COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND

ARCHITECTURE (COA)
EET- 2211

EET 2211
4TH SEMESTER – CSE & CSIT
CHAPTER 1, LECTURE 3
 CHAPTER 1 – BASIC CONCEPTS AND
COMPUTER EVOLUTION
TOPICS TO BE COVERED

Ø The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture

Ø Embedded Systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Ø Present an overview of the evolution of the x86 architecture.
Ø Define embedded systems.
Ø List some of the requirements and constraints that various embedded systems meet.

ALREADY COVERED
Ø Organization and architecture
Ø Structure and Function
Ø A Brief History of Computers.

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 THE EVOLUTION OF THE INTEL x86
ARCHITECTURE
üMicroprocessors have grown faster and more complex.
üIntel used to develop microprocessors every 4 years.

GENERATIO APPROXIM TECHNOLOGY TYPICALSPEE

N ATE DATES D (operations
per second)
1 1946-1957 Vacuum tubes 40,000
2 1957-1964 Transistors 2,00,000
3 1965-1971 Small and medium 10,00,000
scale integration
4 1972-1977 Large scale integration 1,00,00,000

5 1978-1991 Very large scale 10,00,00,000

integration
6 1991- Ultra large scale >10,00,00,000
integration

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 Contd.

Table: Evolution of Intel Microprocessors [Source: Computer

4 LECTURE 2 Organization and Architecture by William Stallings] 6/2/2021
 Contd.

Table: Evolution of Intel Microprocessors [Source:

Computer Organization and Architecture by William
5 LECTURE 2 Stallings] 6/2/2021
 Contd.
MICROPROCESSOR DESCRIPTION
8080 ØThe world’s first general purpose microprocessor.
ØThis was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit data path to memory.
ØIt was used in the first personal computer, ALTAIR.

8086 ØA more powerful 16-bit machine.

ØIt has wider data path, larger registers and an instruction
cache/queue, that prefetches a few instructions before they are
executed.
ØA variant of this processor, the 8088, was used in IBM’s first
personal computer.
ØIt is the first use of x86 architecture.
80286 ØIt is an extension of 8086.
ØIt enabled addressing a 16-MB memory instead of just 1MB.
80386 ØIntel’s first 32-bit machine.
ØThe complexity and power of minicomputers and mainframes
was introduced.
ØIt was the first Intel processor to support multitasking.

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MICROPROCESSOR DESCRIPTION
80486 ØIt introduced the use of sophisticated and powerful
cache technology and instruction pipelining.
ØIt also used a built-in math co-processor helpful in
offloading complex maths operations from the main CPU.
Pentium ØIntel introduced the use of superscalar techniques.
ØIt allows multiple instructions to execute in parallel.
Pentium Pro ØIt followed the superscalar architecture with use of
register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis
and speculative execution.
Pentium II ØIt incorporated Intel MMX technology which is
designed specifically to process video, audio and graphics
data efficiently.

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MICROPROCESSOR DESCRIPTION
Pentium III ØIt incorporates additional floating-point instructions.
ØThe Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) instruction set
extension added 70 new instructions designed to increase
performance.
ØE.g. DSP and GP.

Pentium 4 ØIt includes additional floating-point and other enhancements

for multimedia.

Core ØIt is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with dual core,
referring to the implementation of two cores on a single chip.
Core 2 ØIt extends the Core architecture to 64-bits.
ØThe Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip.
ØAn important addition to the architecture was the Advanced
Vector Extensions instruction set that provided a set of 256-bit
and then 512-bit instructions for efficient processing of vector
data.

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 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
ü It refers to the use of electronics and software within a
product.
ü E.g. cell phones, digital computers, video cameras,
calculators, microwave ovens, home security systems,
washing machines, lighting systems, thermostats, printers,
various automotive systems, toothbrushes and numerous
types of sensors and actuators in automated systems.
ü Generally embedded systems are tightly coupled to their
environments.

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 Contd.

Fig.1: Organization of an Embedded System [Source: Computer

Organization and Architecture by William Stallings]
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ELEMENTS THAT ARE DIFFERENT IN AN EMBEDDED
SYSTEM FROM TYPICAL DESKTOP/ LAPTOP

1. There may be a variety of interfaces that enable the system to

measure, manipulate and interact with the external environment.
2. The human interface can be either very simple or complicated.
3. The diagnostic port may be used for diagnosing the system.
4. Special purpose FPGA and ASIC or non-digital hardware can be
used to increase performance.
5. Software often has a fixed function and specific to the application.
6. They are optimized for energy, code size, execution time, weight,
dimensions and cost in-order to increase the efficiency.

