Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Introduction

Notes

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4.1​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​is​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​only

● Hydrocarbon​ ​=​ ​compound​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​ONLY

4.2​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​organic​ ​molecules​ ​using

empirical​ ​formulae,​ ​molecular​ ​formulae,​ ​general​ ​formulae,
structural​ ​formulae​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae
● Empirical​ ​formula​ ​=​ ​simplest​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound
(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​CH​2​)
● Molecular​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​actual​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​(e.g.​ ​for
ethene​ ​=​ ​C2​​ H​4​)
● General​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​a​ ​type​ ​of​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​that​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​composition
of​ ​any​ ​member​ ​of​ ​an​ ​entire​ ​class​ ​of​ ​compounds​ ​(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​Cn​​ H​2n​)
● Structural​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​formula​ ​which​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the
molecule​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​CH​2​CH​2​)
● Displayed​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​symbols​ ​for​ ​each​ ​atom​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound,​ ​with
straight​ ​lines​ ​representing​ ​covalent​ ​bonds

E.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene…

4.3​ ​know​ ​what​ ​is​ ​meant​ ​by​ ​the​ ​terms​ ​homologous​ ​series,​ ​functional​ ​group
and​ ​isomerism

● Homologous​ ​series​ ​=​ ​series​ ​of​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​the​ ​same​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​and
similar​ ​properties
● Functional​ ​group​ ​=​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​the​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​a
compound
● Isomerism​ ​=​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​the​ ​same​ ​molecular​ ​formula​ ​exist​ ​in​ ​different
forms​ ​due​ ​to​ ​different​ ​arrangements​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​(different​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​isomerism
exist)

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4.4​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​name​ ​compounds​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​this​ ​specification​ ​using
the​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Union​ ​of​ ​Pure​ ​and​ ​Applied​ ​Chemistry​ ​(IUPAC)
nomenclature;​ ​students​ ​will​ ​be​ ​expected​ ​to​ ​name​ ​compounds​ ​containing​ ​up
to​ ​six​ ​carbon​ ​atoms

● Prefixes​ ​(beginning​ ​of​ ​the​ ​name)

o Any​ ​compound​ ​with​ ​1​ ​carbon​ ​has​ ​the​ ​prefix​ ​of:​ ​Meth-
o 2​ ​carbons:​ ​Eth-
o 3​ ​carbons:​ ​Prop-
o 4​ ​carbons:​ ​But-
o (Then​ ​follow​ ​the​ ​same​ ​rules​ ​as​ ​shapes​ ​in​ ​mathematics)​ ​5​ ​carbons:​ ​Pent-​ ​6
carbons:​ ​Hex-
o remember​ ​the​ ​first​ ​4​ ​prefixes​ ​using​ ​MEPB​ ​Monkeys​ ​Eat​ ​Peanut​ ​Butter
● The​ ​suffix​ ​of​ ​any​ ​compound​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group
o Alkanes​ ​–​ ​ane​ ​(C-C​ ​//​ ​C-H)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethane
o Alkenes​ ​–​ ​ene​ ​(C=C)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethene
o Alcohols​ ​–​ ​ol​ ​(OH)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethanol
o Carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​–​ ​anoic​ ​acid​ ​(-COOH)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid

4.5​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​possible​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae
of​ ​an​ ​organic​ ​molecule​ ​given​ ​its​ ​molecular​ ​formula
● use​ ​information​ ​provided​ ​above
● e.g.​ i​ f​ ​given​​ ​molecular​ ​formula​ ​C2​​ H​6​,​ ​structural​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be​ ​CH​3​CH​3​ and
​
displayed​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be:

