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भारतीय मानक IS 18591 : 2024

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भक
ु ृ त्रिम प्रबत्रित मदृ ा सरं चनाएँ — रीत्रत
सत्रं िता

Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil

Structures — Code of Practice

ICS 93.020; 59.080.70

 BIS 2024

भारतीय मानक ब्यरू ो

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
मानक भवन, 9 बिादरु शाि ज़फर मार्ग, नई त्रदल्िी - 110002
MANAK BHAVAN, 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARG
NEW DELHI - 110002
www.bis.gov.in www.standardsbis.in

May2024 ₹ 2390
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Geosynthetics Sectional Committee, TXD 30

FOREWORD

This Indian Standard was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after the draft finalized by the Geosynthetics
Sectional Committee had been approved by the Textiles Division Council.

Soils, one of the most widely used materials in civil engineering, is weak in tension. The tensile strength, shear
strength and stiffness of soils can be improved by reinforcing the soils with tensile inclusions. The technique of
soil reinforcement is greatly useful in engineering efficient, economical and sustainable solutions for diverse
applications in several areas of application like earth retaining structures, slope stabilization, ground improvement
etc. Reinforced soil retaining structures have been extensively used in India over the last twenty-five years in the
highways to retain approaches to flyovers, underpasses and over bridges and also in residential and commercial
development projects. A significant number of reinforced soil slopes have been used in hill roads, airports and
residential and commercial development projects. A limited number of reinforced soil true abutments and shored
reinforced soil structures have also been constructed in India and, most likely, the demand for these structures
may increase in the future. The technique of basal reinforcement is a popular method for improving the stability
of embankments constructed on poor ground.

The need to explore more sustainable alternatives to conventional solutions is becoming increasingly important
and urgent in view of the demands of rapid growth in infrastructure and residential, commercial and industrial
development coupled with the increasing shortage of traditional construction materials like aggregates, sand and
earth. At the same time, a wide range of world-class soil reinforcement materials, including geogrids, geo-strips,
geotextiles and geocells are being manufactured in India. Extensive use of appropriate reinforced soil technology
can significantly contribute to the efficient development of infrastructure and constructed facilities meeting the
requirements of performance, economy and sustainability. To ensure the safety, serviceability and durability of
reinforced soil structures, comprehensive and authoritative guidance covering all relevant aspects, including
materials, design and construction, is required.

Reinforced soil walls and slopes may comprise a wide range of polymeric or metallic soil reinforcements, facings
and fills and may be used for diverse applications, including retaining the bridge approaches, highway grade
separators, embankments, hill roads, site grading, landscaping etc. Reinforced soil true abutments support the
bridge/viaduct deck in addition to retaining the earth. Shored reinforced soil walls/slopes, which combine the
technique of soil reinforcement with in-situ shoring techniques like soil nailing, are very useful for the construction
of roads and site development in hilly terrains. Basal reinforcement and basal mattresses could be used to improve
the stability of embankments and other earth structures constructed on poor ground.

Reinforced soil walls and slopes are very cost-effective which explains why the concept has emerged as one of
the most exciting and innovative civil engineering technologies in recent times.

This code of practice covers investigations, material specifications, design, detailing and construction of the
following types of reinforced soil structures — reinforced soil walls, reinforced soil slopes, reinforced soil true
abutments, shored reinforced soil walls/slopes and embankments with basal reinforcement/mattress. It provides
comprehensive and detailed guidance to enable engineers to design and construct reinforced soil structures that
are safe, serviceable and durable. The reinforced soil structures covered by this standard, provide an energy
efficient and cost saving alternative to similar structures built in reinforced concrete (RCC) or stone masonry.

The publishing of standard was possible, as over the last decade and a half, India acquired an in house experience
of design and construction of constructing several hundreds of major and important reinforced soil structures
replacing RCC and masonry structures. It must also be mentioned here, that the said reinforced soil structures
were constructed by using indigenously manufactured reinforcement systems backed by centres equipped with
advanced testing of reinforcements and other materials and products needed to construct reinforced soil structures.
Reinforced soil structures when compared with RCC structures at equivalent performance consume significantly
less quantity of cement and steel and therefore provide a fossil energy efficient structural system.

