STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS Utilization of Excavated Materials

(1) All suitable material removed from the excavation shall be used in the
DPWH Standard Specifications for Public Works and Highways, Bridges, and formation of the embankment, subgrade, shoulder, slopes, beddings,
Airports and backfills for structures, and for other purposes shown on the plans
or as directed
Item 100. Clearing and Grubbing (2) The engineer will designate as unsuitable those soils that cannot be
- Clearing, grubbing, removing, and disposing of all vegetation and properly compacted in embankments. All unsuitable material shall be
debris as designated in the contract, except those objects that are disposed of off as shown on the plans or as directed without delay to
designated to remain in place or are to be removed in consonance with the contractor
other provisions of this specifications (3) Only approved materials shall be used in the construction of
- The work shall also include the preservation from injury or defacement embankments and backfills
of all objects designated to remain (4) All excess material, including rock and boulders that cannot be used in
- All surface of objects and all trees, stumps, roots, and other protruding embankments shall be disposed of as directed
obstructions, not designated to remain, shall be cleared and/or (5) Material encountered in the excavation and determined by the
grubbed, including mowing as required engineer as suitable for topping, road finishing, slope protection, or
other purposes shall be conserved and utilized as directed by the
Method of Measurement engineer
1. Area basis – the work to be paid for shall be the number of hectares
and fractions acceptably cleared and grubbed within the limits Item 103. Structure Excavation
indicated on the plans or as may be adjusted in the field staking by the - Necessary excavation for the foundation of bridges, culverts,
engineer | areas, not within the clearing and grubbing will not be underdrains, and other structures not otherwise provided for in the
measured for payment specifications, except as otherwise provided for pipe culverts, the
2. Lump-Sum basis – when the bill of quantities contains a clearing and backfilling of completed structures, and the disposal of all excavated
grubbing lump-sum item, no measurement of the area will be made for surplus materials, shall be in accordance with these specifications and
such an item in reasonably close conformity with the plans or as established by the
3. Individual Unit basis (selective clearing) – the diameter of trees will be engineer
measured at a height of 1.4 m (54 inches) above the ground | trees - Necessary diverting of live streams, bailing, pumping, draining,
less than 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter will not be measured for sheeting, bracing, and the necessary construction of cribs and
payment cofferdams, and furnishing the materials, therefore, and the
subsequent removal of cribs and cofferdams and the placing of all
When a bill of quantities indicates the measurement of trees on an individual unit necessary backfill
basis, the units will be designated and measured in accordance with the following - Furnishing and placing of approved foundation fill material to replace
schedule of sizes unsuitable material encountered below the foundation elevation of
Diameter at height of 1.14 m Pay Item Designation structures
Over 150 mm to 900 mm Small - No allowance will be made for the classification of different types of
Over 900 mm Large material encountered

Payment will be made under Utilization of Excavated Materials – all excavated materials, so far as suitable,
Pay Item Number Description Unit of Measurement shall be utilized as backfill or embankment | surplus materials shall be disposed of
100 (1) Clearing and Grubbing Hectare in such a manner as not to obstruct the stream or otherwise impair the efficiency
100 (2) Clearing and Grubbing Lump Sum or appearance of the structure | no excavated materials shall be deposited at any
Individual Removal of time so as to endanger the partly finished structure
100 (3) Each
Trees, Small
Individual removal of Item 104. Embankment
100 (4) Each
Trees, Large Unsuitable Material – material other than suitable materials such as:
(1) Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic materials, such
Item 101. Removal of Structures and Obstructions as grass, roots, and sewerage
- Removal wholly or in part, and satisfactory disposal of all buildings, (2) Organic souls such as peat and muck
fences, structures, old pavements, abandoned pipelines, and any other (3) Soils with a liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or plasticity index exceeding
obstructions which are not designated or permitted to remain, except 55
for the obstructions to be removed and disposed of under other items (4) Soils with a natural water content exceeding 100%
in the contract (5) Soils with very low natural density, 800 kg/m3 or lower
- It shall also include the salvaging of designated materials and (6) Soils that cannot be properly compacted as determined by the
backfilling the resulting trenches, holes, and pits engineer

