DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MAT111 INTRODUCTORY MATHEMATICS I

WEEK 6: LECTURE NOTE

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Definition 1. A polynomial function is a function of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and aj , j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n are real numbers with an 6= 0.

The number an is called the leading coefficient and a0 its constant term. Such a polynomial
is called a polynomial of degree n.
We observe that
• The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers, R = (−∞, ∞).

• Polynomials of degree 0, f (x) = a0 , are called constant functions. The graph of

a constant function is a horizontal line.

• Polynomials of degree 1, f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0, are called linear functions. The

graph of a linear function is a line whose nature depends on the sign of a.
• Polynomials of degree 2, f (x) = ax2 +bx+c a 6= 0, are called quadratic functions.
The graph of a quadratic function is either an upward (a > 0) or a downward (a < 0)
parabola.

• A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial,

f (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , a3 6= 0.

Features of the graph of a polynomial function

1. A polynomial function has a continuous graph. The graph of a polynomial func-
tion has no breaks, holes, or gaps (Continuous). We say the graph of a function
is continuous when its graph can be drawn with a pencil without lifting the pencil
from the paper.

2. The higher degree polynomial functions that have the simplest graphs are mono-
mials of the form
f (x) = xn
where n is an integer greater than zero. Polynomial functions of the form f (x) = xn
are often referred to as power functions.
(a) The greater the value of n, the flatter the graph near the origin.
(b) When n is even, the graph is similar to the graph of f (x) = x2 and touches
the x−axis at the x−intercept.
(c) When n is odd, the graph is similar to the graph of f (x) = x3 and crosses the
x−axis at the x−intercept.
1
 Graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 2, 4, 6, 8
y
10 y = x2
y = x4
8
y = x6
6 y = x8

2
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

Graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 3, 5, 7

y
y = x3
y = x5
5
y = x7

x
−2 2 4

−5

3. The graph of a polynomial function has only smooth, rounded turns. It cannot
have a sharp turn.
4. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n zeros; that is,
the polynomial equation

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = 0

has at most n solutions.

5. The graph of a polynomial function always exhibits the characteristic that as |x|
gets very large |f (x)| also gets very large.

LONG DIVISION OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Theorem 2 (DIVISION ALGORITHM). If f (x) and d(x) are polynomial such that
d(x) 6= 0, and the degree of d(x) is less than or equal to the degree of f (x), then there
exists unique polynomials q(x) (called quotient polynomial) and r(x) (called the remainder
polynomial) such that
f (x) = d(x).q(x) + r(x)
where r(x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of d(x). If the remainder r(x)
is zero, then d(x) divides evenly into f (x).
2
Example 3 (LONG DIVISION). Consider the polynomial functions
f (x) = 6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4 and d(x) = x − 2.
Because
f (2) = 6(2)3 − 19(2)2 + 16(2) − 4 = 0
we know that x = 2 is a solution of the polynomial function f , and that (x − 2) is a factor
of f . This means that there exists a second degree polynomial q(x) such that
f (x) = (x − 2).q(x).
To find q(x), we can use long division of polynomial. Divide 6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4
by x − 2, and use the result to factor the polynomial completely.
6x2 − 7x + 2

x−2 6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4
− 6x3 + 12x2
− 7x2 + 16x
7x2 − 14x
2x − 4
− 2x + 4
0
You can see that
6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4
= 6x2 − 7x + 2
x−2
or
6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4 = (x − 2)(6x2 − 7x + 2)
= (x − 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 2)
x − 2 is a factor of the polynomial 6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4 and the long division process
produces a remainder of zero.
Example 4. LONG DIVISION
1. Divide f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5 by d(x) = x + 1.
x+2

2
x+1 x + 3x + 5
− x2 − x
2x + 5
− 2x − 2
3
Here q(x) = x + 2 and r(x) = 3. In fractional form, you can write this result as
follows
x2 + 3x + 5 3
= x+2+ .
x+1 x+1
This implies that
f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5 = (x + 2)(x + 1) + 3.
3
2. Divide f (x) = 8x3 − 1 by d(x) = 2x − 1.
4x2 + 2x + 1

2x − 1 8x3 −1
3 2
− 8x + 4x
4x2
− 4x2 + 2x
2x − 1
− 2x + 1
0
Here the quotient is q(x) = (4x2 + 2x + 1) and the remainder is zero. So, d(x) =
2x − 1 divide evenly into 8x3 − 1, and we can write
f (x) = 8x3 − 1 = (2x − 1)(4x2 + 2x + 1) = d(x)q(x).
3. Divide −2 + 3x − 5x2 + 4x3 + 2x4 by x2 + 2x − 3.