(Continued on third cover)

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CONTENTS

SECTION 1 GENERAL PAGE

1 SCOPE 1
2 REFERENCES 1
3 TERMINOLOGY 1
4 SYMBOLS 1
5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOIL REINFORCEMENT 1
6 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES 1
7 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 2
8 CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT 2
9 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES NOT INCLUDED IN THE SCOPE OF THIS CODE 2
10 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES WHICH MAY NEED ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS
2
AND CHECKS
11 ORGANIZATION OF THE CODE 3

SECTION 2 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS

12 INTRODUCTION 3
13 GEOTECHNICAL CATEGORIES 4
14 INFORMATION REQUIRED FROM THE SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS 4
15 COMPONENTS OF THE SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION PROGRAMME 4
16 INFORMATION REQUISITES TO PLANNING AN INVESTIGATION 5
17 PLANNING, DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF THE SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 6
PROGRAMME
18 EXPLORATION METHODS 7

19 NUMBER, LOCATION AND SPACING OF BOREHOLES 8

20 DEPTH OF EXPLORATION 10
21 SELECTION OF TYPE OF TEST 10
22 BORING AND SAMPLING 13
23 LABORATORY TESTS 14
24 THE REPORT 16

SECTION 3 MATERIALS

25 SCOPE 16
26 FILL MATERIAL 15
27 REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS 19
28 POLYMERIC DRAINAGE PRODUCTS 24
29 OTHER POLYMERIC PRODUCTS 26
30 OTHER MATERIALS 26

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SECTION 4 DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL WALLS

31 SCOPE 28
32 GENERAL 28
33 REINFORCED SOIL WALL ELEMENTS AND MATERIALS PROPERTIES 29
34 DESIGN 32
35 DESIGN FOR EXTREME EVENTS 66
36 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR COMPLEX GEOMETRIES 72
37 WATER FRONT REINFORCED SOIL WALL STRUCTURES 74
38 GROUND IMPROVEMENT 77
39 PANEL REINFORCEMENT DESIGN 79

SECTION 5 DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES

40 GENERAL 79
41 APPLICATION OF REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES 80
42 MATERIALS 81
43 DESIGN 81
44 DETAILING 94
45 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 95

SECTION 6 DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL TRUE ABUTMENTS

46 INTRODUCTION 96
47 SCOPE 96
48 TYPES OF RS ABUTMENTS, COMPONENTS AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES 96
49 SOIL PROPERTIES 98
50 DESIGN PRINCIPLES 98
51 IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND DURING RS ABUTMENT DESIGN 111
52 PROVISION OF CONSTRUCTION JOINT 111
53 BRIDGE ABUTMENT TYPICAL LAYOUT PLAN 111
54 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE FOR BRIDGE ABUTMENT 111

SECTION 7 DESIGN OF SHORED REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE

55 INTRODUCTION 113
56 EVALUATION OF SHORED STRUCTURE SUITABILITY : PRE-DECISION 114
EVALUATION STUDIES
57 SRS WALL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 116
58 REINFORCEMENT LENGTH 116
59 INTERFACE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN RS WALL REINFORCEMENTS AND 117
SHORING WALL OF SRS SYSTEM
60 GEOMETRY OF RS/SHORING INTERFACE 119

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61 DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS OF SRS WALL 120
62 DESIGN OF RS WALL COMPONENT OF AN SRS WALL SYSTEM 120

SECTION 8 DESIGN OF BASAL REINFORCEMENT

63 INTRODUCTION 126
64 DESIGN OF BASAL REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS OVER SOFT SUBSOILSRS 127
WALL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
65 EMBANKMENTS OVER VOIDS 135
66 BASAL MATTRESS REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS 138
67 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF EMBANKMENTS WITH HDPE GEOCELLS AS BASAL 141
REINFORCEMENTS
68 STABILITY IN THE DIRECTION ALONG THE EMBANKMENT 144
69 ALLOWABLE STRAIN IN REINFORCEMENT 144
70 MULTIPLE REINFORCEMENT BASAL LAYERS 144
71 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT 144
72 BASAL REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS WITH VERTICAL DRAINS 145