Removal of existing bridges, culverts, and other drainage structures Item 105. Subgrade Preparation
- All existing bridges, culverts, and other drainage structures in use by - Preparation of the subgrade for the support of overlying structural
traffic shall not be removed until satisfactory arrangements have been layers
made to accommodate traffic - It shall extend to the full width of the roadway unless authorized by the
- The removal of existing culverts within embankment areas will be engineer subgrade preparation shall be done unless the contractor is
required only as necessary for the installation of new structures able to start immediately the construction of the pavement structure
- Abandoned culverts shall be broken down, crushed and sealed or
plugged Material Requirements – unless otherwise stated in the contract and except when
the subgrade is in rock-cut, all materials below subgrade level to a depth of 150
Removal of Existing Pavement, Sidewalks, Curbs, etc. mm or to such greater depth as may be specified shall meet the requirements of
All concrete pavement, base course, sidewalks, curbs, gutters, etc., are section 104 material requirements
designated for removal, and shall be:
(1) Broken into pieces and used for riprap on the project
(2) Broken into pieces, the size of which shall not exceed 300 mm (12
inches) in any dimension, and stockpiled at designated locations on
the project for use by the government
(3) Otherwise demolished and disposed of as directed by the engineer.
When specified, ballast, gravel, bituminous materials, or other
surfacing pavement materials shall be removed and stockpiled as
required in subsection 101.2, otherwise, such materials shall be
disposed of as directed

Item 102. Excavation

- Consists of roadway and drainage and borrow excavation and the
disposal of material in accordance with this specification and in
conformity with the lines, grades, and dimensions shown on the plans
or established by the engineer
Item 106. Compaction Equipment and Density Control Strips
Roadway Excavation – includes excavation and grading for roadways, parking - When specified, this procedure will be used to determine density
areas, intersections, approaches, slope rounding, benching, waterways, and requirements of selected embankments, subgrade, bases, and
ditches; removal of unsuitable material from the roadbed and beneath bituminous concrete
embankment areas; and excavating selected material found in the roadway as - Control strip construction to establish target densities for the specified
ordered by the engineer for specific use in the improvement course plus use of a sand-cone method of density testing equipment
1. Unclassified excavation – excavation and disposal of all materials to determine in-place densities obtained during the construction
regardless of their nature, not classified and included in the bill of
quantities under other pay items Compaction Equipment – capable of obtaining compaction requirements without
2. Rock excavation – igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock that detrimentally affecting the compacted material | equipment shall be modern,
cannot be excavated without blasting or the use of rippers and all efficient compacting unit approved by the engineer | the compacting may be of any
boulders or other detached stones each having a volume of 1 cubic type, provided they are capable of compacting each lift of material as specified and
meter or more as determined by physical measurements or visually by meet the minimum requirements as contained herein:
the engineer (1) Sheepsfoot, tamping or grid rollers shall be capable of exerting a force
3. Common excavation – all excavation not included in the bill of of 45 Newton per millimeter (250 pounds per inch) of the length of the
quantities under rock excavation or other pay items roller drum
4. Muck excavation – removal and disposal of deposits of saturated or (2) Steel-wheel rollers other than vibratory shall be capable of exerting a
unsaturated mixtures of soils and organic matter not suitable for force of not less than 45 Newton per millimeter of the width of the
foundation material regardless of moisture content compression roll or rolls
(3) Vibratory steel-wheel rollers shall have a minimum mass of 6 tonnes.
The compactor shall be equipped with amplitude and frequency
controls and specifically designed to compact the material on which it
is used

