Successive droughts hit the state in the late 18th and 19th centuries.
-Civil wars caused by succession disputes.
-Overall economic decline.
-Rozvi state was too big to be ruled by one king and this resulted in some chiefdoms breaking
away.
-Failure to fully incorporate some chiefdoms e.g. the Kalanga.
-Invasion by the Hiya.
-Invasion by the Nguni groups:
a) Tswana in 1800
b) Ngwato in 1802
c) Zwangendaba
d) Nyamazana in 1836
e) Nxaba in 1836
f) Sotho in 1829 under Mpango
g) Maseko Ngoni
h) Ndebele under Mzilikazi
-Loss of control over trade to the Ndebele and the whites.
-The final destruction came with the BSAC.
NGUNI STATES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

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-The term Nguni refer to languages of the Bantu people.
-The Nguni-speaking of Southern Africa lived in fertile lowlands along the East Coast of what is
now South Africa. They in the area between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
-They understood each other‟s language but they spoke different dialects.
-They were the Xhosa, Zulu, Thembu, Mpondo, Ngwane, Ndwandwe, Khumalo and the
Langeni.
-Before the 16th century the area received fair rainfall. However change began to be noticed in
the late 17th and 18th centuries. These changes led to the rise of chiefdoms.
RISE OF CHIEFDOMS
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF CHIEFDOMS
-Growth in population resulted in pressure over arable land.
-There was desire by some individuals to control trade at Delagoa Bay with the Portuguese.
-The desire to control hunting grounds especially were ivory was abundant.
-Desire to control grazing land for the increasing number of cattle.
-Desire to acquire more cattle through conquest.
-Development of advanced military tactics promoted aggression.
-The Madhlatule famine in the 1790s resulted in competition for food.
-Desire by some individuals like Dingiswayo, Zwide, Sobhuza and Tshaka to dominate others.
NB The fight for control of resources resulted in the emergence 3 powerful chiefdoms. These
included the Ndwandwe under Zwide, Ngwane under Sobhuza and the Mthethwa under
Dingiswayo.
NGWANE-NDWANDWE WAR 1816
-The rivalry between the Ndwandwe and the Ngwane arose over land around the Kongola River.
In 1816 Sobhuza wanted to use this land for cropping.
-In response Zwide sent an army to attack the Ngwane and burn their capital.
-Sobhuza was fought and defeated and he fled north to the present day Swaziland and settled
there. In transit he caused havoc among the tribes he encountered.
-This left the powerful Ndwandwe to face the Mthethwa.
NDWANDWE-MTHETHWA WAR 1818
-It began 1818 over the control of the hunting grounds and the northern trade with the
Portuguese.
-Both leaders had introduced effective military tactics.
-Dingiswayo led his army in the battle field.
-Tshaka was asked to bring his regiment but he chose not to for reasons known to himself.
-During the battle Dingiswayo decided to go up the hill to survey the battle field. He found
himself being surrounded by Ndwandwe soldiers. He was captured alive.
-He was put to death and his head was given to Zwide‟s mother as a prize less gift.
-The Mthethwa fled from the victorious Ndwandwe for a short time. While Zwide‟s Ndwandwe
seemed to dominate the whole of the region came Tshaka of the Zulu.
THE BATTLE OF MHLATUZE
-After the death of Dingiswayo Tshaka reorganised the Mthethwa.
-In 1819, Tshaka leading the Mthethwa challenged the Ndwandwe.
-Tshaka killed Zwide and successfully defeated the Ndwandwe.
-Zwide's generals fled north from the victorious Tshaka and formed their own states i.e.
Soshangane, Zwangendaba and Nyamazana.

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-This left Tshaka firmly in control of the whole of Nguniland of Southern Africa.
RISE OF TSHAKA
-Tshaka was an illegitimate son of Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and a Langeni girl called Nandi.
-The name Tshaka came from stomach disease called itshaka.
-It is said that Nandi became pregnant out of marriage and as result her relatives thought that the
pregnancy was actually itshaka. So when Tshaka was born he was given the name of the disease.
-Tshaka grew among his mother 's relatives.
-Boys of his age always referred to him as a fatherless child. This resulted in Tshaka becoming
hard hearted. It is said that Tshaka loved his mother and to a lesser extent his grandmother only.
-At the age of 16, Tshaka become a heard boy.
-At the age of 23, he was recruited into Dingiswayo's army. Due to his bravery and intelligence
he was given a regiment to command.
-When Senzangakhona died, Dingiswayo helped Tshaka to become a Zulu chief by killing
Sigujana, the apparent heir to the throne.
-When Dingiswayo was killed, Tshaka reorganised the Mthethwa chiefdom and become its chief.
-He fought and defeated Zwide of the Ndwandwe.
-Tshaka later on renamed the Mthethwa to become the Zulu state.
-He adopted some of Dingiswayo's military tactics and also introduced his own military tactics
which enabled him to build a very powerful Zulu state.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE ZULU STATE
-The influence of Dingiswayo on Tshaka.
-Role of trade with the whites.
-Tshaka's able leadership.
-Tshaka's military innovations.
-Main Nguni chiefdoms fought and destroyed each other living the Zulu.
-Defeat of the Ndwandwe by the combined Mthethwa-Zulu army.
TSHAKA'S MILITARY INNOVATIONS/ CHANGES/REFORMS
-He introduced a short stabbing spear known as an assegai, after discarding the long throwing
spear.
-A long cow shield which covered the whole body was also introduced.
-Moreso he introduced the cow horn formation.
-Spies and scouts were also introduced.
-Tshaka banned the circumcision rights.
-Soldiers were to go to war barefooted for greater speed.
-He introduced three age regiments.
-Each regiment wore a distinctive head-dress.
-A war cry "Ngadla" was put into effect.
-He introduced a smoke signal for start of battle.
-Traditional doctors and nurses were to go to war to take care of the sick and the wounded.
-Soldiers were not allowed to marry until the age of forty.
-A wound at the back was punishable by death.
-Loss of an assegai was punishable by death.
-Mock battles were also introduced.
-He fed his soldiers with the best beef.
-His soldiers were entertained by women.

12
-Tshaka's soldiers went to war barefooted for greater speed.
TSHAKA'S AIMS IN BUILDING THE ZULU STATE
-To create a very powerful machine (army) in Nguniland.
-To expel all rivalries in a ruthless manner.
-To totally destroy the enemies' strength and resistance.
- To build a multi-tribal state.
-To control external trade with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay.
-To control the entire area between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian ocean.
TSHAKA'S ACHIEVEMENTS
-He managed to built a multi-tribal Zulu state.
-Introduced effective methods of warfare.
-He effective controlled trade at Delagoa Bay.
-Defeated his enemies.
-He was able to control the whole area between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian
ocean.
TSHAKA'S FAILURES
-Numerous death were incurred.
-Many people become destitutes and homeless.
-Forced many able leaders to migrate.
-There was widespread starvation.
ZULU ECONOMIC SYSTEM
-They cultivated crops such as bulrush, maize, millet, pumpkins and water melons.
-They reared animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
-They manufactured tools such as spears, hoes, axes, and arrows.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and for their precious skin.
-They raided for livestock, grain, boys and women.
-Conquered chiefs paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty.
-They undertook trade both internally and externally. For long distance trade they traded with the
Portuguese and the British. Their imports included guns, cloth and beads. Exports included gold,
cattle, precious skins and grain.
-They mined minerals such as gold for trade, iron to make tools and copper.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushrooms.
-They practised basketry and pottery.
-They also caught fish.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE ZULU STATE

-King was the supreme ruler. He was the chief army commander, he controlled labour, religion,
trade and land.
-King was assisted by chiefs and councilors most of whom were relatives and those the king
trusted.
-Below them were other smaller chiefs who to regard themselves as Zulu and would be allowed
to be councilors.
-Other chiefs were those not related to the Zulu and had privileges but had to pay tribute. They
were excluded from making important decisions.
-The army was used by the king to control the state. There was a standing army.

13
-Zulu was made the official language.
-The state was divided into regimental towns under izindunas. Tshaka set up towns such as
Gibixhegu, Bulawayo, Isiklebhe, Mbelebela, Nobamba and Dukuza. These military settlements
were circular in design with the royal residence situated opposite the entrance into th circular
settlement. Each settlement surrounded a huge enclosure that housed the cattle at night and was
used for military parades and ceremonies during the day.
-Inkatha was used as a symbol of unity.
-Religion was used as unifying force.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE ZULU STATE
-The society was patrilineal.
-They were polygamous.
-They held ceremonies such as inxwala and inkatha.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-They believed in God and ancestral spirits.
-Incest and bestiality was a taboo.
-They practised the kuronzera system.
-They celebrated the birth a new born baby and newly married couples.
-They paid bride price to their in laws.
-Women pierced their ears.
-They practised social sexual division of labour.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE ZULU STATE
-The death of Nandi.
-Death of Tshaka.
-Weak leaders like Dinizulu.
-Coming of whites.
-Continuous wars created enemies hence assassinations.
-High rate of executions resulted in death of many people.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY TSHAKA AS A ZULU KING
-Expansion characterised by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states.
-Death of Nandi, which created problems for him as he killed many people.
-Jealous relatives who ultimately killed him.
-High rate of executions created enemies for Tshaka.
-Rebellions e.g. Mzilikazi.
-Threats from the expansionist Boers and British.
-Battled to control the Delagoa Bay Trade Route.
-Shortage of resources such as land.
-Lack of trust by his commanders.
-Stigma of being an illegitimate son.
PEOPLE WHO WERE INVOLVED IN THE ASSASSINATION OF TSHAKA
Dingane, Mhlangane , Mkabayi, Mbhopa
MFECANE
-It was time of trouble.
-It involved continuous fighting between Nguni groups of Southern Africa.
-It started during the Ngwane- Ndwandwe-Mthethwa wars.
-It was intensified by Tshaka.

14
CAUSES OF MFECANE
-Population expansion.
-Competition for hunting grounds.
-Shortage of tilling lands.
-Desire to control pastures.
-Desire to control trade with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay.
-Development of advanced military tactics.
-Desire by some individual to dominate others.
-Tshaka's injustice.
-Desire to acquire more cattle through conquest.
EFFECTS OF MFECANE
-Death of many people.
-Widespread starvation.
-Many able leaders were forced to migrate e.g. Mzilikazi and Soshangane.
-The Zulu political, social and even economic patterns were spread north of the Nguniland.
-It created very powerful kingdoms north of the Nguniland e.g. Gaza and Ndebele.
-Nguniland was depopulated as many people fled from Tshaka's ruthlessness.
-Nguniland emerged as a united and powerful nation.
-It brought out an unusually high quality of leadership such as Mzilikazi, Soshangane,
Zwangendaba and Sebetwane.
THE NDEBELE STATE
ORIGINS
-The Ndebele state originated from the Nguniland and was born out of the Mfecane.
-Its first king Mzilikazi, son of Matshobane, was of the Khumalo clan which was under Zwide‟s
Ndwandwe.
-Mzilikazi succeeded his father in 1818 and he quickly switched off sides to join Tshaka. Tshaka
was pleased and left Mzilikazi in charge of his Khumalo.
-In 1822 Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka to go and raid a certain Sotho chief and capture him.
-Due to greediness he decided to keep the loot for himself meanwhile Tshaka pleaded with him.
-When Mzilikazi denied, a small force was sent to punish the Khumalo known as the
“Izimpondo” but it was defeated.
-Tshaka then sent the fierce Umbelebele to destroy Mzilikazi‟s tribe. Both sides experienced
heavy losses in the fight. Mzilikazi escaped with about 300 men and a few women and children.
-They crossed the Drakensburg Mountains and settled in the Transvaal area in 1823. He carried
out raids on the Pedi, Tswana and added their survivors to his ranks.
-He established his capital at Ekhupumuleni [resting place] near Oliphant River. However this
area was not suitable for grazing and they also experienced raids from the Pedi, Rolong, Griqua
and the Hurutshe.
-In 1825-6 he went on to settle near the present day Pretoria and established his capital
Emhlahlandela. It was from here that he met Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society in
1829.
-In 1830 the Khumalo were attacked by Dingane‟s Zulu, the Kora and the Khoisan forces, the
Rolong and the Griqua forces. Most cattle were captured.
-He settled at Mosega between 1833 and 1837.
-In 1836 he was again attacked Dingane‟s Zulu while his army was away in Sotho land. In the