SECTION 9 DRAINAGE DETAILING

73 INTRODUCTION 145
74 SITE CONDITIONS REQUIRING DRAINAGE 145
75 OVERVIEW OF REINFORCED SOIL RETAINING STRUCTURE DRAINAGE 151
FEATURES
76 MONSOON PREPARATION AND PLANNING 168
77 MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE 168

SECTION 10 DETAILING AND CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

78 SCOPE 168
79 DESIGN DETAILING 168
80 CONSTRUCTION 182
81 RELEVANT POINTS TO BE INCORPORATED IN CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS 189
82 SALIENT POINTS 190

ANNEX A REFERENCES 192

ANNEX B TERMINOLOGY 194

ANNEX C SYMBOLS 196

ANNEX D BORE/PIT LOG AND SOIL TEST DATA SUMMARY 200

ANNEX E COMMITTEE COMPOSITION 202

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Indian Standard
GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES —
CODE OF PRACTICE

SECTION 1 GENERAL

1 SCOPE ground. The applications of soil reinforcement may

be classified into three broad categories – reinforced
This code covers the design and construction of the soil retaining walls and bridge abutments, reinforced
following types of reinforced soil structures: soil slopes and reinforced soil foundations.
a) Reinforced soil walls;
5.3 Materials for soil reinforcement include metallic
b) Reinforced soil slopes; strips, grids and meshes and geosynthetics –
geogrids, geotextiles and geo-strips. Important
c) Reinforced soil true abutments; characteristics of reinforcement are long term tensile
strength, interface shear properties and appropriate
d) Shored reinforced soil walls/slopes; and
connection system to facing.
e) Basal reinforced embankments on soft
soils. 6 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES

2 REFERENCES 6.1 The following types of reinforced soil structures

are covered by this code:
The standards listed in Annex A contain provisions a) Reinforced soil walls;
which through reference in this text, constitute
provisions of this standard. At the time of b) Reinforced soil slopes;
publication, the editions indicated were valid. All c) Reinforced soil true abutments;
standards are subject to revision and parties to d) Shored reinforced soil walls/slopes; and
agreements based on this standard are encouraged to e) Basal reinforcement for embankments.
investigate the possibility of applying the most
recent edition of these standards.
6.2 Reinforced soil walls as in (a) above, are
internally stabilized earth retaining structures with a
3 TERMINOLOGY
face inclination equal to or more than 70 to the
horizontal, in which the reinforcements are placed in
For the purpose of this standard, definitions given in
an approximate horizontal direction, between
Annex B shall apply.
successive lifts of fill during construction as a result
the reinforced fill behaves as a coherent mass.
4 SYMBOLS
6.3 Reinforced soil slopes as in (b) above, are
For the purpose of this standard, the letter symbols
internally stabilized earth structures with a face
given in Annex C shall have the meaning indicated
against each; where other symbols are used, they are inclination less than 70 to the horizontal, in which
explained at the appropriate place. the reinforcements are placed in an approximate
horizontal direction, between successive lifts of fill
5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOIL REINFORCEMENT during construction and the reinforced fill behaves
as a coherent mass.
5.1 Soil reinforcement is the technique of improving
the strength and/or stiffness of soils and other fills 6.4 Reinforced soil true abutments, as in (c) above
with tensile inclusions. Soils have high compressive are reinforced soil walls in which in addition to
strength when confined but have low tensile strength retaining earth, the reinforced fill supports a bridge
and shear strength of soils depend on effective or viaduct superstructure, which transmits relatively
confining stresses. Reinforcement with tensile large vertical and horizontal forces to the reinforced
inclusions enables soils to resist tensile stresses and fill through a footing, which is directly placed on the
increases the shear strength and stiffness of soils. reinforced fill.