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SIMILARITY BETWEEN EMBEDDED SYSTEMS AND

GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER

1. Even with nominally fixed function software, the ability to

upgrade to fix bugs, to improve security and to add
functionality is very important for both.
2. Both support wide variety of apps.

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INTERNET OF THINGS
ü IoT is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines provided with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the
ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-
to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
ü Dominant theme is embedding short range mobile trans-receivers
into a wide array of gadgets and everyday items, enabling a form
of communication between people and things.
ü E.g. embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control systems,
automation (home and building), smart home (lighting fixtures,
thermostats, home security systems, appliances).
ü It refers to expanding interconnection of smart devices (ranging
form appliances to tiny sensors).
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LECTURE 3
Fig.2: IoT applications
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 Contd.
ü The objects deliver sensor information, act on the
environment, and modify themselves to create overall
management of a larger system.
ü These devices are low-bandwidth, low-repetition data-
capture and low-bandwidth data-usage appliances that
communicate with each other and provide data through
user interface.
ü With reference to end systems supported, the internet
h a s g o n e t h ro u g h ro u g h ly f o u r g e n e r at i o n s o f
deployment culminating in the IoT:
1. Information technology (IT) : PCs, servers, routers,
firewalls, IT devices bought by enterprise IT people and
primarily using wired connectivity.

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2. Operational technology (OT): machines/appliances
with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as
medical machinery, SCADA( Supervisory Control & Data
Acquisition System), process control and Kiosks, bought as
appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using
wired connectivity.
3. Personal technology : Smartphones, tablets and eBook
readers bought as IT devices by consumers exclusively
using wireless connectivity.
4. Sensor/Actuator technology : Single-purpose devices
bought by consumers, IT and OT people exclusively
using wireless connectivity generally of a single form.

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EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. First approach is to take an existing OS and adapt it for the

embedded application. E.g. there are embedded versions of
LINUX, Windows, MAC and other commercial operating
systems specialized for embedded systems.
2. Second approach is to design and implement an OS
intended solely for embedded use. E.g. TinyOS (widely
used in wireless sensor networks)

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APPLICATION PROCESSORS VERSUS DEDICATED
PROCESSORS
ü Application processors are defined by the processors ability to
execute complex operating systems such as LINUX, Android and
Chrome.
ü They are general-purpose in nature.
ü E.g. use of embedded application processor is the Smartphone.
ü Dedicated processors are dedicated to one or a small number of
specific tasks required by the host device.
ü The associated components as are dedicated to a specific task can
be engineered to reduce size and cost.

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MICROPROCESSORS vs MICROCONTROLLERS

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Fig.3: Typical Microcontroller chip Elements [Source: Computer

Organization and Architecture by William Stallings]
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EMBEDDED vs. DEEPLY EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

ü Deeply embedded systems are dedicated, single purpose

devices.
ü They have wireless capability and appear in networked
configurations (network of sensors over a large area like
factory or agricultural field).
ü They have extreme resource constraints in terms of
memory, processor size, time and power consumption.

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 QUESTIONS
For each of the following examples determine whether this is an embedded system, explaining
why or why not?

a) Are programs that understand physics and /or hardware embedded? For example, one that
uses finite-element methods to predict fluid flow over airplane wings?
b) Is the internal microprocessor controlling a disk drive an example of an embedded system?
c) I/O drivers control hardware, so does the presence of an I/O driver imply that the
computer executing the driver is embedded?
d) Is a PDA (Personal Display Assistant) an embedded system?
e) Is the microprocessor controlling a cell phone an embedded system?
f) Are the computers in a big phased-array radar considered embedded? These radars are 10-
storey buildings with one to three 100-foot diameter radiating patches on sloped sides of
the building.
g) Is a traditional flight management system (FMS) built into an airplane cockpit considered
embedded?
h) Are the computers in a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulator embedded?
i) Is the computer controlling a pacemaker in a person’s chest an embedded computer?
j) Is the computer controlling fuel injection in an automobile engine embedded?

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