4.6​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​classify​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​organic​ ​compounds​ ​as
substitution,​ ​addition​ ​and​ ​combustion;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​mechanisms
is​ ​not​ ​required
● Addition​ ​reactions​ ​involve​ ​only​ ​ONE​ ​PRODUCT
o I.e.​ ​2​ ​reactants​ ​→​ ​1​ ​product
o I.e.​ ​addition​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​to​ ​ethene​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​ethane​ ​(H​2​​ ​is​ ​added​ ​onto
C=C​ ​to​ ​form​ ​H-C-C-H)
● Substitution​ ​reactions​ ​involve​ ​TWO​ ​PRODUCTS
o I.e.​ ​2​ ​reactants​ ​→​ ​2​ ​products
o I.e.​ ​Hydrogen​ ​chloride​ ​+​ ​ethanol​ ​→​ ​chloroethane​ ​+​ ​water​ ​(Cl​ ​replaces​ ​OH
–​ ​they​ ​switch​ ​places)
● Combustion​ ​involves​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​fuel​ ​with​ ​OXYGEN
o Products​ ​are​ ​water​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​only​ ​from​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​(if
combustion​ ​is​ ​COMPLETE)

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Crude​ ​oil

Notes

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4.7​ ​know​ ​that​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​a​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons

● Crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons

● It​ ​contains​ ​molecules​ ​in​ ​which​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​in​ ​chains​ ​or​ ​rings​ ​(names,
formulae​ ​and​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​specific​ ​ring​ ​molecules​ ​not​ ​required)
● An​ ​important​ ​source​ ​of​ ​useful​ ​substances​ ​(fuels​ ​and​ ​feedstock​ ​for​ ​the
petrochemical​ ​industry)
● A​ ​finite​ ​resource

4.8​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​the​ ​industrial​ ​process​ ​of​ ​fractional​ ​distillation​ ​separates
crude​ ​oil​ ​into​ ​fractions

● The​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​heated​ ​in​ ​the​ ​fractionating​ ​column​ ​and​ ​the​ ​oil​ ​evaporates​ ​and
condenses​ ​at​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​different​ ​temperatures.
● The​ ​many​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​in​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​can​ ​be​ ​separated​ ​into​ ​fractions​ ​each​ ​of
which​ ​contains​ ​molecules​ ​with​ ​a​ ​similar​ ​number​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms
● The​ ​fractionating​ ​column​ ​works​ ​continuously,​ ​heated​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​piped​ ​in​ ​at​ ​the
bottom.​ ​The​ ​vaporised​ ​oil​ ​rises​ ​up​ ​the​ ​column​ ​and​ ​the​ ​various​ ​fractions​ ​are
constantly​ ​tapped​ ​off​ ​at​ ​the​ ​different​ ​levels​ ​where​ ​they​ ​condense.
● The​ ​fractions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​processed​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​fuels​ ​and​ ​feedstock​ ​for​ ​the
petrochemical​ ​industry.

4.9​ ​know​ ​the​ ​names​ ​and​ ​uses​ ​of​ ​the​ ​main​ ​fractions​ ​obtained​ ​from​ ​crude​ ​oil:

● Refinery​ ​gases
o Domestic​ ​heating​ ​and​ ​cooking
● Gasoline​ ​/​ ​Petrol
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​cars
● Kerosene
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​aircraft
● Diesel
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​some​ ​cars​ ​and​ ​trains
● Fuel​ ​oil
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​large​ ​ships​ ​and​ ​in​ ​some​ ​power​ ​stations
● Bitumen
o Surface​ ​roads​ ​and​ ​roofs

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4.10​ ​know​ ​the​ ​trend​ ​in​ ​colour,​ ​boiling​ ​point​ ​and​ ​viscosity​ ​of​ ​the​ ​main
fractions

● Some​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​depend​ ​on​ ​the​ ​size​ ​of​ ​their​ ​molecules.​ ​These
properties​ ​influence​ ​their​ ​use​ ​as​ ​fuels.
● The​ ​shorter​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​at​ ​which​ ​that​ ​fraction
vaporises​ ​or​ ​condenses​ ​–​ ​and​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​its​ ​boiling​ ​point.
● Shorter​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​the​ ​less​ ​viscous​ ​it​ ​is.​ ​(more​ ​runny)
● Colours​ ​are​ ​darker​ ​at​ ​the​ ​bottom​ ​fractions​ ​–​ ​longer​ ​molecules