15
same year he was attacked by the Boers of Henry Portgieter.
-In 1837, a combined force of the Griqua, Kora, Tlokwa, Rolong and Boer warriors attacked the
Khumalo.
-Mzilikazi felt insecure and decided to abandon Mosega.
-Before crossing the Limpopo, he split his group into 2: one was led by Ndiweni Khalipi
Gundwane, which consisted of old people, women, children and livestock. Nkulumane the eldest
son of Mzilikazi was also part of the group and Lobengula. The group took a direct route towards
Zimbabwe and crossed the Limpopo River. They followed the Umzingwane River and settled
not far away from the Matopo Hills.
-The second group which was led by Mzilikazi himself crossed the Limpopo River into
Botswana. They followed the northeasterly route in pursuit of the Kololo led by Sebitwane. It
was form here that he learnt of the installation Nkulumane. He quickly rushed off to the Matopo
Hills and settled near Inyati.
-He summoned all chiefs and indunas who were involved in the installation and executed them at
a place known as Thabayezinduna. No one knows what happened to Nkulumane. Some say he
was secretly executed and some say he was exiled to Nguniland.
-Mzilikazi went on to subdue and absorb members of already crumbling Rozvi kingdom.
-He was able to build up the most powerful kingdom north of the Limpopo River.
PROBLEMS FACED BY THE NDEBELE DURING THE JOURNEY
-lack of grazing land
-lack of food
-droughts
-wars with the Pedi, Zulu, Griqua,Rolong, Boers
-loss of livestock e.g. cattle
-loss of lives
-Ndebele homes were burnt
-succession disputes
-diseases e.g. malaria
-tsetsefly problem
-attacks from wildlife
-disruption of trade and farming activities
-shortage of drinking water
-constant fear of attacks
-population was reduced
-long distance led to fatigue
-crossing of mountains e.g. Drakensburg was difficult
-crossing of rivers
-capture of women and children by other groups
-language problem
-inferiority of weapons
-rebellion by Gundwane
ESTABLISHMENTS OF THE NDEBELE DURING THE JOURNEY
-Ekhupumuleni - fought with the Ndzundza and Pedi
-Mhlahlandela - fought with the Sotho, Tswana, Kora, Kwena, Griqua, Rolong and Zulu
-Mosega - fought with the Hurutshe , Boers , Griqua and Khoisan

16
-Endinaneni - fought with the Zulu, Hurutshe, and Griqua
-Angabeni - fought with the Sotho, Tswana and Kora
-Tshwenyane - fought with the Zulu, Hurutshe, Boers and Griqua
-Enkungqini/ Engugwini - were fought by the Zulu, Griqua, Hurutshe and Boers
BUILDING OF THE STATE
-Mzilikazi used the divide and rule tactic. Those who resisted were attacked and those who
submitted were incorporated.
-Some cattle which had been taken during the journey north contributed to the national herd.
-Some Shona chiefs who accepted Ndebele rule were left in their positions as chiefs. They were
given the responsibility to collect tribute on behalf of the king.
-He practised the Maphisa system of loaning cattle to his poor subjects thus creating a strong
relationship and ensured loyalty by the subjects.
-Mzilikazi built homesteads close together. He made sure that he knew what was happening in
the provinces.
-His administration was highly centralized.
-He encouraged the conquered people to speak Ndebele.
-He created age regiments which united people of the same age.
-He adopted the conquered people‟s practices such as the Mwari cult.
-Mzilikazi also defeated and incorporated the local inhabitants in their journey and therefore
adding to their numbers.
-He also raided the neighbouring chiefs for cattle and grain and thus beefing up his economy.
-Continuous journey north also resulted in unity among the people.
-Marriage alliances improved relations between the king and his subjects.
NDEBELE POLITICAL SYSTEM
-The political administration was highly centralised.
-The king was the highest judge, chief commander of the army, chief priest and also controlled
trade and distributed land.
-Below the king were two advisory councils:the Mphakati- which consisted of the members of
the royal family and a few selected chiefs.The lower one was called the izikhulu which consisted
of the rest of the chiefs and a few selected elders who had wisdom of the tradition.
-Below the advisory council were provincial governors known as induna enkulu who ruled the
provinces. There were four provinces.
-Below were chiefs known as indunas who ruled regimental towns.
-Regimental towns were found within a radius of 80km.
-Wives and relatives of the king were found in each and every town.
-The king had strong army which was divided into age-regiments.
-The sorrounding Shona chiefs paid trbute to the king as sign of respect.
-The Ndebele language was made the official language.
NDEBELE ECONOMIC SYSTEM
-They cultivated crops such as bulrush, maize, millet, pumpkins and water melons. It is
important to note that this was mainly done by the absorbed Shona people.
-They reared animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
-They manufactured tools such as spears, hoes, axes, and arrows.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and for their precious skin.
-They raided the Shona chiefs who did not pay tribute and also the Tswana for livestock, grain,

17
boys and women.
-Conquered Shona chiefs paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty.
-They undertook trade both internally and externally. For long distance trade thy traded with the
Portuguese and the British. Their imports included guns, cloth and beads. Exports included gold,
cattle, precious skins and grain.
-They mined minerals such as gold for trade, iron to make tools and copper.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushrooms.
-They practised basketry and pottery.
-They also caught fish.
NDEBELE SOCIAL SYSTEM
-Ndebele society was divided into 3 casts:
the Zansi- it was the highest class of the original Khumalo from Nguni land; the Enhla
consisting of the Sotho and Tswana from Transvaal and the lowest class the Hole who were
captured in Zimbabwe (Shona/Rozvi)
-Marriage across caste lines was discouraged
-However intermarriages took place.
-Ndebele believed in High God-Inkulunkulu
-They were polygamous.
-They also began to worship Sotho-god Mlimo and their ancestors-Amadhlozi.
-They were patrilineal.
-Adopted the Shona Mhondoro rainmaking practices.
-women pierced their ears.
-They practiced the maphisa system.
-They practiced the inxwala ceremony.
-Ndebele was made the official language.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.

DECLINE OF THE NDEBELE STATE

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-Failure by the Ndebele to defeat the settlers in the 1893 and 1896 wars.
-Failure to install a king after the death of Lobengula.
-Use of superior weapons by the whites.
-Introduction of suppressive laws by the settlers which undermined the authority of the chiefs.
-Bribery of the Ndebele indunas who attended the Matopo Hills Indaba.
GAZA STATE
RISE OF GAZA STATE
-The Gaza state was born out of Mfecane. Its first king was Soshangane who ran away from the
wrath of Tshaka.
-Soshangane and Zwangendaba were two of Zwide‟s generals who fled from Tshaka after the
defeat of the Ndwandwe.
-In 1821 they reached Maputo. Around 1828, Soshangane‟s regiments were attacked by Tshaka‟s
soldiers forcing him to move his capital further north and he settled around the middle Sabi
Region .
-In 1831 Soshangane and Zwangendaba fought against each other. Zwangandaba was forced to
move futher north.
-Soshangane remained in the Middle Sabi region and started to build an empire that become
known as the Gaza State. His capital was at Ekhupumuleni (resting place) near Chaimiti.
EXPANSION OF THE GAZA STATE
-Soshangane sent his regiments in different directions to subdue local people.
-They conquered all the people they attacked.
-By 1835 Soshangane‟s armies had reached as far as Sofala.
-They defeated the Manica kingdom and the Portuguese were forced to flee and they abandoned
their trading settlements there.
-In 1836 an entire Portuguese garrison was wiped out on the outskirts of Sofala.
-Soshangane defeated all his rivals and consolidated his control over the lands lying between the
Zambezi and the Limpopo.
-Mzila continued his father‟s process of conquering and incorporating people. His raiding armies
were sent to capture various people mainly in the north and the east.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE GAZA STATE
- The king had absolute authority on political, religious, judicial, military and economic matters.
-The king held in trust for the state captives and captured booty.
-The king ruled with the aid of the councilors.
-The kingdom was divided into districts under indunas. The king was related to the indunas
through marriage.
-Indunas collected tribute from the districts.
-All boys of military age were drafted into age regiments.
-Defeated chiefs became vassal chiefs who paid tribute.
-The army collected tribute and raided neighbouring states.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE GAZA STATE
-The Gaza state was divided into 3 classes: The BaNgoni class which was the aristocratic Zansi;
the BaTshangane who were assimilated people and the BaTonga who consisted of the local
Ndau, Chopi and Manyika.
-The BaTshangane were discriminated against.
-The BaTsonga were put in front line in the war.
19
-Intermarriage with assimilated groups were permitted.

20
-They undertook ceremonial dances.
-They were a patrilineal society.
-They maintained good relations with the Ndebele.
-They practiced polygamy.
-Division of labour was done.
-They pierced their ears.
-They ate rubende.
-They were educated by whites
GAZA ECONOMIC SYSTEM
-They raised animals such as cattle, sheep and goats for meat and milk.
-They raided their weak neighbours for cattle, grain, sheep and goats.
-They also traded locally and externally. They traded with the Portuguese and British who gave
them guns and cloth. They exported ivory and slaves.
-They gathered fruits and vegetables.
-They made pottery.
-They made baskets.
-They caught fish.
-They cultivated crops such as maize, sorghum and millet.
-Subjects were required to pay tribute in grain, spears, hoes, ivory and canoes.
-They made tools such as hoes and spears.
-They hunted animals for meat, precious skin and ivory.
-They mined such minerals as copper and iron.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE GAZA STATE
-Death of Soshangane - his successors were less charismatic.
-succession disputes between Soshangane‟s sons – Mzila and Mawewe.
-Led to civil wars.
-Revolts by subject people and breakaway of the Tshonga- weakened the state.
-Natural disasters e.g. droughts and floods.
-Mawewe‟s rule was unpopular.
-Failure to assimilate local people.
-Decline in trade.
-Interference from the Portuguese – they intervened on the side of Mzila against Mawewe.
-Influence of the Swazi backing Mawewe.
-Pressure of the British.
-Loss of control of trade.
-Capture of Ngungunyana by the Poruguese.

SEBITWANE AND THE KOLOLO

ORIGINS OF THE KOLOLO
-It was born out of Mfecane.
-In 1822, the Patsa-Fo-keng were attacked were attacked by the Tlokwa of Mma-Ntatisi and
were forced to migrate northwards from their homeland in the western valley of Drakensburg.
Their leader was Sebitwane.
-They settled at Dithakong. However they were subjected to raids by the Phuting who were
running away from the Khumalo. In the consequent battles the Patsa-Fo-keng were defeated and

21
were forced to flee north.
-During the journey north Sebitwane had captured a young widow of the Kolo clan of the
Phuting. The woman latter became his chief wife. In her honour Sebitwane named his people the
Kololo.
-From 1823-4, the Kololo joined forces with the Taung of Moletsane and started raiding clans
north and west of Witwatersrand. They attacked and conquered the Kwena and Hurutshe.
After attacking the Ngwaketse, Moletsane and Sebitwane soon parted company.
-Sebitwane continued to raid into the western Witwatersrand until 1826 when the Khumalo
forced Sebitwane to migrate further westwards.
-Sebitwane finally settled in the hills around present day Molepolele in Botswana.
-From the hills they managed to conquer neighbouring tribes and to incorporate them into the
state as tribute paying subordinates.
-They were fought by the Ngwaketse in a fierce battle at Lesbanyana. Although the Ngwaketse
were defeated the Kololo were forced to move and they migrated to the Shoshong hills.
-In 1827 they raided the Ngwato herders in the Kutswe hills. They captured long horn cattle.
-Sebitwane made his capital at Lake Xau near Makgadikgadi salt pans.
-Between 1831 and 1835 Sebitwane moved further west in search of more cattle.
-He raided and conquered the Tawana around Lake Ngami and moved further west to attack the
Herero. He was met with greater resistance as the Herero warriors fought with poisoned bows
and arrows. When one of his sons was killed he was forced to retreat to Ngami.
-Sebitwane latter moved to the Chobe Swamps which he renamed Dinyanti meaning the reeds.
-He latter travelled the great waterfalls at the Zambezi River which was called Shongwe-na-
mutitima [the boiling pot] by the Leya people. He renamed it Mosi-oa-Tunya [the smoke that
thunders.
-Between 1839 and 1840, Sebitwane led the Kololo to the Tonga Plateau in Southern Zambia.
He managed to subdue the Tonga people. He replaced the Lozi who were dominant in the Upper
Zambezi.
WARS FOUGHT BY THE KOLOLO IN WESTERN ZAMBIA
-By 1837 the Kololo had moved into the Zambezi Valley and defeated the Tonga from whom
they captured their cattle, goats and sheep.
-In Kafue flood plain they fought and defeated the Ila in 3 days.
-Near Lusaka they conquered the Sala. They were advised by a Sala Priestess-Chief Longo not to
go further east as they would be great deal of danger possible from the Portuguese and their
Chikunda allies in the Zambezi Valley or from the Swahili on the east coast. Sebitwane was
advised to move to the west where they would find an area of red cattle.
-In the Upper Zambezi Valley, they defeated the Ndebele regiments in battle joined by Kololo
women called Thaba ya basadi [the women‟s mountain].
-The Kololo defeated the Luyi who were weakened by succession dispute. The Kololo forced
Lozi Litunga Mubukwani and other nobles into exile. Mubukwani‟s son Sisopo was absorbed
into the Kololo central government.
-In 1843, the Kololo were attacked by Msene-Ngoni of Nxaba to whom they lost some cattle.
-They repelled the Msene-Ngoni in 1845.
-In the same year they successfully repelled the Ndebele using canoes.
-In 1851 Sebitwane died.
IMPORTANCE OF SEBITWANE’S WARS FOR HIS LONG STAY IN POWER