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING | Midterms

 b. For a source previously tested and
(4) Pneumatic-tire rollers shall have smooth tread tires of equal size that passed
will provide a uniform compacting pressure for the full width of the roller Quality Test:
and capable of exerting a ground pressure of at least 550 kpa (80 1-Q, Quality Test for: Grading, Elutriation
pounds per square inch) (Wash), Bulk Specific Gravity, Absorption
(5) Heavier compacting unit may be required to achieve the specified Mortar
density of the embankment Strength.
For every 75 cu.m. or fraction thereof 1-G,
Grading Test
Item 107. Overhaul
- Authorized hauling in excess of the free-haul distance C. Course Aggregate
- Free-haul distance: a specified distance that excavated material shall Quantity:
be hauled without additional compensation unless otherwise provided 1. 0.77 cu.m/cu.m concrete (if rounded
in the contract, the free-haul distance shall be 600 meters coarse
aggregate is used)
Items Of Work Minimum Test Requirements 2. 0.68 cu.m/cu.m concrete (if angular
Item 100. coarse
None aggregate is used)
Cleaning and Grubbing
Item 101. Removal of Tests: For every 1500 cu.m or fraction Thereof
Structures and None a. For a source previously tested and
Obstructions passed quality tests:
Same tests as for items 103, 104, and 105 1-Q, Quality Test for: Grading, Bulk
Item 102. Excavation Specific Gravity, Absorption and Abrasion
whichever is applicable
Item 103. Structure For every 75 cu. m or fraction thereof:
If excavated materials are incorporated into the 1-G Grading Test
Excavation
work:
If excavated materials are
For every 1500 cubic meter or fraction thereof: D. Water
wasted, the volume
1-G Grading Test Tests: 1-Certificate from Project Engineer or 1-
involved shall be reported
1-P Plasticity Test (LL, PL, PI) Q, Quality Test, if source is questionable
so that quality control
1-C Laboratory Compaction Test
requirements may be
adjusted accordingly E. Filler
For every 150 mm layer in uncompacted depth 1. Poured Joint Filler
Submit Project Engineer
1-D Field Density 1-Q, Quality Test on each type of ingredient for
Certificate of Waste
For every 1500 cubic meter or fraction thereof: each shipment
2. Premolded Joint Filler
1-G Grading Test
1-Q, Quality Test on each thickness of filler for
1-P Plasticity Test (LL, PL, PI) each shipment
1-C Laboratory Compaction Test
Item 104. F. Special Curing Agents
For every 500 square meters of each layer of 1-Q, Quality Test for each shipment
Embankment
compacted fill or fraction thereof at least one
group of three in situations density tests. The G. Steel Bars
layers shall be placed not exceeding 200 mm in For every 10,000 kg. or fraction thereof for each
loose measurement or based on the result of size
compaction trials 1-Q, Quality Test for Bending, Tension and
Item 105. Sub-grade Chemical Analysis
Same tests as for item 104
Preparation
Item 106. Compaction H. Concrete
Same tests as for items 104, 105, 200, 201, Flexural Strength Test on Concrete Beam
Equipment and Density
202, 203, 204, 205, 206, and 300 Sample
Control Strips
1-set consisting of 3 beam samples shall
Item 107. Overhaul None
represent a 330 sq. m of pavement, 230 mm
For every 300 cubic meter or fraction thereof:
depth or fraction thereof placed each day.
1-G Grading Test Volume of concrete not more than 75 cu.m.
1-P Plasticity Test (LL, PL, PI)
I. Completed Pavement
For every 1,500 cubic meter or fraction thereof: Thickness determination by concrete core
1-C Laboratory Compaction Test drilling on a lot basis
Item 200. Aggregate Five (5) holes per km per lane or five (5) holes
Subbase Course For every 2,500 cubic meter or fraction thereof: per 500 m when 2 lanes are poured
1-CBR California Bearing Ratio Test concurrently.

For every 150 mm of compacted depth/based

on the results of compaction trials
At least one group of three in-situ density tests
for each 500 square meter or fraction thereof
For every 300 cubic meter or fraction thereof:
1-G Grading Test
1-P Plasticity Test (LL, PL, PI)

For every 1,500 cubic meter or fraction thereof:

Item 201. Aggregate 1-Q Quality Test (Grading, Plasticity, Abrasion)
Base Course 1-C Laboratory Compaction Test

For every 150 mm of compacted depth/based

on the results of compaction trials Item 200. Aggregate Subbase Course
At least one group of three in-situ density tests - Furnishing, placing, and compacting an aggregate subbase course on
for each 500 square meter or fraction thereof a prepared subgrade in accordance with this specification and the
For every 300 cubic meter or fraction thereof: lines, grades, and cross-sections shown on the plans or as directed by
1-G Grading Test the engineer
1-P Plasticity Test (LL, PL, PI)
Material Requirements
For every 1,500 cubic meter or fraction thereof: - Hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or
1-C Laboratory Compaction Test (Grading, crushed or natural gravel and filler of natural or crushed sand or other
Plasticity, Abrasion)
finely divided mineral matter
Item 300. Aggregate
- Composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or
Surface Course For every 150 mm of compacted depth/based
on the results of compaction trials balls of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted
At least one group of three in-situ density tests readily to form a firm, stable subbase
for each 500 square meter or fraction thereof
Grading Requirements
For crushed gravel or crushed stone, 1,500 Sieve Designation
cubic meter or fraction thereof: Standard, mm Alternate US Standard Mass Percent Passing
1-F Fractured Face 50 2” 100
A. Cement 25 1” 55 – 85
Quality: 9.00 bags cu.m. (40Kg/bag) 9.5 3/8” 40 – 75
Tests: For every 2000 bags or fraction thereof 0.075 No. 200 0 – 12
1-Q, Quality Test
Spreading & Compacting
B. Fine Aggregate
- When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the planned
Quantity: 1 0.05 cu.m./cu.m. concrete (if
thickness for compaction
rounded
Item 311. Portland coarse aggregate is used) - When the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be
Cement Concrete 2. 0.54 cu.m./cu.m. concrete (if angular coarse spread and compacted in one layer
Pavement aggregate is used) - Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate
Tests: For every 1500 cu.m. or fraction thereof: subbase shall be spread and compacted in two or more layers of
a. For a coarse not yet tested, or failed approximately equal thickness
in previous quality test: - Maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm
1-Q, Quality Test For: Grading, Elutriation - All subsequent layers shall be spread and compacted in a similar
(Wash), Bulk Specific Gravity, Absorption manner
Mortar
Strength, Soundness, Organic Impurities, Unit
Weight, % Clay Lumps and Shale.