4.11​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​fuel​ ​is​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​that,​ ​when​ ​burned,​ ​releases​ ​heat
energy

● Fuel:​ ​substance​ ​that​ ​releases​ ​heat​ ​energy​ ​when​ ​burned

4.12​ ​know​ ​the​ ​possible​ ​products​ ​of​ ​complete​ ​and​ ​incomplete​ ​combustion​ ​of
hydrocarbons​ ​with​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air

● Complete​ ​combustion
o CO​2​​ ​and​ ​H​2​O​ ​are​ ​produced
● Incomplete​ ​combustion
o If​ ​there’s​ ​not​ ​enough​ ​oxygen,​ ​some​ ​of​ ​the​ ​fuel​ ​doesn’t​ ​burn​ ​–​ ​this​ ​is
partial​ ​combustion.​ ​Here,​ ​solid​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​soot​ ​(carbons)​ ​and​ ​unburnt
fuel​ ​are​ ​released.​ ​Carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​is​ ​also​ ​released.

4.13​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​is​ ​poisonous,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​its​ ​effect​ ​on
the​ ​capacity​ ​of​ ​blood​ ​to​ ​transport​ ​oxygen;​ ​references​ ​to​ ​haemoglobin​ ​are
not​ ​required

● Carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​prevents​ ​red​ ​blood​ ​cells​ ​carrying​ ​oxygen​ ​around​ ​the​ ​body.​ ​This
is​ ​carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​poisoning,​ ​which​ ​can​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​breathing​ ​difficulties​ ​and
eventually​ ​death.

4.14​ ​know​ ​that,​ ​in​ ​car​ ​engines,​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​reached​ ​is​ ​high​ ​enough​ ​to
allow​ ​nitrogen​ ​and​ ​oxygen​ ​from​ ​air​ ​to​ ​react,​ ​forming​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen

● Temperature​ ​reached​ ​in​ ​car​ ​engines​ ​is​ ​high​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​allow​ ​nitrogen​ ​and​ ​oxygen
from​ ​air​ ​to​ ​react​ ​forming​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​e.g.​ ​nitrogen​ ​monoxide​ ​NO​ ​or
nitrogen​ ​dioxide​ ​NO​2

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4.15​ ​explain​ ​how​ ​the​ ​combustion​ ​of​ ​some​ ​impurities​ ​in​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​fuels
results​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide

● Most​ ​fuels,​ ​including​ ​coal,​ ​contain​ ​carbon​ ​and/or​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​may​ ​also​ ​contain
some​ ​sulfur.​ ​This​ ​means​ ​when​ ​the​ ​fuels​ ​are​ ​burnt​ ​the​ ​sulfur​ ​is​ ​oxidised​ ​to
produce​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide

4.16​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide​ ​and​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​contribute​ ​to
acid​ ​rain

● When​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide​ ​and​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​are​ ​emitted​ ​into​ ​the​ ​atmosphere
they​ ​react​ ​with​ ​rain​ ​water​ ​to​ ​create​ ​H​+​​ ​ions
● When​ ​the​ ​rain​ ​falls​ ​the​ ​acid​ ​can​ ​corrode​ ​rocks​ ​and​ ​buildings
● The​ ​acid​ ​can​ ​also​ ​alter​ ​the​ ​pH​ ​in​ ​soil​ ​or​ ​rivers​ ​which​ ​can​ ​affect​ ​an​ ​ecosystem
● Acid​ ​rain​ ​corrodes​ ​limestone,​ ​which​ ​damages​ ​buildings​ ​and​ ​statues​ ​etc

4.17​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​long-chain​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​converted​ ​to​ ​alkenes​ ​and
shorter-chain​ ​alkanes​ ​by​ ​catalytic​ ​cracking​ ​(using​ ​silica​ ​or​ ​alumina​ ​as​ ​the
catalyst​ ​and​ ​a​ ​temperature​ ​in​ ​the​ ​range​ ​of​ ​600-700˚C)

