1.
Introduction to Biology
● Definition: Biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
● Characteristics of Life:
○ Made of cells
○ Reproduce
○ Grow and develop
○ Obtain and use energy
○ Respond to stimuli
○ Maintain homeostasis
○ Evolve over time
2. The Chemistry of Life
2.1 Basic Chemistry
● Atoms: Building blocks of matter (protons, neutrons, electrons).
● Molecules & Compounds: Atoms bonded together (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).
● Chemical Bonds:
○ Covalent Bonds: Shared electrons.
○ Ionic Bonds: Transferred electrons.
○ Hydrogen Bonds: Weak bonds between polar molecules.
2.2 Water and Life
● Properties of Water:
○ Universal solvent
○ High specific heat (resists temperature changes)
○ Cohesion & adhesion (capillary action)
○ Ice is less dense than liquid water (important for aquatic life)
2.3 Macromolecules
● Carbohydrates (CHO): Energy storage, structure (e.g., glucose, starch).
● Proteins (CHON): Enzymes, structure, transport (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes).
● Lipids (CHO): Long-term energy storage, cell membranes (e.g., fats, oils).
● Nucleic Acids (CHONP): Genetic material (DNA, RNA).
3. Cell Structure and Function
3.1 Cell Theory
● All living things are made of cells.
● The cell is the basic unit of life.
● All cells come from pre-existing cells.
3.2 Types of Cells
● Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus, simple (bacteria, archaea).
● Eukaryotic Cells: Nucleus, complex (plants, animals, fungi).
3.3 Cell Organelles
● Nucleus: Contains DNA.
● Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell (ATP production).
● Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (protein transport), Smooth ER (lipid
synthesis).
● Golgi Apparatus: Modifies & packages proteins.
● Lysosomes: Break down waste.
● Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis (plants only).
● Cell Membrane: Selectively permeable (phospholipid bilayer).
4. Cell Transport
● Passive Transport: No energy required.
○ Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.
○ Osmosis: Water movement across a membrane.
○ Facilitated Diffusion: Uses protein channels.
● Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP).
○ Endocytosis: Taking in large molecules.
○ Exocytosis: Expelling materials.
5. Energy and Metabolism
5.1 Photosynthesis
● Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + light →
C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2
● Occurs in: Chloroplasts.
● Light-Dependent Reactions: Convert light energy to ATP & NADPH.
● Calvin Cycle: Uses ATP to make glucose.
5.2 Cellular Respiration
● Equation:
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATPC_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 → 6CO_2 + 6H_2O +
ATPC6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP
● Occurs in: Mitochondria.
● Stages:
○ Glycolysis: Breaks glucose into pyruvate (cytoplasm).
○ Krebs Cycle: Produces electron carriers (mitochondria).
○ Electron Transport Chain (ETC): Produces most ATP.
● Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen.
● Anaerobic Respiration: No oxygen, produces lactic acid (fermentation).
6. DNA & Genetics
6.1 DNA Structure
● Double helix: Discovered by Watson & Crick.
● Nucleotides: Made of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base (A-T, C-G).
6.2 DNA Replication
● Semi-conservative (one old, one new strand).
● Enzymes involved:
○ Helicase: Unzips DNA.
○ DNA Polymerase: Builds new strand.
6.3 Protein Synthesis
● Transcription: DNA → mRNA (nucleus).
● Translation: mRNA → Protein (ribosome).
● tRNA: Brings amino acids.
6.4 Mendelian Genetics
● Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
● Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited separately.
● Genotype: Genetic makeup (AA, Aa, aa).
● Phenotype: Physical appearance.
● Dominant Alleles: Expressed if present.
● Recessive Alleles: Only expressed if both copies are recessive.
● Punnett Squares: Predict inheritance patterns.
7. Evolution & Natural Selection
● Darwin's Theory: Organisms with favorable traits survive & reproduce.
● Evidence for Evolution:
○ Fossils
○ Comparative anatomy (homologous structures)
○ Embryology
○ Molecular biology (DNA similarities)
● Types of Selection:
○ Natural Selection: Environment selects traits.
○ Artificial Selection: Humans breed organisms.
○ Genetic Drift: Random changes in gene frequency.
○ Speciation: Formation of new species.
8. Ecology & Ecosystems
8.1 Levels of Organization
● Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere.
8.2 Energy Flow
● Producers (Autotrophs): Make their own food (plants).
● Consumers (Heterotrophs): Eat other organisms.
○ Primary Consumers: Herbivores.
○ Secondary Consumers: Carnivores/Omnivores.
● Decomposers: Break down dead matter.
● Food Chains & Webs: Show energy transfer.
● Trophic Levels: 10% energy transfer rule (most energy at producer level).
8.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
● Water Cycle: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation.
● Carbon Cycle: Photosynthesis & respiration cycle carbon.
● Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen fixation by bacteria.
9. Human Body Systems
● Circulatory System: Heart, blood, vessels (transports oxygen/nutrients).
● Respiratory System: Lungs, trachea (gas exchange).
● Digestive System: Stomach, intestines (breaks down food).
● Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord (controls body functions).
● Endocrine System: Hormones (regulates growth/metabolism).
● Immune System: Fights disease.
● Skeletal & Muscular Systems: Support and movement.