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING | Midterms

Method of Measurement – measured by the cubic meter (m3) | quantity to be paid Material Requirements
for shall be the design volume compacted in place as shown on the plans, and - Shall conform to the applicable requirements of hydraulic cement
accepted in the completed course | no allowance will be given for materials placed - Only Type I Portland Cement shall be used unless otherwise provided
outside the design limits shown on the cross-sections | trial sections shall not be for in the special provisions
measured separately but shall be included in the quantity of subbase herein - Different brands or the same brands from different mills shall not be
measured mixed nor shall they be used alternately unless the mix is approved by
Item 201. Aggregate Base Course the engineer, however, the use of portland pozzolan cement type
- Furnishing, placing and compacting an aggregate base course on a Fine Aggregate – natural sand, stone screenings, or other inert materials with
prepared subgrade/subbase in accordance with this specification and similar characteristics, or combinations, thereof, having hard, strong and durable
the lines, grades, thickness, and typical cross-sections shown on the particles | shall not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor used alternately in the
plans or as directed by the engineer same class of concrete without the approval of the engineer

Material Requirements Grading Requirements

- Hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or Sieve Designation
crushed or natural gravel and filler of natural or crushed sand or other Standard, mm Alternate US Standard Mass Percent Passing
finely divided mineral matter 9.5 3/8” 100
- Composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or 4.75 No. 4 95 – 100
balls of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted 2.36 No.8 -
readily to form a firm, stable subbase 1.18 No. 16 45 – 80
0.600 No. 30 -
Grading Requirements 0.300 No. 50 5 – 30
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing 0.150 No. 100 0 – 10
Standard, mm Alternate US Standard Grading A Grading B
50 2” 100 - Course Aggregate – crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace slag, or other approved
37.5 1 – ½” - 100 inert materials of similar characteristics, or combinations thereof, having hard,
25.0 1” 60 – 85 - strong, durable pieces and free from any adherent coatings | not more than one
19.0 ¾” - 60 – 85 (1) mass percent of material passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, not more than
12.5 ½” 35 – 65 - 0.25 mass percent of clay lumps, nor more than 3.5 mass percent of soft fragments
4.75 No. 4 20 – 50 30 – 55
0.425 No. 40 5 – 20 8 – 25 Water – mixing, curing or other designated application shall be reasonably clean
0.075 No. 200 0 – 12 2 – 14 and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, grass, or other substances injurious to the finished
product | will be tested in accordance with and shall meet the requirements of the
Spreading & Compacting item 714 | potable water may be used without test | water is shallow, the intake
- When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the planned shall be so enclosed as to exclude silt, mud, grass, or other foreign materials
thickness for compaction
- When the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be Reinforcing steel – conform to the requirements of item 404, reinforcing steel |
spread and compacted in one layer dowels and tie bars shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 31 or M 42,
- Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate except that rail steel, shall not be used for tie bars that are to be bent and restrained
subbase shall be spread and compacted in two or more layers of during construction | tie bars shall be deformed bars | dowels shall be plain round
approximately equal thickness bars, before delivery to the site of work, one-half of the length of each dowel shall
- Maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm be painted with one coat of approved lead or tar paint | sleeves for dowel bars shall
- All subsequent layers shall be spread and compacted in a similar be metal of approved design to cover 50 mm (2 inches), plus or minus 5 mm (1/4
manner inch) of the dowel, with a closed-end, and with a suitable stop to hold the end of
the sleeve at least 25 mm (1 inch) from the end of the dowel | sleeves shall be of
Item 202. Crushed Aggregate Base Course such design that they do not collapse during construction
- Furnishing, placing and compacting crushed gravel, crushed stone, or
crushed rock on a prepared subgrade/subbase in one or more layers
in accordance with this specification and the lines, grades, thickness,
and typical cross-sections shown on the plans or as directed by the
engineer

Material Requirements
- Hard, durable particles or fragments of stone, or gravel crushed to the
size and the quality requirements of this item
- Composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or
balls of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted
readily to form a firm, stable base

Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing
Standard, mm Alternate US Standard Grading A Grading B
37.5 1 – ½” 100 -
25.0 1” - 100
19.0 ¾” 60 – 85 -
12.5 ½” - 60 – 90
4.75 No. 4 30 – 55 35 – 65
0.425 No. 40 8 – 25 10 – 30
0.075 No. 200 2 – 14 5 – 15
Rebar Size Linear Weight Diameter Lateral Area
Item 300. Aggregate Surface Course
U.S SI lb/ft kg/m in mm in2 mm2
- Wearing or top course composed of gravel or crushed aggregate and
3 #10 0.38 0.56 0.38 9.53 0.11 71.00
binder material, whichever is called for in the bill of quantities,
4 #13 0.67 1.00 0.50 12.70 0.20 129.00
constructed on a prepared base in accordance with this specification
5 #16 1.04 1.56 0.63 15.88 0.31 200.00
and in conformity with the lines, grades, and typical cross-sections
6 #19 1.50 2.24 0.75 19.05 0.44 284.00
shown on the plans
7 #22 2.04 3.05 0.88 22.23 0.60 387.00
8 #25 2.67 3.98 1.00 25.40 0.79 509.00
Placing & Compacting 9 #29 3.40 5.07 1.13 28.65 1.00 645.00
- When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the planned 10 #32 4.30 6.42 1.27 32.26 1.27 819.00
thickness for compaction 11 #36 5.31 7.92 1.41 35.81 1.56 1006.00
- When the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be 12 #38 5.99 8.93 1.50 38.10 1.77 1140.09
spread and compacted in one layer 14 #43 7.65 11.41 1.69 43.00 2.25 1452.00
- Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate 16 #50 10.65 15.88 2.00 50.80 3.14 2026.83
subbase shall be spread and compacted in two or more layers of 18 #57 13.60 20.28 2.26 57.33 4.00 2581.00
approximately equal thickness 20 #64 16.63 24.82 2.50 63.50 4.91 3166.92
- Maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm
- All subsequent layers shall be spread and compacted in a similar Admixtures – air-entraining admixture shall conform to the requirements AASHTO
manner M-154 | chemical admixtures, if specified or permitted, shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M-194 | fly ash, if specified or permitted as a mineral
Grading Requirements admixture and as 20% partial replacement of portland cement in concrete mix shall
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing conform to the requirements of ASTM C-618 | admixtures should be added only to
Alternate the concrete mix to produce some desired modifications to the properties of
Standard, Grading Grading Grading Grading
US concrete where necessary, but not as partial replacement of cement
mm A B C D
Standard
25 1” 100 100 100 100
Curing Materials Requirements
9.5 3/8” 50 – 85 60 – 100 - -
Burlap Cloth AASHTO M-182
4.75 No. 4 35 – 65 50 – 85 55 – 100 70 – 100
Liquid Membrane Forming
2.00 No. 10 25 – 50 40 – 70 40 – 100 55 – 100 Compounds
AASHTO M-148
0.425 No. 40 15 – 30 25 – 45 20 – 50 30 – 70 Sheeting (film) materials AASHTO M-171
0.075 No. 200 5 – 20 5 – 20 6 – 20 8 – 25 Cotton mats and water-proof paper can be used

Item 311. Portland Cement Concrete Pavement

- Pavement of Portland Cement Concrete, with or without reinforcement,
constructed on the prepared base in accordance with this specification
and in conformity with lines, grades, thickness, and typical cross-
section shown on the plans