● Hydrocarbons​ ​can​ ​be​ ​cracked​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​smaller,​ ​more​ ​useful​ ​molecules.​ ​This
process​ ​involved​ ​heating​ ​the​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​to​ ​vaporise​ ​them.
● The​ ​vapours​ ​are:
o Either​ ​passed​ ​over​ ​a​ ​hot​ ​catalyst​ ​(silica​ ​or​ ​alumina)
o Mixed​ ​with​ ​steam​ ​and​ ​heated​ ​to​ ​a​ ​very​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​(temperature
in​ ​the​ ​range​ ​of​ ​600-700˚C)​ ​so​ ​that​ ​thermal​ ​decomposition​ ​reactions​ ​can
occur.
● The​ ​products​ ​of​ ​cracking​ ​include​ ​alkanes​ ​and​ ​unsaturated​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​called
alkenes.​ ​Alkenes​ ​have​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​Cn​​ H​2n

4.18​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​cracking​ ​is​ ​necessary,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​balance​ ​between
supply​ ​and​ ​demand​ ​for​ ​different​ ​fractions

● Demand​ ​for​ ​smaller​ ​chained​ ​alkanes​ ​is​ ​much​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​that​ ​for​ ​longer​ ​chained
alkanes​ ​–​ ​however,​ ​supply​ ​for​ ​longer​ ​chained​ ​alkanes​ ​is​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​that​ ​for
smaller​ ​chained​ ​alkanes,​ ​therefore​ ​an​ ​alternative​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​smaller​ ​chained
alkanes​ ​is​ ​required​ ​(i.e.​ ​cracking)

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Alkanes

Notes

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4.19​ ​know​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​for​ ​alkanes

● C​n​H​2n+2​​ ​is​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula

● E.g.​ ​ethane​ ​is​ ​C2​​ H​6

4.20​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​saturated​ ​hydrocarbons

● Contain​ ​no​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bonds,​ ​therefore​ ​the​ ​carbons​ ​are​ ​saturated,​ ​because
each​ ​carbon​ ​has​ ​formed​ ​its​ ​maximum​ ​of​ ​4​ ​single​ ​bonds

4.21​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae​ ​for
alkanes​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​five​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​to​ ​name​ ​the
unbranched-chain​ ​isomers

● Alkane​ ​molecules​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​following​ ​forms:

● The​ ​first​ ​4​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​methane,​ ​ethane,​ ​propane​ ​and​ ​butane​ ​(MEPB:​ ​Monkeys
Eat​ ​Peanut​ ​Butter)

alkane structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methane CH​4

ethane CH​3​CH​3

propane CH​3​CH​2​CH​3

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 butane CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​3

pentane CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​2​CH​3

4.22​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​alkanes​ ​with​ ​halogens​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of
ultraviolet​ ​radiation,​ ​limited​ ​to​ ​mono-substitution;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​reaction
mechanisms​ ​is​ ​not​ ​required

● Br​2​​ ​+​ ​C2​​ H​6​​ ​ ​-(UV)->​ ​C2​​ H​5​Br​ ​+​ ​HBr

● Halogen​ ​+​ ​alkane​ ​–(UV)->​ ​halogenoalkane​ ​+​ ​hydrogen​ ​halide

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Alkenes

Notes

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4.23​ ​know​ ​that​ ​alkenes​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​>C=C<

● Functional​ ​group​ ​of​ ​alkenes​ ​is:​ ​C=C

4.24​ ​know​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​for​ ​alkenes

● C​n​H​2n​​ ​e.g.​ ​ethene​ ​is​ ​C2​​ H​4

4.25​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​alkenes​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​unsaturated​ ​hydrocarbons

● Contain​ ​one​ ​or​ ​more​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bonds

4.26​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae​ ​for
alkenes​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​four​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​name​ ​the
unbranched-chain​ ​isomers;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​cis/trans​ ​or​ ​E/Z​ ​notation​ ​is​ ​not
required

● The​ ​first​ ​2​ ​alkenes​ ​are​ ​ethene​ ​and​ ​propene.