2x2 +1

2 4 3 2
x + 2x − 3 2x + 4x − 5x + 3x − 2
− 2x4 − 4x3 + 6x2
x2 + 3x − 2
− x2 − 2x + 3
x+1
Here q(x) = 2x2 + 1 and r(x) = x + 1.
4. Divide f (x) = x4 − 1 by d(x) = x4 + 2x.
x2 − 2x + 4

x2 + 2x x4 −1
4 3
− x − 2x
− 2x3
2x3 + 4x2
4x2
− 4x2 − 8x
− 8x
Here q(x) = x2 − 2x + 4 and r(x) = −8x.
5. Divide f (x) = x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 by d(x) = x2 + 4.
x2 + x − 2

x2 + 4 x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1
− x4 − 4x2
x3 − 2x2 + 3x
− x3 − 4x
2
− 2x − x + 1
2x2 +8
−x+9
4
 Here q(x) = x2 + x − 2 and r(x) = −x + 9.

THE REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM

Theorem 5 (THE REMAINDER THEOREM). If a polynomial f (x) of degree
n ≥ 1 is divided by d(x) = x − a, then the remainder is

r(x) = f (a).

That is
f (x) = d(x)q(x) + f (a).
Example 6. Find the remainder when f (x) = 3x3 + 8x2 + 5x − 7 is divided by x + 2.
By the remainder theorem, the remainder is

f (−2) = 3(−2)3 + 8(−2)2 + 5(−2) − 7 = −9.

The LONG DIVISION also gives the same:

3x2 + 2x + 1

x+2 3x3 + 8x2 + 5x − 7
− 3x3 − 6x2
2x2 + 5x
− 2x2 − 4x
x−7
−x−2
−9

Here q(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 and r(x) = −9.

Theorem 7 (THE FACTOR THEOREM). A polynomial f (x) has a factor x − a if
and only if f (a) = 0.
Example 8. (THE FACTOR THEOREM)
1. x − 2 and x + 3 are factors of

f (x) = 2x4 + 7x3 − 4x2 − 27x − 18

because

f (2) = 2(2)4 + 7(2)3 − 4(2)2 − 27(2) − 18 = 0

f (−3) = 2(−3)4 + 7(−3)3 − 4(2)2 − 27(2) − 18 = 0.

2. x − 1 is a factor of f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2 because

f (1) = 12 − 3(1) + 2 = 1 − 3 + 2 = 0.

3. x + 2 is a factor of f (x) = x3 + 8 because

f (−2) = (−2)3 + 8 = −8 + 8 = 0.
5
REAL ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
If f (x) is a polynomial function and a is a real number, then the following statements
are equivalent.
1. x = a is a zero of the function f.
2. x = a is a solution of the polynomial equation f (x) = 0.
3. (x − a) is a factor of the polynomial f (x).
4. (a, 0) is an x−intercept of the graph of f.
Finding zeros of polynomial functions is closely related to factoring and finding x-intercepts.
Example 9. Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function
1. Find all real zeros of
f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x.
Solution.

f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x
0 = x3 − x2 − 2x
0 = x(x2 − x − 2)
0 = x(x − 2)(x + 1)

So, the real zeros are

x = 0, x = 2 and x = −1,
and the corresponding x−intercepts are

(−1, 0), (0, 0), and (2, 0).

Graph of f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x.

8

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

6
 2. Find all real zeros of
f (x) = −2x4 + 2x2 .
Solution.

f (x) = −2x4 + 2x2

0 = −2x4 + 2x2
0 = −2x2 (x2 − 1)
0 = −2x2 (x − 1)(x + 1)

So, the real zeros are

x = 0, x = 1 and x = −1,
and the corresponding x−intercepts are

(0, 0), (1, 0) and (−1, 0).

Graph of f (x) = −2x4 + 2x2 .

0.5

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2

−2.5

−3

−3.5

−4

−4.5

−5

−5.5

−6

−6.5

−7