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING | Midterms

Proportioning, Consistency, and Strength of Concrete Curing
- The contractor shall prepare the design mix based on the absolute - Immediately after the finishing operations have been completed and
volume method as outlined in the American Concrete Institute (ACI) the concrete has sufficiently set, the entire surface of the newly placed
Standard 211.1, recommended practice for selecting proportions for concrete shall be cured in accordance with either one of the methods
normal and heavyweight concrete described herein
- Intent of this specification is to require at least 364 kg of cement per - Failure to provide sufficient cover material of whatever kind the
cubic meter of concrete to meet the minimum strength requirements contractor may elect to use, or the lack of water to adequately take
- Engineer shall determine from laboratory tests of the materials to be care of both curing and other requirements, shall be a cause for
used, the cement content and the proportions of aggregate and water immediate suspension of concreting operations
that will produce workable concrete having a slump of between 40 and - The concrete shall not be left exposed for than ½ hour between stages
75 mm (1-1/2 and 3 inches) if not vibrated or between 10 and 40 mm of curing or during the curing period
(1/2 and 1-1/2 inches) if vibrated, and flexural strength of not less than
3.8 MPa (550 psi) when tested by the third-point method or 4.5 MPa Acceptance of Concrete
(650 psi) when tested by the mid-point method at fourteen (14) days in - Strength level of the concrete will be considered satisfactory if the
accordance with AASHTO T97 and T177, respectively, or compressive averages of all sets of (3) consecutive strength test results equal or
strength of 24.1 MPa (3500 psi) for cores taken at fourteen (14) days exceed the specified strength, fc and no individual strength test result
and tested in accordance with AASHTO T24. is deficient by more than 15% of the specified strength fc
- Concrete deemed to be not acceptable using the above criteria may
Course Fine be rejected unless the contractor can provide evidence, by means of
Free Water Free Water Cement
Aggregate Aggregate core tests, that the quality of concrete represented by failed test results
Cement Content Content
Content Content is acceptable in place
Ratio (liter/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) - At least (3) representative cores shall be taken from each member or
0.59 182.63 310.00 1124.92 758.56 area of concrete in place that is considered deficient
0.54 183.02 338.18 1129.29 730.02 - Location of cores shall be determined by the engineer so that there will
0.49 183.40 372.00 1130.58 700.90 be at least impairment of the strength of the structure
0.45 183.78 413.13 1127.03 669.50 - Obtaining and testing of drilled cores shall be in accordance with
0.39 183.85 465.00 1099.96 671.09 AASHTO 24
0.82 165.13 200.00 1143.00 862.00 - Concrete in the area represented by the cores will be considered
0.73 166.32 226.67 1187.00 809.69 adequate if the average strength of the cores is equal to at least 85%
of, and if no single core is less than 75% of the specified strength, fc
Quality Control Testing
- The contractor shall perform all sampling, testing, and inspection Deficiency in Strength of Concrete Percent (%) of Contract Price
necessary to assure quality control of the component materials and the Specimens, Percent (1%) Allowed
concrete Less than 5 100
- Responsible for determining the gradation of fine and coarse 5 to less than 10 80
aggregates and for testing the concrete mixture for a slump, air 10 to less than 15 70
content, water-cement ratio, and temperature. 15 to less than 25 60
- Conduct his operations so as to produce a mixture conforming to the 20 to less than 25 50
approved mix design 25 or more 0