22
-War showed his military prowess necessary for stabling a state.
-They discouraged rebellions.
-Captured boot in form of cattle and sheep, grain to build strong economy.
-Repelled the Msene-Ngoni and the Ndebele hence ensured survival of the Kololo.
METHODS USED BY SEBITWANE TO UNITE HIS PEOPLE
-Mixed freely with them.
-He enforced the speaking of Kololo language.
-Left conquered people in control of their areas.
-He incorporated some conquered people into the central government.
-Distributed fairly tribute amongst his people.
-Took wives from his conquered people.
-Sebitwane discouraged his own Kololo from acting as dominant aristocracy and decreed that all
people were children of the chief.
KOLOLO POLITICAL SYSTEM
-The political system was highly centralized.
-The king was the head of the state.
-The king was the judicial, religious and military leader.
-His post was hereditary. He was also the chief distributor of land.
-The king had a royal council to advise him.
-Under the royal council was the provincial governors who in charge of provinces. These were
appointed by the king.
-Under the provincial governors where village chiefs who were in charge of villages. One or two
Kololo families were in every village as lords of the land.
-He left those who accepted him as ruler in control of their areas.
-Some trusted local chiefs were absorbed into the Kololo central government
-He had a powerful army.
-He made marriage alliances.
-He introduced the age-regiments although they were not forced.
-His subjects paid tribute as a sign of loyalty.
KOLOLO ECONOMIC SYSTEM
-They raised animals such as cattle, sheep and goats for meat and milk.
-They raided their weak neighbours for cattle, grain, sheep and goats.
-They also traded locally and externally. They traded with the Portuguese and Arabs who gave
them guns and cloth. They exported ivory and slaves.
-They gathered fruits and vegetables.
-They made pottery.
-They made baskets.
-They caught fish using canoes.
-They cultivated crops such as maize, sorghum and millet.
-Subjects were required to pay tribute in grain, spears, hoes, ivory and canoes.
-They made tools such as hoes and spears.
-They hunted animals for meat, precious skin and ivory.
-They mined such minerals as copper and iron.
KOLOLO SOCIAL SYSTEM
-They were patrineal.

23
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-There was social sexual division of labour.
-People in the Kololo kingdom were enforced to speak Kololo language.
-They paid lobola to their in-laws.
-They practised polygamy.
-They believed in the existence of a high god.
DECLINE OF THE KOLOLO STATE
-After Sebitwane‟s things turned upside down for the Kololo. He died in July 1851 of
pneumonia.
-Sebitwane was succeeded by his daughter, Mamochisane who later abdicated in favour of his
brother Seleketu.
-Seleketu lacked his father‟s courage, intelligence and ability as a leader.
-He did not trust his own advisers especially the Lozi.
-His councilors were chosen from his own age group and he was even suspicious of these in time
and had most of them killed.
-During Seleketu‟s reign, the Kololo became arrogant and they began to treat the Lozi as inferior
and even like slaves.
-The Kololo were natural weak and were seriously weakened by malaria.
-After Seleketu‟s death in 1863, a civil war broke out. The regent Mpololo was killed and his
followers moved to Lake Ngami area.
-In 1864 the Lozi sparked off a rebellion in which the Kololo were defeated. Most Kololo older
men were killed. The women, young men and children were spared and became part of their
kingdom. The Lozi were helped by the Tonga.
THE PORTUGUESE PENETRATION INTO THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY [AREA
BETWEEN ZAMBEZI AND LIMPOPO RIVER]
AIMS OF THE PENETRATION
-To spread Portuguese imperialism and colonialism.
-To locate source of gold reaching the East coast.
-To control trade in the Zambezi Valley.
-To locate the rumoured King Solomon‟s gold mines.
-To spread Christianity.
-To displace Moslem religion.
-To avenge the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira.
-To further their journey of exploration.
-To establish trading ports on the Zambezi coast.
-To drive the Swahili out of the Mutapa.
-To locate the where about of Peter-Johns.
-To seize Mutapa gold and silver mines.
-To take control of the Mutapa and land for the agricultural purposes.
PORTUGUESE WHO PENETRATED INTO THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY BEFORE 1700
Father Goncalo da Silveira; Antonio Fernandez; Gasper Baccaro; Francisco Barreto; Captain
Gamitto; Vasco Fernandez Homem; Antonio Caiado; Silva Porto; Joao de Barros; Anastasio
Jose; Diogo Simeos; Sisnando Dias Bayao; Rodrigo Lebo; Diogo da Meneses; General Nuno
Alvares Pereira.
PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY BETWEEN 1500 AND 1700

24
-The Portuguese visited the Zambezi Valley in 1505.
-They took over Sofala from the Swahili traders.
-In 1507, they took the Mozambican Island. They built feiras at each of these stations.
-It is from these posts that they heard of the Mutapa state which was a source of gold.
-The Portuguese became interested in controlling the Mutapa state and its valuable resources e.g.
gold and ivory.
-In 1513, the Portuguese king sent Antonio Fernandez to locate the country of the Mutapa and
report about its gold and other resources.
-He visited Barwe, Manyika, Harare, Tete, Dande, Tavara, Mt Darwin, Butua and Chegutu.
-Fernandez reported what he had seen and heard about regular markets in the interior attended by
the Swahili traders.
-Up to 1530 more spies were sent into the interior but because of their greed and love of women
they did not return but remained at the king‟s court. Their affection for ivory, gold, alcohol and
women caused great stress for African king and chiefs.
-In order to stop the trade activities from the Swahili, the Portuguese built feiras at Sena, Tete,
Massapa, Dambarare and Bocutu.
-In December 1560, a Jesuit missionary, Father Goncalo da Silveira arrived in the Mutapa state.
-He managed to convert King Negomo Mapunzagutu, his mother and about 500 of his relatives,
nobles and court officials. In March 1531 Silveira was killed and his body was thrown into the
Musengezi River.
-In 1569, an army was sent under Francisco Barreto from Portugal to avenge the death of Father
.
Silveira
-However the army did not reach the Mutapa state. Most soldiers perished from malaria, sleeping
sickness and yellow fever.
-In 1574, another army under Vasco Fernandez Homem. He invaded Manyika intending to reach
the gold mines of Manyika and silver mines of Chicoa. Homem lost about 300 soldiers in
fighting with the local people.
-The Portuguese government decided to abandon imperialistic adventures in the 1590s and
withdrew to Sofala.
-A remarkable opportunity for the Portuguese was created by the death of Negomo in 1589.
-In 1596 a civil war broke out between Gatsi Rusere and his rival and Rusere asked for
Portuguese help. In return he gave them silver mines at Chicoa.
-After the death of Rusere yet another civil war broke out between Nyambo Kapararidze and
Mavura Mhande.
-The Portuguese supported Mhande because Kapararidze wanted to expel the Portuguese.
-Mhande became a dependant of the Portuguese until his death.
-He abolished the curva system among other things.
-The Portuguese grabbed large pieces of land known as prazeros. They forced the Mutapa to
work as porters.
COLLAPSE OF THE PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE OF THE MUTAPA STATE
-This came about when Mutapa Mukombwe made an alliance with Changamire Dombo of the
Rozvi state in 1695.
-Together they attacked the Portuguese and drove the out of the Zimbabwean Plateau to the
coastal centres such as Sena and Tete.
-The Portuguese never again gained control of the Mutapa state.
25
-Trade between the Portuguese and the Rozvi was done through the vashambadzi because the
Portuguese were forbidden to get into the interior.
DUTIES OF THE CAPTAIN OF THE GATES IN THE MUTAPA STATE
- ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa king by making sure that they pay tribute.
-supervised paying of taxes on Portuguese goods
-advised the Mutapa king on matters concerning the Portuguese
-informed the Portuguese government on activities in the Mutapa state
-controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state
-served as an interpreter
-represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa state
-settled disputes between Portuguese and Africans
-Handed over gifts
METHODS USED BY THE PORTUGUESE TO GAIN CONTROL OF THE MUTAPA
STATE
-forced the king to expel the Swahili
-established trade posts in the Mutapa state
-took control of trade in the Mutapa state
-controlled mining using forced labour
-introduced credit system
-converted Mutapa Gatsi Rusere and some of his subjects
-encouraged and intervened in civil wars
-helped Rusere to fight Marava
- Forced labour
-forced Mutapa to pay tribute
-Mutapa sent to Goa in India for education
-use of brutality
-co-habitated with African women
-used Portuguse names
-helped to install vassal chiefs
-signed treaties and concessions
-created private armies i.e. Chikunda system
-took control of land from Africans
-took over administrative duties in the Mutapa state
-adoption of Mutapa religion
-involved in slave trade and slavery
TRADE BETWEEN PORTUGUESE AND THE ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES IN THE
16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES
-Portuguese traders started to make contact with the Mutapa in 1505 when they established
Sofala.
-At first trade was through the Swahili or vashambadzi.
-Gold was the main export from the Mutapa kingdom.
-The Portuguese developed interest to enter into the interior to control the sources of gold trade.
-Portuguese brought cloth, guns and ceramics, which were desired in the interior.
-Portuguese traded with the king of the Mutapa who controlled external trade.
-The Portuguese then entered into the interior and established their own trade centres like Sena

26
and Tete.
-Later trade goods were expanded to include salt, copper, iron and maize seeds
-Trade bazaars were established where sometimes private trade was done behind the Mutapa‟s
back.
-Later the Portuguese began to offer guns to some sub chiefs who later turned against the Mutapa
king.
-In the 17th century the Mutapa began to be reluctant with their goods especially gold and
Portuguese resorted to force.
THE PRAZO SYSTEM
-Prazos were large tracts of land given to individual Portuguese or traders by Mutapa rulers and
chiefs in the Zambezi Valley.
TYPES OF PRAZOS
1. Those given by African rulers in return for assistance in war.
2. Those loaned to the Portuguese settlers by the Portuguese government. These were known as
Prazos da Cora or Crown Prazos.
-Prazo holders were known as prazeros/ senhors/ lords/ Muzungos.
RISE OF THE PRAZO SYSTEM
-The Prazo system began in 1589 when Mutapa Negomo gave land to Francisco Barreto but it
remained dormant.
-In 1607 Gatsi Rusere gave land to a Tete trader Diogo Simeos Madeira. He became a powerful
settler with 4000 Achikundas.
-More land was given to Portuguese conquistadores [conquers] by Mavura Mhande. It said that
he was forced to cede the whole of his kingdom to the Portuguese crown as part of the price for
Portuguese aid.
-Ruler of Uteve gave large tracts of land to Dias Bayao. The area stretched from Pungwe to
Zambezi.
-Portuguese confirmed the Prazo system by giving official land titles to individual prazeros. The
government wanted the prazos to be centres of Portuguese Civilization and commercial
agriculture.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRAZO SYSTEM
-Portuguese settlers stripped African chiefs off their power and they assumed their role.
-Portuguese lived in luxury.
-Portuguese controlled trade through the vashambadzi.
-Mining of gold, silver and copper was done.
-Slave labour was used.
-Prazos were a source of slaves who were exported to Brazil.
-Coffee was grown wild in forests and was used to pay tribute by African population.
-Shifting cultivation was practised.
-They grew crops such as maize, sorghum, beans, millet, watermelons, sugar cane, coffee,
squash, cassava, rice, groundnuts and pumpkins.
-There was sexual co-habitation between Portuguese and African women which resulted in the
birth of a race called mulattos.
-Portuguese surrounded themselves with advisers, including religious leaders who helped them
in such ceremonies as rainmaking.
-Portuguese supervised the elections of local chiefs and headmen.