● Unsaturated​ ​carbons​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​following​ ​forms:

alkene structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

ethene CH​2​CH​2

propene CH​3​CHCH​2

butene CH​3​CHCHCH​3

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4.27​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​alkenes​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​to​ ​produce
dibromoalkanes

● alkene​ ​+​ ​bromine​ ​→​ ​dibromoalkane

○ E.g.​ ​Ethene​ ​+​ ​bromine​ ​->​ ​1,2-dibromoethane
● Addition​ ​reaction
● Involves​ ​the​ ​removal​ ​of​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bond
● remember​ ​bromine​ ​exists​ ​as​ ​Br​2

4.28​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​bromine​ ​water​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​distinguish​ ​between​ ​an
alkane​ ​and​ ​an​ ​alkene
● alkenes​ ​react​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​water,​ ​turning​ ​it​ ​from​ ​orange​ ​to​ ​colourless​ ​–​ ​alkanes
DO​ ​NOT​ ​react​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​water-​ ​it​ ​remains​ ​orange

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Alcohols

Notes

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4.29​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​alcohols​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–OH

4.30​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​for​ ​methanol,​ ​ethanol,​ ​propanol​ ​(propan-1-ol​ ​only)​ ​and​ ​butanol
(butan-1-ol​ ​only),​ ​and​ ​name​ ​each​ ​compound;​ ​the​ ​names​ ​propanol​ ​and
butanol​ ​are​ ​acceptable

● Alcohols​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–OH

● The​ ​first​ 4
​ ​ ​members​ ​of​ ​the​ ​series​ ​are​ ​methanol,​ ​ethanol,​ ​propanol​ ​and​ ​butanol.

alcohol structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methanol CH​3​OH

ethanol CH​3​CH​2​OH

propanol CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​OH

butanol CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​2​OH

4.31​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethanol​ ​can​ ​be​ ​oxidised​ ​by:

● Burning​ ​in​ ​air​ ​or​ ​oxygen​ ​(complete​ ​combustion)

● Reaction​ w​ ith​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air​ ​to​ ​form​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​(microbial​ ​oxidation)
● Heating​ ​with​ ​potassium​ ​dichromate(VI)​ ​in​ ​dilute​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid​ ​to​ ​form​ ​ethanoic
acid

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4.32​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethanol​ ​can​ ​be​ ​manufactured​ ​by:

● Reacting​ ​ethene​ ​with​ ​steam​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​phosphoric​ ​acid​ ​catalyst​ ​at​ ​a
temperature​ ​of​ ​about​ ​300˚C​ ​and​ ​a​ ​pressure​ ​of​ ​about​ ​60-70​ ​atm
● The​ ​fermentation​ ​of​ ​glucose,​ ​in​ ​the​ ​absence​ ​of​ ​air,​ ​at​ ​an​ ​optimum​ ​temperature
of​ ​about​ ​30˚C​ ​and​ ​using​ ​the​ ​enzymes​ ​in​ ​yeast

4.33​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​the​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​fermentation,​ ​in​ ​the
absence​ ​of​ ​air,​ ​and​ ​at​ ​an​ ​optimum​ ​temperature

● Glucose​ ​→​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+​ ​ethanol

● Optimum​ t​ emperature​ ​of​ ​25˚C​ ​to​ ​50˚C
o If​ ​too​ ​low​ ​=​ ​yeast​ ​that​ ​is​ ​used​ ​would​ ​be​ ​inactive
o If​ ​too​ ​high​ ​=​ ​enzymes​ ​in​ ​yeast​ ​would​ ​be​ ​denatured​ ​/​ ​would​ ​no​ ​longer
function
● Absence​ ​of​ ​oxygen​ ​(air​ ​must​ ​be​ ​kept​ ​out)
o If​ ​air​ ​got​ ​in,​ ​it​ ​would​ ​cause​ ​the​ ​ethanol​ ​to​ ​oxidise​ ​to​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Carboxylic​ ​acids