Equipment – tools necessary for handling materials and performing all parts of the Pavement Thickness – the intent of this specification is that the pavement has a
work shall be approved by the engineer as to design, capacity, and mechanical uniform thickness as called for on the plans for the average of each lot as defined
condition | shall be at the job site sufficiently ahead of the start of construction | after the pavement has met all surface smoothness requirements, cores for
operations to be examined thoroughly and approved thickness measurements will be taken
(1) Batching Plant and Equipment
- Shall include bins, weighing hoppers, and scales for fine aggregate and FAILURES, MAINTENANCE, AND REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION
for each size of coarse aggregate INFRASTRUCTURE
- If cement is used in bulk, a bin, a hopper, and a separate scale for
cement shall be included Highway Maintenance – begins just after the construction, reconstruction, or
- Weighing hopper shall be properly sealed and vented to preclude rehabilitation of the roadway facilities | maintenance: preservation and keeping of
dusting operation each type of roadway, roadside, structures, and facilities as nearly as possible in
- Batch plant shall be equipped with a suitable non-resettable batch its original condition as constructed or as subsequently improved the operation of
counter which will correctly indicate the number of batches highway facilities and services to provide satisfactory and safe transportation
proportioned
Objectives of Highway Maintenance
Forms (1) Highway programs and activities are measured by the number of
- Shall be of steel, of an approved section, and of depth equal to the expenditures for the construction of new facilities and reconstruction of
thickness of the pavement at the edge the existing structure with the aim of keeping up with traffic demand
- Base of the forms shall be of sufficient width to provide necessary (2) Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local, rural, and
stability in all directions urban facilities particularly the paving and rehabilitation after the
- Flange braces must extend outward on the base to not less than 2/3 construction has been completed
the height of the form (3) Maintenance is focused on the do betterment projects | it includes
- All forms shall be rigidly supported on a bed of thoroughly compacted grading and paving for short alignment changes, correct steep grades
material during the entire operation of placing and finishing the or sharp curves, re-surfacing and mulching, planting, flood, and erosion
concrete control
- Shall be provided with adequate devices for secure setting so that
when in place, they will withstand, without visible spring or settlement, Relationship between Design, Construction, and Maintenance
the impact and vibration of the consolidation and finishing or paving (1) Poor preparation of the base, insufficient slab thickness, and poor
equipment mixture ratio will only result in very expensive road repair | indeed,
- Unless waterproof subgrade or base course cover material is specified, management absorbed the end result of design and construction
the subgrade or base course shall be uniformly moist when the inefficiency
concrete is placed | if it subsequently becomes too dry, the subgrade (2) Poor drainage design will mean erosion or deposition of materials than
or base course shall be sprinkled, but the method of sprinkling shall not requires costly clean-up operations
be such as to form mud or pools of water (3) Sharp ditches and steep slopes require costly manual labor
- Mixed concrete from the central mixing plant shall be transported in maintenance as compared to flat ditches and slopes that allow
truck mixers, truck agitators, or non-agitating trucks specified equipment to work at a lower cost
- The time elapsed from the time water is added to the mix until the (4) Narrow road lanes usually forced large and heavy vehicles to travel
concrete is deposited in place at the site shall not exceed forty-five (45) with one set of wheels near the edge or off the pavement, giving the
minutes when the concrete is hauled in non-agitating trucks, not ninety maintenance personnel serious problems in the care of pavement
(90) minutes when hauled in truck mixers or truck agitators, except that edges and the shoulder
in hot weather or under other conditions contributing to quick hardening
of the concrete, the maximum allowable time may be reduced by the Maintenance is categorized into
engineer (1) Road Surface Maintenance
- Concrete in place within (90) minutes from the time the ingredients - Unlike construction involving a high volume of work, maintenance
were charged into the mixing drum or that has developed initial set operation, deals with a small amount of work at separate locations |
shall not be used and requires speed performance to cause the least possible disruption
- Retempering of concrete or mortar which has partially hardened, that and danger to traffic
is remixing without additional cement, aggregate, or water, shall not be - Maintenance operations require
permitted • For gravel roads, blading and periodic re-shaping or resurfacing
is a routine periodic maintenance activity
Test Specimens • For the surface treatment of low-type bituminous pavement,
- As work progresses, at least (1) set consisting of (3) concrete beam maintenance could be patching, seal coating, remixing, and
test specimens, 150 mm x 150 mm x 525 mm or 900 mm shall be taken relaying
from each 330 m2 of pavement, 230 mm depth, or fraction thereof • For slick asphalt surface, roughening, burning or non-skid seal is
placed each day required
- Shall be made under the supervision of the engineer, and the • For concrete roads, maintenance could be removal and
contractor shall provide all concrete and other facilities necessary in replacement or filling of damaged areas | sometimes joint sealing
making the test specimens and shall protect them from damage by or mud-jacking or under-sealing is relatively common
construction operations maintenance work
- Cylinder samples shall not be used as a substitute for determining the
adequacy of the strength of concrete

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING | Midterms

 (2) Shoulder and Approach Maintenance Milling – a process of removing a portion of the asphalt pavement layer to provide
- Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway is a level and smooth surface for a new pavement layer
governed by the surface characteristics in the area (2) In place Surface and Base Recycling – the procedure involves
• Sod shoulders (grass-covered surface) should be removed and pulverizing all existing pavement, followed by reshaping and
periodically bladed down to the roadway elevation to avoid compacting | before relaying, the materials are upgraded with lime,
entrapment of water in the traveled way portland cement, or chemicals | this method is used for both asphalt
• Grass prevents shoulder erosion | if necessary, fertilized, re- and portland cement concrete pavement | one advantage of this
seeded, or treated to keep them in good conditions method is the ability to increase the load carrying capacity of the
• Gravel and earth shoulder should be maintained by blading pavement without major changes in the grade
under favorable weather conditions (3) Central Plant Recycling – removal of materials from the roadway,
• Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at once by crushing them, mixing in the plant then laid and compacted with
reconstruction or re-surfacing conventional equipment
(3) Bridge Maintenance
(4) Traffic Services Evaluation and Maintenance of Concrete Pavement
• Stripping is a continuing functions - Maintenance decisions are based on pavement condition data
• Repair of road signs gathered from project to project basis. From these gathered data, it
• Maintenance of street and highway light and signals determined which project calls for maintenance or rehabilitation
including the decisions required to correct pavement deficiencies |
• Coping up with emergencies. Personnel on patrol to the road open,
decisions, however, are made on a yearly basis | considering the
and rescue stranded vehicles
increasing length of the roadways, the management on the basis of
field observations alone is becoming difficult hence
- Objective method of evaluation was introduced:
(1) Those projects that need immediate maintenance or rehabilitations are
listed on the priority projects
(2) The type and kind of maintenance or rehabilitation required is specified
(3) What strategy of maintenance or rehabilitation would be adopted now
and in the future to minimize life cycle costs or maximized the net
benefits