27
-Illegal armies called Achikundas were formed by prazeros which ill-treated the local people.
-Africans were ill-treated by the Portuguese.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE PRAZO-SYSTEM
-New crops were introduced e.g. maize
-Modern civilization was introduced e.g. clothing.
-Improvement of communication e.g. roads.
-Africans received foreign goods such as guns, clothing.
;l-Manyika copied Portuguese words such as Prazo [purazi].
-Spread of Christianity reduced barbarism and paganism.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
-Spreading of diseases.
-Abuse of African women.
-A vast amount of minerals e.g. gold was taken away from the Zambezi Valley.
-Numerous deaths occurred.
-African culture was destroyed.
-Mutapa kings were forced to pay tribute.
-African chiefs were forced to supply slave labour.
-They Portuguese interfered too much into the Mutapa politics.
-Christianity brought division among Africans.
DID THE PORTUGUESE ACHIEVE THEIR AIMS?
SUCCESSES
-Monopolised trade.
-Converted some Africans into Christianity.
-Expelled the Swahili traders.
-Expelled Moslem religion.
-Established trading posts into the interior and outside.
-Located the source of gold.
FAILURES
-Failed to avenge the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira.
-Failed to convert many into Christianity.
-Failed to permanently colonise Zimbabwe.
-Failed to locate and get news of the „Legendary‟ Prester Johns.
-Failed to locate King Solomon‟s gold mines.
MISSONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE FROM 1850 TO 1900
EARLY MISSIONARY SOCIETIES
-London Missionary Society – Robert Moffat, John Smith Moffat, William Sykes, Thomas
Morgan Thomas, Daniel Carnegie
-Methodist Church
-Dutch Reformed Church – Michael Buys ,Makgatho, Jefta, Simon, deacon Jacob ( evangelists)
-Anglican Church – Knight Bruce
-American Board of Foreign Missions
-Roman Catholic Church – Father Bartholomew Kroot, Father Robert Laws, Peter Prestage
Andrew Hartman,Father Crooneberghs.

-Paris Evangelical Mission – Francois Coillard (m) Jonathan & Sehahabane (evangelists)

28
-Berlin Missionary Society – Knothe, Schellnus, Samuel, Funzane, Moshe, Madzima
(evangelists).
AIMS OF MISSIONARIES
-To spread Christianity.
-To make Africans literary.
-To introduce medical technology.
-To „civilise‟ Africans.
-To decampaign slave trade.
-To promote legitimate trade.
-To develop an indigenous middle class to maintain church staff.
MISSIONARIES WHO WORKED IN ZIMBABWE
-Robert Moffat; Charles Helm; John Smith Moffat; Bernard Muzeki (E) ; Francois Coillard;
William Sykes; Thomas Morgan Thomas; Father Robert Laws; Knight Bruce; Kroot
Bartholomew; David Carnegie; Sehahabane (E); Madzima (E) .
MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE
1. They established mission stations. The London Missionary Society under Robert Moffat built
a mission at Inyati in 1859. In 1870 they built another one at Hope Fountain.
-In 1879, the Catholic Church under Father Robert Laws established a mission station in
Mzilaland.
-The Jesuits in 1879 followed under Father Bartholomew Kroot built a mission station at
Empandeni.
-In 1891 the Dutch Reformed Church built their at Morgenster near Masvingo.
-In 1891 the Anglican under Knight Bruce opened a diocese and built Saint Augustine.
-In 1893 the American Board of Foreign Missions established theirs at Mt Selinda.
-The Paris Evangelical Mission under Francois Coillard established a mission at Mashiangombe
in Mashonaland.
2. They converted Africans into Christianity.
3. They acted as agents of imperialism e.g. John Smith Moffat and Charles Helm.
4. They performed technical work such as carpentry.
5. Printed books in vernacular language e.g. Reverend Thomas in 1868, produced a hymn book
and first lesson book in Ndebele..
6. Build schools and clinics.
7. They treated the sick and inoculated cattle.
8. They acted as mediators between Africans and Europeans.
9. Wrote diplomatic letters for the king.
10. Repaired guns for the king.
11. Cultivated crops on land given by the king.
12. Provided formal education.
13. They carried out lucrative trade . They exchanged cloth, beads, guns and ammunition for
ostrich feathers, ivory, hemp, melons, pumpkins, milk and crops.
WORK OF THE CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES IN ZIMBABWE UP TO 1900
-Jesuits led by Father Bartholomew Kroot opened a mission station at Emphandeni near
Bulawayo.
-Depelchin led Jesuits to Zambezi valley and set up a station at Pandamatenga and he built the
“Residence of the Holy Cross”.

29
-They established Chishawasha near Salisbury in 1892.
-They were used by the Ndebele to repair guns, inoculate cattle, treat the sick and write the
king‟s letters.
-Catholic missionaries preached to the people.
-They also taught and carried out literary work e.g. SiNdebele books were printed for the
Ndebele children to read.
-They condemned African traditional religion.
-They built numerous churches and schools.
-They translated religious and educational books into vernacular.
Chishawasha.
-They traded with the local people.
-They introduced livestock breeding.

MISSION STATIONS ESTABLISHED BY MISSIONARIES BEFORE 1900

Inyati , Emphandeni,Mzila, Hope Fountain,Mashayamombe,Chishawasha, St Augustines, Mt
Selinda, Old Mutare, Pandamatenga, Chivi,Zimuto, Morgenster, Matibi,Gokomere, Holy Cross,
Triashill.
WAYS USED BY LOCAL PEOPLE TO RESIST MISSIONARY INFLUENCE IN
ZIMBABWE BETWEEN 1850 AND 1900
-moved far away from missionary settlements
-continued to practice traditional religions
-raids continued
-refused to attend schools
-killed some missionaries
-refused to give missionaries food
-accused some missionaries to be spies
-Mzilikazi exiled some converts.
-killed some converts e.g. Mangeba who was killed by Mzilikazi
-accused missionaries of using forbidden routes
-expulsion of missionaries
-some Africans continued to follow Islam
-movements of missionaries were restricted
-African leaders discouraged people to attend church services
-refused to work for missionaries
-refused to accept some gifts from missionaries.
REASONS WHY THE LOCAL PEOPLE RESISTED MISSIONARY INFLUENCE IN
ZIMBABWE BETWEEN 1850 AND 1900
- did not want to abandon their traditional religion.
-feared their trade would be disturbed.
-did not want to learn a new language.9
-Christianity denounced aspects such as raiding.
-attacked African administrative systems.
-suspected missionaries of having colonial aims.
-influence from traditional leaders.
-influence from Islam.

30
-whites blamed for the natural calamities e.g drought and cattle diseases.
-lack of material gain.
-meaningless of white formal education to their lives.
-Christianity denounced polygamy.
PROBLEMS FACED BY MISSIONARIES IN THEIR WORK
-Tropical diseases which also killed some missionaries e.g. Father Law‟s expedition perished
from malaria while trying to establish a mission at Mzila.
-Language problems.
-attacks by wild animals.
-locals resisted Christianity.
-Transport problems.
-Shortage of food they were used to.
-Pressure from political leaders to be involved in colonisation.
-Caught up in the competition among the European countries.
-Shortages of medicine.
-Opposition from African rulers.
-Human resource shortage(manpower).
-Competition from Islam.
-Climatic conditions not favourable.
-Poor communication with mother countries.
-lack of supplies of European goods – food, medicine, tools and clothes.
-being embroiled in local politics e.g. succession disputes.
-Shortage of accommodation.
-They were attacked and murdered by the locals.
WAYS USED BY MISSIONARIES TO OVERCOME THESE PROBLEMS
-Showered converts with gifts so as to encourage more people to accept Christianity e.g.
Mangebi was given large quantities of beads, horses, horse saddles, clothes and a Bible.
-Helped in the colonization of Zimbabwe so as to have a supportive administration.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF MISSIONARY WORK ON AFRICANS
-They produced educated African elite.
-They produced a politically awakened and literate group e.g. Robert Mugabe and Joshua
Nkomo.
-Cultivated a sense of equality in all people.
-They introduced better farming methods e.g. irrigation and crop rotation.
-Improved medical facilities.
-Brought about social harmony.
-Development of vernacular language.
-Improvement of infrastructure.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE MISSIONARIES

-Paved way for colonization.
-Cheated and lied to African leaders into signing treaties.
-Supported the crushing of kingdoms e.g. John Smith Moffat who was happy with the crushing
of the Ndebele kingdom.
-Supported land grabbing.

31
-Spied for their mother countries.
-Western medicine undermined indigenous herbs.
-Their preaching made Africans‟ minds docile.
AIMS ACHIEVED
-Between 1890 and 1900 converts increased.
-Established mission stations successfully.
-Paved way for colonization.
-Managed to make some Africans literary.
AIMS FAILED
-Failed to convert many into Christianity.
-Failed to stop raiding and slave trade.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY THE MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONISATION OF
ZIMBABWE
-In 1836 Mzilikazi signed a treaty with Robert Moffat establishing a long relationship that helped
the British in 1880s.
-In Moffat agreement of 1888 Lobengula was persuaded to drop the Grobler Treaty. Lobengula
agreed to be a friend of the British Queen and not to enter into any agreement without the
consent of the British. Lobengula thought that John Smith Moffat was trustworthy. This Treaty
signed by a missionary led to the signing of the Rudd Concession.
-During negotiations leading to the signing of the Rudd Concession, Reverend Charles Helm
played an important role in persuading Lobengula to sign the treaty.
-The missionaries also acted as interpreters.
-The establishment of mission stations e.g. Inyati, helped those who visited Zimbabwe to find a
place to stay.
-Failure by the missionaries to convert many people into Christianity resulted in some
missionaries encouraging and rejoicing in the destruction of kingdoms e.g. John Smith Moffat
who said, „It will be a blessing to the world when they are broken.‟
-The establishment of roads in a way brought in concession seekers.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN BRITAIN
-It is a change in production by hand to production by machines.
ECONOMIC CAUSES OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN BRITAIN
-The enclosure system ( It was system in Britain were large open fields were fenced or walled
into strips of land either for growing of crops or grazing animals. This forced many peasants to
leave such areas and to work in industries thus providing industries with cheap labour.
-Sound economy.
-Control of international trade.
-Possession of colonies as sources of raw materials and markets.
-Availability of coal and iron.
-Important technological advancement in transport.
-Emergence of a middle class with surplus capital to invest.
-Stable government.
-increased demand for products of industry in many parts of Europe.
CLASSES DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLTION AND THEIR DUTIES
- workers / proletariat - working in factories.

32
-peasants / serfs - working in fields
-landlords - owning land.
-capitalists or bourgeoisie – owning factories
-aristocracy – ruling
INVENTORS AND THE MACHINES THEY INVENTED DURING THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
- John Kay – Flying shuttle.
-Richard Arkwright- Water Frame
-James Hargreaves – Spinning Jenny
-Samuel Crompton – Mule
-Reverend Edmund Cartwright - Power Loom.