Notes

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4.34​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional
group​ ​–COOH

4.35​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​for​ ​unbranched-chain​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​four​ ​carbon
atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​name​ ​each​ ​compound
● First​ ​four​ ​members​ ​are:​ ​methanoic​ ​acid,​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid,​ ​propanoic​ ​acid​ ​and
butanoic​ ​acid

carboxylic​ ​acid structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methanoic​ ​acid HCOOH

ethanoic​ ​acid CH​3​COOH

propanoic​ ​acid CH​3​CH​2​COOH

butanoic​ ​acid CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​COOH

4.36​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​aqueous​ ​solutions​ ​of
carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​with​ ​metals​ ​and​ ​metal​ ​carbonates
● Dissolve​ ​in​ ​water​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​acidic​ ​solutions
● React​ ​with​ ​metal​ ​carbonates​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide(g)​ ​(bubbles​ ​are
formed​ ​/​ ​effervesces)
● React​ ​with​ ​more​ ​reactive​ ​metals​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​hydrogen

4.37​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​vinegar​ ​is​ ​an​ ​aqueous​ ​solution​ ​containing
ethanoic​ ​acid

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Esters

Notes

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 4.38​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​esters​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–COO-

● They​ ​have​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–COO-.

4.39​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethyl​ ​ethanoate​ ​is​ ​the​ ​ester​ ​produced​ ​when
ethanol​ ​and​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​react​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​catalyst
● Carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​react​ ​with​ ​alcohols​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​catalyst​ ​to
produce​ ​esters
● ethyl​ ​ethanoate​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​when​ ​ethanol​ ​and​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​react:

4.40​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​of​ ​ethyl​ ​ethanoate
structural​ ​formula:​ ​CH​3​COOCH​2​CH​3
displayed​ ​formula:

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4.41​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ester,​ ​given​ ​the​ ​name​ ​or​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​the​ ​alcohol​ ​and
carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​from​ ​which​ ​it​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa
● naming​ ​esters:
○ first​ ​part​ ​comes​ ​from​ ​alcohol,​ ​remove​ ​-anol​ ​and​ ​replace​ ​with​ ​-yl​ ​e.g.
propanol​ ​→​ ​propyl
○ second​ ​part​ ​comes​ ​from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​remove​ ​-oic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​replace
with​ ​-oate​ ​e.g.​ ​methanoic​ ​acid​ ​→​ ​methanoate
○ full​ ​name​ ​from​ ​propanol​ ​and​ ​methanoic​ ​acid​ ​would​ ​be​ ​propyl
methanoate
● structure​ ​of​ ​esters:
○ H​ ​is​ ​lost​ ​from​ ​alcohol​ ​and​ ​OH​ ​from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​bond​ ​forms​ ​between​ ​C
in​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​O​ ​in​ ​alcohol

4.42​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​esters​ ​are…

● Volatile​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​distinctive​ ​smells

● Used​ ​as​ f​ ood​ ​flavourings​ ​and​ ​in​ ​perfumes

4.43​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​practical:​ ​prepare​ ​a​ ​sample​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ester​ ​such​ ​as​ ​ethyl
ethanoate

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Synthetic​ ​polymers

Notes

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4.44​ ​know​ ​that​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​joining​ ​up​ ​many​ ​small
molecules​ ​called​ ​monomers

● Alkenes​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​make​ ​polymers​ ​such​ ​as​ ​poly(ethane)​ ​and​ ​poly(propene)
by​ ​addition​ ​polymerisation.​ ​In​ ​this​ ​reaction,​ ​many​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​(monomers)
join​ ​together​ ​to​ ​create​ ​very​ ​large​ ​molecules​ ​(polymers).​ ​For​ ​example:

● The​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​has​ ​the​ ​same​ ​atoms​ ​as​ ​the​ ​monomer​ ​because​ ​no​ ​other​ ​molecule
is​ ​formed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​reaction