Highway and its Environment

- Early roads were patterned after the railroad of the same period | the
principle behind the construction of the early road is to construct the
cheapest roadway that would serve traffic under all conditions of
weather without regard to its environment
- Roadside development was not included in the program, shoulder and
right way of way are narrow or non-existing at all
- Side slopes were too steep; drainage and ditches, channels, and
structures were designed to protect the roadbed without regard to
erosion outside the roadway limit
- These crude practices in road building have brought unsightly
conditions and high maintenance costs until such time that design
Effective Maintenance Personnel activities are measured under the following
standards were gradually modified and improved
criteria
(1) Personnel who are devoted to the maintenance work are not those who
Highway Beautification
just kill the time and collect their salaries
(1) Landscaping and roadside development within the rights of way
(2) Personnel responsibility for keeping the roadway open to traffic moving
(2) Improvement of strips and land adjacent to the highway for restoration,
under all conditions
preservation, and enhancement of natural
(3) Personnel rescue operation in assisting stranded motorists during bad
(3) Acquisition and development of publicly owned and controlled rest
weather, heavy rain, removal of fallen trees, flood, erosion, etc.
areas, recreation areas, and sanitary areas including other facilities
(4) Maintenance personnel are exposed to accidents, and hazards during
their maintenance or rehabilitation work
Factors that contribute to Beautification
(1) Good location
REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE
(2) Good design
(3) Construction
Pavement Rehabilitation – activity primarily to provide good riding and skid
(4) Maintenance
resistance or to improve the structural effectiveness of the pavement | FHWA
defined rehabilitation as “resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation work, restoring
Environmental Effect of Highways
to the original safe usable condition without addition to the original capacity
The main objections of community complaint on environmental effects of
transportations are as follows:
Primary objectives of pavement rehabilitation are:
(1) Air and noise problems
(1) To improve the smoothness of the road surface
(2) Traffic-induceduced vibration
(2) To extend the pavement life
(3) Accidents
(3) To improve the skid resistance of the road
(4) Annoyance caused by water pollution, dust, and dirt
(4) To construct the sections with poor foundations
(5) To improve the drainage facilities
Air Pollution Control – air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main
concern in most urban areas | air pollution is the result of progress, it comes from
The efficiency of the highway system could be rated by:
discharges into the air of non-reactive pollutants including carbon monoxide, sulfur
(1) Sufficiency ratings
dioxide, sulfates, dust, smoke, and lead
(2) Accident data
(1) Air-wide effects of preliminary reactive pollutants
(3) Skid tests
- Carbon footprint: the total amount of greenhouse gases (including
(4) Maintenance report
carbon dioxide and methane) that are generated by our actions
(5) Public comments and suggestions
(2) High concentration of non-reactive pollutants at points or corridors
along or near highways | motor vehicles are mainly the contributor to
Resurfacing – addition of pavement layer over the existing roadway or bridge deck
both forms of pollutants estimated at 70% carbon dioxide, 50%
surface to provide additional capacity | additional re-surface pavement should not
hydrocarbon, and 30% of nitric oxide | area condition is acceptably
be less than 20 mm in thickness
worst when temperature inversions trap pollutants near the ground
surface when there is little wind or no wind at all | concentration
Restoration and rehabilitation work includes:
becomes extremely high affecting human life and even some
(1) Replacement of defective joints
vegetation are killed, stunted or the foliage is burned
(2) Repair of spalled joints (stone fragments)
(3) Substantial pavement work
(4) Reworking or strengthening of sub-base
(5) Recycling existing materials to improve their structural integrity
(6) Adding underdrains
(7) Improving shoulders
(8) Removing and replacing deteriorated materials

Pavement Maintenance – actions that are corrective or preventive

Reconstruction – removal of existing pavement and replacing them with new
pavement and under the course
Overlays – could be either Portland cement or asphalt concrete laid on an existing
pavement
Recycling – repeated use of existing materials working on asphalt materials,
Portland cement of lime

Pavement Recycling is categorized into:

(1) Type of materials to be used
(2) Procedure to be employed
(3) Structural benefit to be gained

Recycling Procedures could be as follows:

(1) Surface Recycling – consists of reworking the top surface of asphalt
pavement | applied for the treatment of raveling, wheel truck rutting,
flushing, and corrugations | work includes the use of heater-planer,
heater-scarifier, cold planers, and cold milling | disadvantages of their
use are the presence of noise, heat, and air pollution

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING | Midterms