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

-workers were overcrowded at work and in their homes.
-diseases like TB were common place and would easily spread among workers.
-sanitary conditions were poor e.g. bucket system.
-worker lived in shanties and slums.
-factories were poorly ventilated.
-child labour was rampant.
-there was high crime rate.
-there immorality – decay in morals as workers would engage in activities such as prostitution,
theft and gambling.
-population increased.
-there was improvement in medical facilities and medication.
-there was reduction in of infant mortality rate.
-improvement in education.
-women labour was rampant.
-urbanisation.
-poor medication of the workers.
-development of social classes.
-poverty.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONIN BRITAIN.
-shortage of raw materials.
-peasants become landless and poverty stricken.
-long working hours for workers.
-low wages.
-strikes, demonstrations and riots by workers resisting capitalist exploitation.
-production in factories disrupted.
- child labour – exposed to unprotected machines and unventilated factories.
-women also worked in the harsh conditions.
-widespread unemployment and poverty.
-shortage of food.
-shortage of markets.
-lack of investment.
BENEFITS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TO THE BRITISH

33
-employment in industries.
-food become available.
-standard of living improved.
-work become easier and faster.
-there was development of better transport system e.g. roads, railways.
-clothing become cheaper.
-there was mas production of goods.
-goods were readily available.
-there was technological development.
-markets were available.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION WHICH LED TO THE

SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
-Need for raw materials e.g. iron.
-Need for new markets.
-Need to protect strategic areas such as Kimberley.
-Need for colonies to invest surplus capitalism.
-Important technological innovations facilitated colonization e.g. fast steam ships.
-Search for new land.
-Attracted by cheap labour.
-Need to settle excess population.
-Medical advances such as quinine.
-Need to export troublesome citizens.
SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
-Scramble is the rushing and grabbing of colonies.
-Partition refers to the division of African colonies by European powers.
-In the Scramble and partition of Southern Africa the most powerful countries were able to get
more colonies and the reverse is true.
-Powers involved in the scramble for Southern Africa include Britain, German and Portugal.
CAUSES FOR THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
POLITICAL FACTORS
1. Balance of power-emergence of a united Italy and a united Germany upset the balance of
power in Europe. That resulted in European powers looking for territories outside Europe.
Southern Africa was not an exception.
2. Prestige-some countries such as Germany, Italy and Britain colonised Africa for prestigious
reasons. They were looking for a place in the sun.
3. Strategic value-some countries were colonised for their strategic positions e.g. the Cape
Colony which was a halfway station to India.
4. Technological advances-the whites had technological know-howh so they could defeat the
Africans and go on to tap their resources faster. “Whatever happens, we have a maxim gun and
they have not.”

ECONOMIC FACTORS
5. The need for raw materials-As a result of the industrial revolution in Europe the advent of
machines resulted in quicker consumption of raw materials such that they got exhausted. Africa,

34
which had plenty of the needed raw materials, was the alternative.
6. The need for new markets –As a result of industrialization in Europe goods were produced
highly such that the European markets were flooded. Africa was used as an alternative fresh and
new market.
7. Investment of surplus capital-those in business adventures had a lot of money which they felt
could not live idle. They decided to invest in Africa so that they will be able to get more profit.
SOCIAL FACTORS
8. Population expansion-As a result of better diet and medical facilities, population increased
rapidly in Europe. There was a high possibility of civil wars and strike so to avoid it they rushed
for colonies.
9. Humanitarian zeal-missionaries came specifically to spread the word of God and to civilise
the Africans as they regarded Africa as a “dark continent”. Humanitarianism is a feeling of
sympathy towards something or someone. However in the process missionaries acted as
forerunners.
10. Medical advances-the availability of quinine and tablets gave whites the confidence to
venture into the interior of Africa because they could combat such diseases as malaria and
bilharzias. Climatic conditions-some European nationals came to Africa for its good climatic
conditions which were necessary for their health e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who had TB and the
climate was also suitable for cultivation of certain crops.
POLITICAL FACTORS IN AFRICA
11. Disunity of the local people-Africans were so much divided that they could not form military
alliances against a common enemy. Some Africans eve collaborated with the enemy e.g. some
Shona chiefs were on the side of whites against the Ndebele.
12. Wars amongst Africans-African kingdoms were always at war against each other. That
resulted in Europeans using the divide and rule method.
13. Inferior weapons-Africans‟ traditional weapons proved no match to European weapons such
as the Maxim gun.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884- 1885
-This was convened in order to curb the increasing conflicts over colonies. It was called by Otto
von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany. It was held in Berlin.
-Countries represented at Berlin were Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal and
Belgium.
TERMS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE
-There was going to be effective occupation of the sphere of influence. Each country was to
ensure that there was a marked development in its sphere of influence.
-Countries were to solve their disputes over boundaries verbally and amicably.
-They divided Africa into 20 spheres of influence.
-Free trade and navigation in the major rivers e.g. Zambezi, Congo and Niger.
-Slave trade was to be eradicated where it still existed.
-All countries were to recognize King Leopold of Belgium‟s occupation of the Congo.
-Any country intending to occupy any part of Africa was to notify others.
-Any intending power was to sign treaties with the local leaders as a legal right to occupy that
area.
EUROPEAN POWERS AND THEIR POSSESSIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Britain-South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi

35
Boers-Transvaal
Germany-Namibia
Portugal-Mozambique and Angola
Belgium-Democratic Republic of Congo
BENEFITS OF COLONISATION
-Creation of law and order by ending tribal wars.
-Infrastructure was improved by construction of roads, bridges and railway lines.
-Better means of transport were introduced e.g. vehicles, Aeroplanes and trains.
-Improvement of communication e.g. radios and televisions.
-Provision of better water resources such as tapes.
-Building of industries and creation of employment
-Provision of cash economy.
-New and better methods of agriculture were introduced e.g. irrigation, crop rotation and
intercropping.
-Slave trade was abolished.
-Advanced methods of mining.
-Better weapons for defence were introduced e.g. guns, bombs.
-New languages were introduced e.g. Portuguese, English, Swahili and Chiraparapa which
improved communication between people.
-A new urbanized class of Africans emerged.
-New crops were introduced e.g. wheat.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF COLONISATION
POLITICAL
-Loss of political power by chiefs who were relegated to mere civil servants or were killed.
-Boundaries were fixed without regard to tribal affiliations.
-There was loss of life during wars of resistance.
SOCIAL
-African traditional religion was undermined by the introduction of Christianity.
-Emergence of social ills such as prostitution.
-Women were raped.
-Africans were detribalized.
-New epidemics were brought to Africa e.g. AIDS
-Africans were oppressed and were used as a source of cheap labour [chibharo].
ECONOMIC
-Africa was underdeveloped. More time was spent by Africans in promoting European economic
system. Raw materials from Africa were used to promote and develop Europe at the expense of
Africa.
-Africans were under paid and heavily taxed.
-Loss of productive land and cattle.
-Undermining of African industries. Africans favoured European manufactured goods at the
expense of African goods.
COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
EVENTS LEADING TO THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
1. Explorers, hunters, prospectors and missionaries already frequenting Zimbabwe in the 1870s
sent glaring reports of the resources which they believed existed in Zimbabwe to Europeans in

36
Europe and South Africa. Examples of traders, hunters and missionaries included Kart Mauch,
Sam Edwards , Joseph MacCabe, George Philips, George Westbeech (TRADERS) Fredrick
Selous, Henry Hartley, Piet Jacobs, John Lee, Jan Viljoen Martinus Swartz (HUNTERS) and
Robert Moffat.
2. Berlin conference- adaptation of the principles for effective occupation of the sphere of
influence, did not exclude Zimbabwe.
3. Discovery of gold and diamond in the Witwatersrand in 1886-made whites to think that there
a second rand in Zimbabwe.
REASONS FOR THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
1. Mineral wealth-Zimbabwe was regarded as the legendary King Solomon‟s gold were gold
was abundant. The Portuguese christened Zimbabwe as ELDORADO.
2. The discovery of gold and diamond in the Transvaal made many whites to think that the gold
belt from Transvaal in South Africa stretched into Zimbabwe.
3. National prestige-The British wanted to show their power or supremacy. Zimbabwe was part
of Cecil John Rhodes‟ dream of painting the map of Africa red.
4. Strategic motive-Zimbabwe was colonised by Rhodes who wanted to prevent the Boers from
expanding northwards.
5. Rhodes also wanted to stop Germany expansion from the West.
6. Rhodes‟ personal dreams-He wanted to build a railway line from Cape to Cairo. Zimbabwe
was part of it.
7. Rhodes who was proud of his country felt that he was bringing civilization to backward
Africa.
HOW ZIMBABWE WAS COLONISED
A. DIPLOMACY-Treaty making e.g. Grobler and Rudd Concession.
B. WAR- Anglo-Ndebele War.
PROCESS OF OCCUPATION
-The situation at Lobengula‟s court after 1870 resembled a loin‟s kill whereby vultures and other
scavengers are seen hovering for their turn to come. There were so many concession seekers at
Lobengula‟s court.
TREATIES SIGNED BETWEEN LOBENGULA AND THE WHITES
1. London- Limpopo Treaty 1870-It was a mineral concession to the London and Limpopo
Company in the Tati area.
TERMS OF THE TREATY
-Erection of buildings and operation of machines.
-The company was to make roads.
-The company was given mining rights
-Lobengula was to get 120 pounds per annum.
2. Baines Treaty 1871-It was a verbal agreement made between Lobengula and Thomas Baines.
TERMS OF THE TREATY
-Baines was given the right to exploit minerals in the area between Gweru and Hunyani Rivers
NB However Baines died before registering his concession.
3. GROBLER TREATY 1887
-It was negotiated between Piet and Fredrick Grobler and Lobengula.
-It established friendship between the Ndebele and the Boers in Transvaal.
TERMS OF THE TREATY

37
-A Boer representative was to be stationed in Bulawayo to administer justice to Boers who might
violate Lobengula‟s law.
-Boers carrying passports from the Transvaal were to be allowed entry into Zimbabwe.
-Everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the Transvaal.
-Lobengula was to give protection and military support to then Boers.
-Boers were to prospect for minerals.
-Lobengula was to catch and extradite all criminals from the South African Boer Republic.
-Hunters and prospectors from the South African Boer Republic would be allowed to operate in
Lobengula‟s kingdom.
MOFFAT TREATY FEBRUARY 1888
-It was signed between Lobengula and John Smith Moffat representing Cecil Johns Rhodes. It
was to repudiate the Grobler Treaty.
TERMS OF TREATY
-There was to be everlasting peace and friendship between Lobengula and the British.
-Lobengula was not to enter into any other agreement without the consent of the British.
-Lobengula was to get British protection.
-The Grobler Treaty was to be cancelled.
RUDD CONCESSION OCTOBER 1888
-It was basically a mining Treaty.
MAIN HEADS OR SIGNATORIES
1. Lobengula-he was the Ndebele king who claimed to be having control over the area between
Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers.
2. Charles Dunnel Rudd- he was Rhodes‟ business partner who came to South Africa in 1866
on medical grounds. He was a diamond dealer who could trick anyone into submission. He was
Rhodes‟ best friend and head of Rhodes‟ delegation to Lobengula.
3. Francis “Matebele” Thompson-was fluent in native languages and in particular. He was
therefore responsible for interpreting.
4. Rochford Maguire-He was a lawyer by profession and was with Rhodes at Oxford
University.
5. John Dreyer-he was the wagon driver who also was a signatory.
OTHER PEOPLE PRESENT
6. Charles Helm- was a missionary who interpreted and was also a trusted friend of Lobengula.
He was an agent of imperialism and he persuaded Lobengula to sign the Treaty.
7. John Smith Moffat- he was a missionary and was Lobengula‟s friend.
8. Lotshe –was a trusted induna of Lobengula and was bribed by Thompson to urge the king to
sign.
WRITTEN TERMS OF THE RUDD CONCESSION
-BSAC was granted the right to exploit minerals.
-BSAC was granted the power “to do all things they might deem necessary” in order to promote
their mining activities.
-Lobengula was to be given 100 pounds per month.
-He was also to be given 1000 rifles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.
-A gunboat was to be stationed on the Zambezi Valley or he was to be given 500 pounds.
-The king was not to enter into any written or verbal agreement without the consent of the British
government

38
VERBAL AGREEMENTS
-Not more than 10 men were to enter into the kingdom and were to dig one hole.
-The men were to surrender their weapons on arrival into Zimbabwe.
-All whites who came into Matebeleland were to be under Lobengula's jurisdiction
-Whites who came to Matebeleland were to fight in defence of the Ndebele state
- the few whites would not mine near towns
-no machinery and employees were to be brought into the country before payment of the first
instalments of the rifles
-Rhodes would advertise the concession in South African newspapers.
-Whites promised that they had not come permanently.
BENEFIT OF THE RUDD CONCESSION TO THE NDEBELE
- Created temporary true that saw avoidance of occupation of Matebeleland.
- Got initial payment of cash.
-Removed threat from the Portuguese and Boers.
NON-BENEFITS OF THE RUDD CONCESSION TO THE NDEBELE
- become the basis upon which Royal Charter was granted.
-usurped Lobengula‟s powers to control his own kingdom.
-led to the formation of the Pioneer Column and the subsequent occupation of Mashonaland.
-led to the clashes between the Ndebele and whites leading to the 1893-4 war.
-execution of Lotshe and his family.
EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT LOBENGULA WAS CHEATED
-instead of 10 men agreed, a column came and Lobengula was surprised. He even said, “Have
we killed a white man that an impi is collecting on our boarder?” Or has the white men lost
anything that they are looking for?”
-Lobengula was illiterate so it was not possible for him to understand the legal language used.
-The Rudd team was made up of intellectual giants who had ventured into various works of life,
battle hardened men and were economic heavy weights who could trick anyone.
-Terms of the Rudd Concession were too tempting.
-Bribes were common.
-Items promised were never delivered. -The Rudd team used the Queen of England‟s name.
-The promised gunboat was not meant for Lobengula‟s holiday cruises but for guarding against
Portuguese infiltration from Northern Mozambique.
-Sending of Babajane and Umtshete to London to have the Rudd Concession clarified.
-Out of all the signatories Lobengula was the only one without a surname.
-Lobengula was reluctant and kept on temporizing.
-The document given to the Queen was different to that in possession of Lobengula.
-Execution of all people who persuaded Lobengula to sign the treaty.
-Delay of Umtshete and Babajane to reach and hold talks with the Queen.
-The Rudd Team quickly rode off after signing the treaty leaving Thompson behind who sneaked
during the night.
LOBENGULA WAS NOT CHEATED
-Lobengula wanted to please his subjects after getting goods such as money and guns.
-Desire to be protected by the British drove him into signing the treaty.
-He possibly changed his mind after as a result of influence from other parties like the Germans,
Boers and Portuguese.