4.45​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer,
including​ ​poly(ethene),​ ​poly(propene),​ ​poly(chloroethene)​ ​and
(poly)tetrafluoroethene

tetrafluoroethene​ ​ ​ ​poly(tetrafluoroethene)

4.46​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​deduce​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​monomer​ ​from​ ​the​ ​repeat
unit​ ​of​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa

▪ Monomer​ ​is​ ​just​ ​repeat​ ​unit,​ ​replacing​ ​C-C​ ​with​ ​C=C​ ​and​ ​removing​ ​brackets​ ​and
“n”

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4.47​ ​explain​ ​problems​ ​in​ ​the​ ​disposal​ ​of​ ​addition​ ​polymers,​ ​including:

● Unable​ ​to​ ​biodegrade,​ ​because​ ​they​ ​are​ ​inert​ ​/​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​react​ ​therefore,
microorganisms​ ​and​ ​bacteria​ ​are​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​break​ ​them​ ​down
● The​ ​production​ ​of​ ​toxic​ ​gases​ ​when​ ​they​ ​are​ ​burned
● Carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​is​ ​released​ ​when​ ​burnt–​ ​which​ ​adds​ ​to​ ​global​ ​warming

4.48​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​condensation​ ​polymerisation,​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a

dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​reacts​ ​with​ ​a​ ​diol,​ ​produces​ ​a​ ​polyester​ ​and​ ​water

● In​ ​condensation​ ​polymerisation,​ ​a​ ​small​ ​molecule​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​as​ ​a​ ​by-product​ ​each
time​ ​a​ ​bond​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​between​ ​two​ ​monomers
● diol-​ ​molecule​ ​with​ ​2​ ​alcohol​ ​OH​ ​functional​ ​groups
● dicarboxylic​ ​acid-​ ​molecule​ ​with​ ​2​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​COOH​ ​functional​ ​groups
● When​ ​you​ ​react​ ​a​ ​diol​ ​and​ ​a​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​the​ ​alcohol​ ​and​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid
functional​ ​groups​ ​react,​ ​losing​ ​a​ ​small​ ​molecule​ ​–​ ​water
● This​ ​is​ ​an​ ​ester​ ​–​ ​therefore​ ​a​ ​polyester​ ​is​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​of​ ​these​ ​monomers​ ​(esters)
○ the​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​loses​ ​the​ ​OH​ ​group​ ​off​ ​of​ ​each​ ​COOH​ ​group
○ the​ ​di-alcohol​ ​loses​ ​the​ ​H​ ​off​ ​of​ ​each​ ​OH​ ​group
○ the​ ​remaining​ ​molecules​ ​join​ ​together​ ​to​ ​make​ ​a​ ​polyester
○ the​ ​H​ ​and​ ​OH​ ​join​ ​to​ ​form​ ​water

4.49​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​polyester,​ ​showing​ ​the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​given​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​the
monomers​ ​from​ ​which​ ​it​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​including​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​of​ ​ethanedioic​ ​acid
and​ ​ethanediol
● similar​ ​to​ ​polymers
● from​ ​the​ ​monomers,​ ​identify​ ​the​ ​OH​ ​(from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids)​ ​and​ ​H​ ​(from
alcohols)​ ​that​ ​will​ ​be​ ​lost​ ​and​ ​join​ ​up​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​at​ ​these​ ​points
● the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​is​ ​simply​ ​one​ ​of​ ​each​ ​diol​ ​and​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​joined​ ​together,
with​ ​a​ ​bond​ ​sticking​ ​out​ ​at​ ​each​ ​end​ ​(the​ ​same​ ​as​ ​for​ ​polymers)

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4.50​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​some​ ​polyesters,​ ​known​ ​as​ ​biopolyesters,
are​ ​biodegradable

● Biopolyesters​ ​are​ ​biodegradable,​ ​making​ ​them​ ​easier​ ​to​ ​dispose​ ​of​ ​than​ ​other
polyesters

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