39
-Lobengula had a natural weakness for luxury goods.
PROBLEMS FACED BY LOBENGULA IN DEALING WITH CONCESSION SEEKERS
-Whites came in large numbers.
-Language barrier.
-Poor advise from indunas such Lotshe.
-Dishonest advise from white acquaintances e.g. missionaries and hunters like Selous and
Charles Helm.
-Opposition from the Amajaha.
-Difficulty in judging which was the best group to deal with.
-Sometimes concession seekers pretended to be working against each other to influence
Lobengula‟s decision e.g. Lippert who sold his concession to Rhodes.
-Poor education levels prevented him from fully understanding the implication of what he was
required to sign.
-He was afraid what might happen if he did not sign.
-He had a natural weakness for luxury goods like receiving gifts of no lasting value.
LIPPERT TREATY 1891
-It was signed between Lobengula and Edward Lippert.
-It was to cancel the Rudd Concession.
-Lippert was a Germany citizen who was also a South African businessman.
TERMS OF THE TREATY
-Lippert was given permission to trade, mine and farm in Mashonaland.
NB Lippert sold the treaty to Rhodes.
ROYAL CHARTER OCTOBER 1889
-After receiving the Rudd Concession, Rhodes quickly went to Britain to seek permission to
occupy Zimbabwe.
-When Rhodes arrived in London he was little known.
-He was introduced to Baroness Burdette Coutts, whose house was centre of London‟s
aristocratic class.
-It was through Baroness Burdette Coutts that Rhodes accessed the British aristocratic class,
Prince of Wales, the Duke of Abercorn and Lord Grey.
-He offered the world if they cooperated.
-The Duke of Abercorn responded by accepting the chairmanship of the BSAC, even before the
granting of the charter.
-Within a few months, Rhodes had won the hearts of leading personalities among influential
aristocrats in London.
-In October 1889, Rhodes obtained the Royal.
-It authorized to rule the whole of Central Africa.
-The Royal Charter gave Rhodes the power to:
i] Make laws
ii) Maintain a police force to preserve peace.
iii) Undertake public works e.g. road construction
iv) Acquire new concessions.
-Because Rhodes had the financial muscle, the British government gave him permission to
sponsor the occupation of Zimbabwe.
-Rhodes used his personal riches to ensure that Zimbabwe become a British colony.

40
-Back in South Africa he formed the BSAC.
-Members of the BSAC were drawn from the English Afrikaner speaking people at the Cape.
PIONEER COLUMN
ORGANISATION OF THE COLUMN
-After obtaining the Royal Charter, Rhodes went on to recruit 200 mercenaries, who had South
African experience. They to be below 30 years of age and they were of various trades
[blacksmiths, carpenters, builders, printers, miners, farmers and traders]. They were chosen
because of their ability to shoot and ride horses. These 200 mercenaries were chosen out of 2000
applicants. Each pioneer was armed.
-They had a police force [500men] to suppress any resistance. It was led by Colonel Pennefather
and Borrow.
-Each troop in the BSAC police was promised 7 shillings and 6 pence for each day spend with
the pioneer forces.
-They were guided by Fredrick Selous who knew the geography of the land.
-Settlers were promised 3000 gold acres of land and 15 gold claims.
-Colonising party was led by Major Frank Johnson and 2 deputies [Heany and Borrow].
-Each of the 12 officers in the pioneer column was promised 20 gold claims.
MOVEMENT OF THE PIONEER COLUMN
-They travelled 12 miles a day.
-They crossed the Mactloutsie River [27 June 1890], they established Fort Tuli, moved to Fort
Victoria [August 1890], established Fort Charter and final Fort Salisbury [12 September 1890]
were they raised the Union Jack.
-The pioneers started to establish farms in Mashonaland.
-During the movement Tom and Dunbar Moodie branched off and went to the Eastern Highlands
where they established Melsetter.
IMPORTANCE OF THE PIONEER IN THE SUCCESSFUL OCCUPATION OF
MASHONALAND
-They constituted a self sufficient community
-They were selected to meet basic requirements in a community which included baking, miners,
blacksmiths and printers
-Pioneers were trained for war

WHY WAS THERE NO WAR BETWEEN THE BSAC AND THE NDEBELE IN 1890?
-The BSAC was busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland and expanding eastwards in order
to counter Portuguese expansion into Zimbabwe.
-Lobengula expected British friendship which he could take advantage of in tribal wars or
infiltration by the Portuguese.
-Lobengula feared the power of the British weapons e.g. the Maxim gun. He had experienced
defeat twice when his father was defeated at Mosega and Vegcop.
-The settlers were not a direct threat to Lobengula since they were heading for Mashonaland
avoiding the Ndebele.
-Lobengula avoided war in order to receive items promised in the Rudd Concession. Indeed he
received some of the items such as some rifles and monthly payments of 100 pounds.
-Lobengula expected the whites to leave as soon as they discovered that there was no gold in
Mashonaland

41
PROBLEMS FACED BY AFRICANS IN SOURTHEN AFRICA DURING THE
COLONISATION
-Wars resulted in death of many people
-Food shortage as food production was disturbed
-Trade was disrupted
-Wealth delivery system was disturbed
-Families were disorganized
-Loss of land and cattle
-Humiliation by the whites
-Loss of political independence
-Abuse of African women
-Forced labour
METHODS USED BY COLONIAL POWERS TO PARTITION SOUTHERN AFRICA
-Wars of conquest e.g. Anglo-Zulu war
-treaties e.g. Rudd Concession
-offered protection e.g. Sotho, Tswana, Swazi and Lozi
-Bribery/deception e.g. verbal and written terms of the Rudd Concession
-Use of missionaries e.g. Charles Helm and John Smith Moffat.
-Use of hunters e.g. Fredrick Selous
-Use of traders and explorers
-Use of ambitious individuals such as Cecil John Rhodes
-Use of chartered companies e.g. BSAC
-Use of conferences i.e. Berlin Conference
-Use of official agencies
METHODS USED BY THE AFRICANS TO RESIST COLONISATION
-Fought the colonizers e.g. the Zulu -Signed other agreements with some countries against others
e.g. Lippert Treaty
-Sought protectorate status for their states e.g. Bechuanaland
-
EARLY RESISTANCE
B. ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR 1893-4
CAUSES
-Failure to find a second rand in Mashonaland resulted in the whites anticipating the second rand
was in Matebeleland. Hence the invasion and conquest of the Ndebele state.
-The desire by Rhodes to acquire a hero status in Britain after the fall of the Ndebele state.
-The quarrel over the ownership of the Shona between the whites and the Ndebele. The whites
saw the Shona as their source of cheap labour while the Ndebele saw Mashonaland as their
traditional raiding ground.
-The boundary question-The boundary agreed was often violated.
-The desire to seize Ndebele cattle by the whites.
-Rhodes wanted to facilitate the construction of a railway cutting across Matebeleland.
-The defeat of the Ndebele would herald the total colonization of Zimbabwe.
-The Victoria Incident.
i) The cutting of telegraph wire by Chief Gomara and his men- The settlers reacted by
confiscating Lobengula‟s cattle held in trust to Chief Gomara.

42
ii) Raiding of cattle by Chief Bere- Chief Bere raided Lobengula‟s cattle from the Shurugwi area.
Lobengula sent an impi to punish the culprit. The impi disturbed the work which was going on
the European owned land. The impi was led by Umgandani. Captain Lendy asked the Ndebele
impi to retreat from the area. Later on he asked his men to fire at the retreating Ndebele impi.
The men fired and killed Umgandani in the process. Lobengula was furious and he sent two
emissaries to the Cape so that they would ask for peace with the Europeans. However the
emissaries were killed. These forced Lobengula to loose patience and fight the settlers whom he
feared.
-Death of Chief Chivi who was said to have been skinned alive.
COURSE OF THE WAR
-In 1893, the white volunteers formed 3 columns to stand a war of dispossession.
The 3 groups included:
a) Salisbury Column under Major Forbes
b) Fort Victoria Column under Captain Allan Wilson
c) Tuli Column under Captain Raaf and Goold Adams.
A. Iron Mine Hills/ Lalapanzi- The first slamish clash was at Lalapanzi where the Ndebele
attacked first but they defeated in September 1893.
B. Somabula Forest- A strong Ndebele regiment waited for the Tuli Column to come but God
intervened, a dense mist appeared and prevented the attack from being made.
C. Battle of Shangani River- the Ndebele attacked thrice but in vain. About 500 Ndebele died.
Battle of Bembezi-the Ndebele came in large numbers but they were repulsed in relative easy on
31 October 1893.
D. Battle of Singuesi River- the Tuli Column was attacked by the Ndebele near Empandeni
mission on 3 occasions but due to heavy artillery, the Ndebele were forced to retreat to the
Matopo Hills.
-When the whites arrived in Bulawayo they found it in flames. Lobengula had deserted so the
hunt for him stated.
-A force under Allan Wilson was asked to trek Lobengula. When they reached the Shangani
River they found the trace of Lobengula.
-When Lobengula realized that he could not continue fighting he sent a bag of gold and message
offering surrender.
-The message was given to an ordinary trooper who did not convey the message to their leaders
Forbes and Raaf.
-Forbes and his forces camped at Shangani.
-Allan Wilson was asked to continue with the search with his 21 men but the Shangani River
was in flood.
-Wilson's forces caught up with Lobengula's fleeing party on the western side of the river.
-Wilson requested reinforcements but Forbes did not comply.
-Instead he dispatched captain H.J.Borrow with twenty men without instructing them whether
they were a support unit or another attacking force.
-Borrow's force joined Wilson's group on 4 December.
-Together, Wilson's group and that of Borrow attacked Lobengula's group.
-Unfortunately, Wilson and his men found themselves surrounded by the Ndebele and their
ammunition got exhausted and all his men were killed except 3 scouts who escaped.
-Forbes's group could not help because the Shangani river was in flood.

43
-Forbes' group gave up and never captured Lobengula
-Lobengula is said to have died of small pox.
-On 5 December, Forbes and the rest of the expedition retreated.
-The Anglo-Ndebele war came to an end.
REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE NDEBELE
-The settlers were more mobile than the Ndebele, they fought on horse backs.
-Europeans used superior weapons.
-Ndebele used conventional warfare rather than guerilla.
-What got support from the Shona and Tswana.
-Not all Ndebele participated in the war.
-Total determination on the part of the whites.
-Ndebele lacked unity of purpose.
-The whites were better prepared for the war than the blacks.
-Outbreak of small pox which killed their king.
WHO SHOULD BE BLAMED FOR THE WAR?
A. LOBENGULA TO BLAME
-Lobengula called back 6000 warriors who had gone for a raiding expedition in Barotseland- this
was a sign of preparation of war.
-Refused to accept the whites as their masters as the Shona had done.
-Lack of foresight-Lobengula should have stopped the whites in 1890 when they were weak.
-It was the Ndebele who attacked the whites first at Iron Hill Mine.
-The Ndebeles‟ war policy.
-Lobengula‟s desire of luxury goods led him to sign the Rudd Concession and eventual the
occupation and war.
B. WHITES TO BLAME
-The whites had prepared for the war because they could not occupy Matebeleland without a
war.
-It was the whites who killed Lobengula‟s emissaries.
-The whites confiscated Ndebele cattle held in trust by Chief Gomara.
-They failed to accept the Ndebele way of life [raiding]. -They envied the Ndebele cattle, land
and gold.
THE RESULTS OF THE ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR
-Construction of a rail way line from South Africa to Matebeleland.
-Ndebele fertile land was taken by the whites.
-Creation of Gwaai and Shangani reserves.
-Ndebele lost their independence.
-Numerous deaths were incurred.
-Lobengula‟s cattle were taken.
-Lobengula‟s capital was taken.
-Mashonaland and Matebeleland merged into Rhodesia.
-An order-in-council was set up to rule the country.
CHIMURENGA 1
CAUSES OF CHIMURENGA 1 IN MATEBELELAND IN 1896-7
1. Loss of land-Africans lost their most productive land to the settlers. Reserves were created
for the Africans i.e. Gwaai and Shangani. These were semi-arid tsetse-fly and mosquito infested

44
and infertile.
2. The Ndebele lost their independence. After the death of Lobengula and the defeat of the
Ndebele, Matebeleland was now under the rule of the settlers. The way of life of the Ndebele
was disrupted and indunas lost their power.
3. The Ndebele lost their cattle to settlers who confiscated them. They were also forced to sell
their cattle at lower prices to pay taxes. Cattle were the most important asset to the Ndebele so
they were forced to fight the settlers in order to regain their cattle.
4. Forced labour-Africans were forced to work for settlers for nothing.
5. Taxation-The Africans were forced to pay hut tax, dip tank tax etc. The Ndebele resented
this. They were also supposed to be paid in form of money. This meant that they had to sell their
cattle at cheaper prices or work for the settlers for meagre wages.
6. Hatred of the Shona police-the Shona police brutally ill-treated Africans by flogging them in
public. They also demanded goats, sheep, fowls and even cattle for their own personal
consumption. To add insult to injury, they even raped African women.
7. Abuse of African women-both the BSAC police and the settlers raped African women. This
forced the Ndebele to rise and stop the evil practice.
8. The Ndebele were not allowed to choose another king after the death of Lobengula, thus
disrupting their independence and tradition.
9. National Disasters-In 1895-6 there was drought, locust problem and rinderpest. The priest of
Mwari and spirit mediums attributed the disasters to the presence of whites. They urged them to
drive the white men away.
10. Influence of the spirit mediums- they assured the Ndebele that they would win the war.
11. Jameson‟s Raid-Jameson had gone to Transvaal with his platoon to raid the Kruger
government. Unfortunately they were captured by Kruger‟s government. They Africans were
thus offered an opportunity to rise against the whites. It was the absence of police which gave
Africans a lot of courage to rise against the settlers.
COURSE OF CHIMURENGA 1 IN MATEBELELAND
-Leaders of Chimurenga 1 in Matebeleland were Mkwati; Siginyamatshe; Mponga; Tengera;
Mlugulu; Senior Induna Sikombo; Gambo; Tshiwa; Mlimo
MAIN EVENTS OF THE WAR
-It started in March 1896 under the command of Umlugulu. Indunas acted as leaders of the war
together with spirit mediums.
-The Ndebele started to kill whites in isolated farms, mines and stores.
-They killed African Police boys.
-Around 144 people were killed in the first 2 weeks.
-some whites escaped to town centres where they formed laagers e.g. Bulawayo, Gweru and
Mberengwa.
-Patrols were dispatched to isolated areas to rescue survivors and bury corpses.
-150 of Rhodesian horsemen under Colonel Beal left Salisbury to defend Bulawayo.
-In South Africa 500 European volunteers assembled at Mafeking to match into Rhodesia.
-Some 600 African troops were raised from Bechuanaland and Johannesburg.
-Another 60 sailed from Natal to Beira en route to Rhodesia.
-The British government chose Fredrick Carrington to be the commander of all military forces.
He called for total extermination and deportation of the entire Ndebele people.
-Whites started to attack Africans.

45
-On the Ndebele side the organization was done by Mlimo messengers, Mkwati and
Siginyamatshe. Mkwati was responsible in the North East and Siginyamatshe played a vital role
in the south of Bulawayo.
-Priests of Mwari told the Ndebele to leave the route to South Africa open as escape route for
whites.
-Major Plumers used this route to bring reinforcements.
-The large Ndebele army was defeated at Umgusa River.
-The remaining Ndebele retreated into the Matopo Hills and started guerilla warfare.
-Rhodes arranged for an indaba at Matopo Hills. Having lost hope the Ndebele were prepared to
negotiate. Rhodes and his colleagues held the first indaba with 40 indunas on 21 August 1896.
He persuaded the indunas to surrender and they consequently did.
THE MATOPO HILLS INDABA
-The following was agreed:
a) All company forces were to be disbanded.
b) Some of the indunas were to be officially recognized and given salaries by the government.
c) Company was to provide the Ndebele with seeds to sow and food.
d) All Ndebele weapons were to be surrendered to the company.
e) All those who were responsible for numerous murders were to be handed over for trial.
CHIMURENGA 1 IN MASHONALAND 1896-7
CAUSES OF THE WAR
-Loss of their fertile land- the Shona like the Ndebele had lost their most productive land to the
settlers. The whites had pegged large tracts of productive land for themselves.
-The Shona had also lost their cattle through payment of tax.
-Taxation-the Shona resented the tax which they were asked to pay. Taxation also meant that
they had to sell their cattle at lower prices or they had to sell their labour cheaply.
-Abuse of African women-Both the African police and the settlers raped African women.
-Disruption of Shona-Portuguese trade-The settlers disrupted the trade by forcing the Shona to
trade from South Africa where there was British goods which were expensive.
-Low wages- The Shona like the Ndebele were given meagre wages which was no match for the
work they did.
-Forced labour- The Shona were forced to work for the whites for no pay.
-Influence of Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi-these 2 spirit mediums urged the Shona to
drive out the settlers promising them victory. They gave them herbs which they claimed would
make them bulletproof.
-The Shona were generally ill-treated by the settlers especially during month end.
-The Shona like the Ndebele were also affected by natural disasters. Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru
Kaguvi urged the Shona to drive the whites saying that their presence caused all the disasters.
COURSE OF CHIMURENGA 1 IN MASHONALAND
Leaders of Chimurenga 1 in Mashonaland included: Mbuya Nehanda; Sekuru Kaguvi; Mkwati;
Chief Makoni; Chief Chiweshe; Chief Mangwende; Hwata; Nyamweda; Rusike; Chinhamora;
Seke.
MAIN EVENTS OF CHIMURENGA 1 IN MASHONALAND
-It started on 14 June 1896.
-It was generally commanded by Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi. These 2 unified and
coordinated the different chiefs. It was thus assumed a holy war.

46
-The uprising started when 2 Indian traders were killed near Chief Mashayamombe‟s capital.
-Fire soon appeared on hill tops all over Mashonaland.
-More deaths were incurred in Mashonaland.
-A group of Shona people would seek conversation with their white boss. Before the white man
was aware he would be attacked and killed together with his family.
-Traders, farmers and prospectors were attacked. Within a week about 120 Europeans had been
killed.
-Whites responded by forming laagers in main urban centres to defend themselves.
-Mounted patrols were organized to ride into remote areas to rescue white families, groups and
individuals and bring them to safety.
-Some forces were brought from South Africa and some from western Zimbabwe.
-The forces were under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Alderson.
-Colonel Alderson‟s forces went to Gwindingwi, Paramount Makoni‟s fortified Mountain
Headquarters
-After a struggle they managed to burn down and pound down to the ground the defensive walls.
Makoni and his people were forced to hide into the caves.
-Alderson and his troops also tried to pound down on Paramount Chief Mangwende‟s Mountain
residence at Maopo. Mangwende and his people had to hide in caves.
-Alderson in anger burn down granaries and any food reserves. Africans now resorted to guerilla
war, after they realized the superiority of whites‟ weapons.
-On the other hand the whites resorted to use of dynamites and other explosives to blow up the
caves and crevices in which many Africans were hiding.
-As a result whole villages died in the caves. Those who were forced to come out were publicly
executed by firing squads e.g. Chief Makoni.
-The Chimurenga 1 in Mashonaland came to an end when Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi
were captured and executed on 27 April 1898.
RESULTS OF CHIMURENGA 1 IN MASHONALAND
-Extension of the railway line from Mafeking to Harare and from Beira to Harare.
-Extension of the reserves system to Mashonaland.
-Religious leaders like Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi were executed.
-Many deaths were incurred especially those who were killed in caves.
-Forced labour in its crudest form was stepped.
-First Chimurenga especially the influence of Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi was an
inspiration to the second Chimurenga.
-The country was to be administered by an administrator assisted by an executive council.
-There was also a delay in development of modern politics in Zimbabwe.
-The Ndebele were given seeds to sow and food.
-The Shona were not allowed to build houses in Kopjes.
-There was close monitoring and supervision by Britain through both the British commandant
General and the Resident commissioner. Both were of resident in the country.
WHY AFRICANS WERE DEFEATED?
-Africans used inferior weapons e.g. spears, knobkerries and some old fashioned Portuguese
while the whites used sophiscated weapons such as the Maxim gun.
-The BSAC army was more organized than that of Africans.
-White forces were more mobile.

47
-The whites used tactics of burning African granaries thus starving them.
-The whites used dynamites and explosives.
-The capture and execution of Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi.
-The Ndebele left the route to South Africa open and this was used by Major Plumers to bring in
reinforcements.
-Not all Africans rose against the whites.
-Overconfidence on the part of the Africans for victory, brought complacency and hence their
defeat.

THE 1898 ORDER - IN - COUNCIL

-It was the first constitution of Southern Rhodesia since its occupation.
-It provided a Legislative council and an Executive council.
-It provided for an administrator who was to be the chairman of the Executive council and the
Legislative council.
-The Legislative council consisted of 9 members. Its duty was to formulate laws.
-5 members of the Legislative council were to be nominated by the B.S.A.C. and were to
represent the company.
-The remaining 4 members were represent the settlers and their interest.
-The constitution also provided for a Resident Commissioner appointed by Britain and
representing the British government. One of his tasks was to see that Africans were treated fairly.
-It also provided for Commandant General appointed by Britain. His main task was to control
the activities of the Rhosdesian police. The police force was not to be used without the consent
of the Commandant General.

1903 ORDER - IN - COUNCIL

-It made equal the representation of the settlers and company.

-In 1913 settlers representatives in the Legislative council was raised to twelve against six for the
company.
LAWS PASSED BY THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN RHODESIA TO CONTROL
AFRICAN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES BEFORE 1950
– Order-in-Council -1898
- The Industrial Conciliation Act -1934
- Land Apportionment Act- 1930
- Native Registration Act -1936
- Native Passes Act -1937
- Maize Control Act -1931
- Cattle Levy Act -1934
FORMS OF ACTION TAKEN BY THE WORKERS IN RHODESIA TO PROTEST
AGAINST EXPLOITATION BEFORE 1950
- Workers deliberately broke machines
- Workers caused accidents for whites
- Strikes e.g. Shamva Mine strike
- Refused to work
- Refused to carry passes

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 - Forged passes
- Formation of protest movements
- Formation of trade unions
- Refused to pay tax
- Formation of independent African churches
- Formation of burial societies
- Faked illnesses
- Withdrew commodities needed by whites.
FEDERATION RHODESIA AND NYASALAND
COMMISSIONS SET UP TO DISCUSS THE AFFAIRS OF THE FEDERATION
-Hilton Young Commission - 1938; Bledisloe Commission - 1938; Plewman Commission -
1954;
Tredgold Commission - 1956; Morickton Commission -1959; Dalgleish Commission -1954;
Delvin Commission - 1959
WHITE LEADERS WHO WERE INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF THE
FEDERATION OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Creech –Jones; J.H.Thomas; James Griffiths; Godfrey Huggins; Roy Welensky; Oliver
Lyttleton; Winston Churchill; S.T. John Moffat Stewart Gorebrown; Reverend E.H Nightangle
ROLE WHICH WAS PLAYED BY THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT TO THE
FORMATION OF THE CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION
-They rejected amalgamation of the three states as demanded by the sttlers.
-They suggested a federation based on equal partnership between Africans and whites.
-A commission of inquiry was set up into the settlers' desire for federation.
-Organised Victoria Falls conference to discuss the federation idea. It was chaired by Griffiths,
the British foreign secretary who accepted the idea.
-Churchill, the British Prime Minister supported the idea of a federation in 1951.
-A conference on the constitution of the federation was convened in London by the Colonial
secretary, Lyttleton.
-Britain disregarded African opposition to the federation.
-Another constitutional conference was convened.
-A conservative politician was sent to Central Africa to find out what Africans thought about the
idea. He reported the Africans had no objections except for a few extremists.
-A third and final conference was organised in London for the final touches.
-Britain recommended that the federation should have African representatives to safeguard their
interests.
-The federation was established in 1953.
AIMS OF THE FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND NYASALAND
The settlers wanted to share profits of gold and copper.
The settlers wanted to make use of labour in Zambia and Nyasaland.
To form a strong union against possible control by Afrikaners.
The settlers wanted to cooperate in order to control Africans.
To provide a big market for goods produced in the Federation.
To help each other to develop transport, electricity and other
infrastructure.
To attract more capital.

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 To cut adminstration costs.
To form a strong British colony which could compete with South Africa.
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION
-Governor –General, who represented the Queen , was the head of the Federal Government.
-Federal Assembly to have 35 members.

.14 from Southern Rhodesia.

.8 from Rhodesia.
.4 from Nyasaland
.6 from Africans (2 from each territory)
.3 Europeans to be responsible for African interests.
-Federal Executive –made of a cabinet appointed by the Prime Minister.
-African Affairs Board , made up of 3MPs and 3 whites was a standing committee meant to
safeguard interests of Africans.
-Federal Government to be responsible for economic , technical and financial matters:
Agriculture, Customs and Immigration, Defence , Communications, Non-African Education ,
Public Health and Higher Education for all races.
-Territorial governments responsible for African Affairs , Local Government, Housing , Mining ,
Labour, Local roads, the police and constitutional changes for territories.
-Federal Revenues to be shared among the 4 governments with federation getting a bigger
percentage: 60% Federal , 17% Southern Rhodesia , 17% Northern Rhodesia, 6%
Nyasaland.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FEDERATION

-improved communication networks-railway lines, roads
-construction of Kariba dam and installation of a hydro-electric power station
-expanded the Wankie Coal Mine
-mining of minerals improvement, such as copper.
-Fishing industry in Nyasaland and Zambia.
-agricultural schemes- on the Kafue flats, a project was began to control the wide flood plain
and, wheat and rice were grown there.
-draining of marshlands in the Lower Shire Valley.
-wheat and cotton were also grown in Southern Rhodesia at Sabi Valley
-investment in the sugar and citrus projects of Hippo Valley and Triangle
-constructed dams in Fort Victoria area for irrigation.
-cities and towns were improved
-houses were built; multi-storied blocks of flats and offices were also constructed.
-Art Gallery and Archives were opened in Salisbury
-Also libraries, museums, concert halls were constructed in the Federal Capital, Salisbury.
-establishment of University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
-built new schools.
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-teacher training colleges constructed e.g. in Mutare and Gweru.
-built well-equipped hospitals in Salisbury, Bulawayo Kitwe and Blantyre.
-anti-malaria programmes were introduced to control mosquitoes
-Storey buildings in Rhodesia.
-Set up of African Affairs Board.
-Established industries e.g. David Whitehead.
-Africans were represented in the Federal Government.

AFRICAN POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE LEADERS IN THE

FEDERAL STATES THAT OPPOSED THE FEDERATION
-Nyasaland African Congress- Hastings Banda
-African National Congress- Harry Nkumbula
-United National Independence Party-Kenneth Kaunda
-African National Congress-Joshua Nkomo
-National Democratic Party-Michael Mawema
-Zimbabwe African People‟s Party-Joshua Nkomo

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE AFRICANS IN THE TERRITORIES TO OPPOSE THE

FEDERATION
-Formation of political parties i.e. NDP, UNIP
-Africans refused to approve the idea of federation
-Agitated for political independence
-Trade unions staged strikes to show dislike for the federation.
-Formed Anti-Federation Committee- used publications to write against federation.
-Delegations sent to Britain to oppose federation e.g. Banda, Nkomo
-Petitions against federation signed
-In Malawi a campaign which was characterised by violence was staged.
RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM
AFRICAN POLITICAL PARTIES WHICH WERE INVOLVED IN ORGANISING
MASS NATIONALIST ACTIVITIES BEFORE 1965 IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA
-The City Youth League , The African National Congress, The Nastional Democratic Party, The
Zimbabwe African People's Union, the Zimbabwe African National Union, The People's
Caretaker Council
MEASURES TAKEN BY THE SOUTHERN RHODESIAN GOVERNMENT TO
SUPRESS THE ACTIVITIES OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL PARTIES BETWEEN
1955 AND 1965
-Used laws such as LOMA, Unlawful Organisations Act.
-Did not allow rallies and gatherings.
-Used police and other security agents.
-Banned political parties.
-Arrested leaders and jailed them.
-Controlled the movements of Africans e.g. prevented them from going outside the country.
-Did not allow media coverage of the activities of African political parties.
-Used media to denounce African nationalist leaders.

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-Used divide and rule tactics - supported some African chiefs.
-Banned the African Nationalist paper, the Daily News.
-Leaders were restricted and detained.
ARMED STRUGGLE
ZIPRA COMMANDERS WHO WERE INVOLVED IN THE ARMED STRUGGLE IN
RHODESIA
Alfred Mangena; Dumiso Dabengwa; Lookout Masuku;George Silundika ;Jaison Ziyapapa
Moyo; Joshua Nkomo; E. Ndlovu

ZANLA COMMANDERS WHO WERE INVOLVED IN THE ARMED STRUGGLE IN

RHODESIA
– Josiah Tongogara ;Oppah Muchinguri; Joyce Teurayi Ropa Mujuru; Solomon Rex
Nhongo;Emmerson Mnangagwa; Kumbirai Kangai; Josiah Tungamirirai ;Felix Sandana; Enerst
Kadungurure; Robson Manyika; Victor Malianga; R.G. Mugabe
;W. Ndangana; Noel Mukono; Washington Malianga

AIMS OF THE FREEDOM FIGHTERS

-To bring about one – man –one – vote.
-To have equal distribution of land.
-To have equal job opportunities.
-To have equal access to education, health and other social services.
-To remove oppressive laws.
-To do away with all forms of racism.
-To improve the standard of living of Africans.
-To create an egalitarian society.
STRATEGIES WHICH WERE USED BY FREEDOM FIGHTERS TO WIN THE
SUPPORT OF THE MASSES
-All night meetings: Talks (political education), singing and dances.
-Sabotage of infrastructure .
-Radio messages from radio stations in Mozambique.
-Plundering of white owned farms.
-Killing of sell outs.
-Distribution of pamphlets.
-People‟s voice magazine from Mozambique
-Individual and mass mobilisation.
-Use of spies (chimbwidos and mujibhas).
METHODS USED BY THE RHODESIAN FORCES TO STOP FREEDOM FIGHTERS
GETTING ASSISTANCE FROM THE MASSES DURING THE WAR.
-They put Africans in protected villages.
-They put into effect curfews.
-They arrested villagers.
-Mounted road blocks.
-Security forces made patrols.
-Sellouts were used to intimidate the masses.
-Villages suspected of aiding freedom fighters were burnt and villagers harassed ( collective

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punishment).
-Local people were used as spies( sellouts).
-Communication system were controlled e.g. letters were opened.
-They put into effect chemical warfare whereby they poisoned food, water sources and clothing.
-Rewards were given to those who provided information about the whereabouts of freedom
fighters.
-Propaganda material was dropped in many areas.
-People were tortured.
-They displayed mutilated bodies.
-Women were sexual abused.
-Landmines were used.

ACTIVITIES OF THE FREEDOM FIGHTERS BETWEEN 1965 AND 1971

ZANU formed its military wing called ZANLA and ZAPU its own military wing called ZIPRA.
-ZANU and ZAPU send cadres for training. ZANU sent its cadres to Ghana, China, Libya and
other countries.ZAPU sent its cadres to the Soviet Union, Cuba and other friendly socialist
countries.
-On the 28th of April 1966, ZANU freedom fighters fought at the Chinhoyi battle.
-In May 1966 a group of ZANLA forces was sent to Zhombe Trust Lands where they intended to
liberate the ZANU leadership at Sikombela but they failed.
-ZAPU cadres fought at the Hwange battles together with the ANC of South Africa.
-Failure of the conventional warfare resulted in the freedom fighters restrategising and adopting
the guerilla warfare.
-Freedom fighters started to secretly bring weapons into the country and hid them.
-They carried out political mass education in order to mobilise so that they would be given
support like food.
- Chimbwidos and mujibhas were recruited as intelligence network.
-Herbert Chitepo, J.Z. Moyo, Nikita Mangena and Josiah Tongogara were behind the brains of
new training after 1969.
-ZANLA leaders like Mayor Urimbo, Josiah Tongogara, Justin Chauke and Cornelius Mpofu
joined the cibvil war in Mozambique supporting FRELIMO.This gave them the necessary
exprience of organising a war.
THE SECOND PHASE OF CHIMURENGA 11 (1972 -79)_
-In December 1972, the first organised guerilla attack was launched Altena Farm in Centenary
under the command of Rex Nhongo.
-From then onwards guerilla attacks become daily occurrences.
-UANC was formed under the leadership of Abel Muzorewa. The ZLC was formed as its
military wing. This party is accussed to have been formed by Ian Smith to divide Africans.
However ZANU and ZAPU denounced it strongly and had little support.
-However serious divisions began to emerge in ZANU. Sithole was heavily criticised for being
moderate and sympathising with whites. As such he was replaced by Mugabe as a leader of
ZANU.
-Also in ZANU War Council sharp divisions began to appear. Thomas Nhari and Dakarai Badza
rebelled and even attempted to kill Tongogara, the ZANLA commander. However they were
captured and executed.

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-On March 8, 1975, Herbert Chitepo was assassinated by a bomb which was placed under his car
seat.
-This resulted in arrest and detention of ZANLA cadres who were accussed by the Zambian
government of killing Chitepo based on division between the Manyikas and Karangas.
-After the death of Chitepo, Mugabe provided the leadership to ZANU.
- By the beginning of 1976, Mugabe was accepted as the spokesperson of the ZANLA forces and
he started to reorganise the freedom fighters for the final phase of the struggle.
-Mugabe was aided by the release of the ZANLA High Command from the Zambian prison
during the abortive Geneva Conference.
-ZAPU and ZANU started the process of collaboration. ZIPRA and ZANLA formed a shortlived
military alliancre, the ZIPA.
-Robert Mugabe and Jason Moyo were instrumental in the formation of the Patriotic Front.
-From 1976 onwards the forces of ZAPU and ZANU recorded many successes against the
Rhodesian regime.
-The whites felt the heat.
-Freedom fighters started to attack and set petrol stations in Salisbury ablaze.
-Aircrafts were short down.
-White farmers were attacked.
-Whites started to migrate.

EVENTS BETWEEN THE SIGNING OF THE LANCASTER HOUSE CONFERENCE

AND 18 APRIL 1980
-A ceasefire was organised. Guerillas moved to assembly points.
-Rhodesia forces were confined to barracks.
-Some forces on both sides remained outside.
-Assembly points were monitored by the Commonwealth military observers.
-African leaders i.e Mugabe and Nkomo returned.
-Tongogara died in a car accident.
- ZANLA and ZIPRA commanders arrived as advance party.
-Lord Soames become governor and dissolved the Zimbabwe - Rhodesia government.
-There was an assassination attempt on Mugabe.
-Rallies were held.
-ZANU PF and PF-ZAPU contested seperately.
-Elections were held: ZANU PF 57, PF ZAPU 20, UANC 3, RF 20 , ZANU (Mwenje) 1 seat.
-Peter Walls attempted a coup.
-Mugabe was appointed Prime Minister.
-The Union Jack was lowered on April 17 and the Zimbabwe flag was hoisted.

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