5.2 Soil reinforcement may be employed to 6.5 Shored reinforced soil walls/slopes, as in (d)
construct select fills at steeper slope angles or to above are a special type of reinforced soil structure
improve the load bearing capacity of fills or the with relatively short length reinforcements and in

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which the retained zone behind the reinforced fill are classified as inextensible or extensible.
(which may be natural ground or fill retained by an Inextensible reinforcements mobilize their design
existing reinforced soil structure/retaining wall) is resistance at strains appreciably less than the failure
shored or stabilized using nailing, ground anchors or strain of soils. Extensible reinforcements mobilize
embedded retaining walls, prior to the construction their design resistance at strains comparable to the
of the reinforced soil wall/slope. The shored retained failure strain of soils. There are some significant
zone does not exert any destabilizing forces on the differences in the behaviour of structures reinforced
reinforced soil wall/slope. with inextensible and extensible reinforcements,
which are reflected in the design methods.
6.6 Basal reinforced embankments are earthen
embankments constructed on soft soils in which the 8.2 In this code, the following types of
stability of the embankment is enhanced by placing reinforcements are considered as inextensible:
at its base one or more layers of reinforcements or a
mattress across the full width or extending on either a) Metallic strips;
side.
b) Metallic welded wire grids and bar mats;
and
7 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
c) Polymeric strips provided sufficient data is
7.1 A load and resistance factor (LRFD) design available to prove the design approach.
approach is followed for the design of reinforced soil
walls and true abutments. The disturbing forces are 8.3 The following types of reinforcements are
increased by applying load factors and the resisting considered as extensible:
forces are reduced by applying resistance factors.
a) All geosynthetic (polymeric) reinforcements
The ratio of the factored resistance to the factored
including geogrids, woven geotextiles,
load is defined as the capacity demand ratio (CDR).
geostrips and geocells; and
A structure is stable if the value of CDR is greater
than or equal to 1. Stability and service ability are b) Hexagonally woven double twisted steel
checked for the relevant load combinations. wire mesh.

7.2 Limit state or load and resistance factor approach 9 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES NOT
have not extensively been used for the analysis and INCLUDED IN THE SCOPE OF THIS CODE
design of slopes. Hence in this standard, an
allowable stress design (ASD) approach is adopted The following types of reinforced soil structures are
for the design of reinforced soil slopes. Stability not included in the scope of this code:
analysis is carried out considering unfactored loads a) Reinforced soil structure comprising a
and resisting forces and an acceptable margin reinforced soil wall in the lower part and a
against failure is ensured through the use of an reinforced soil slope with face inclination
overall factor of safety. Analysis and design of greater than the angle of shearing resistance
reinforced soil slopes is usually carried out using of the fill in the upper part;
commercially available software.
b) Anchored earth or multi-anchored
7.3 The design procedure for shored reinforced soil structures, wherein fills are reinforced with
walls and slopes considers the stabilizing effect of metallic bars or strips with an anchor
the shoring wall on the long-term stability of the mobilizing passive resistance at the end.
reinforced soil wall/slope mass. A LRFD approach Though such structures have many
is adopted for the design of shored reinforced soil similarities with reinforced soil structures,
walls and an ASD approach is recommended for they may have significant differences also
shored reinforced soil slopes. and are not covered by this code; and
c) Design for applications like soil
7.4 An allowable stress design (ASD) approach is reinforcement below structural
adopted for the design of embankments on soft soils. footings/rafts, load transfer platforms, hard
Additional ground improvement measures such as standages and within the pavements,
the piles, stone columns, sand drains etc. may also railway track beds, etc, are not covered by
have to be employed are not covered by this code. this code.

8 CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT 10 REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURES

WHICH MAY NEED ADDITIONAL
8.1 In terms of the load versus elongation ANALYSIS AND CHECKS
characteristics of the reinforcement namely the
stress-strain characteristics of the fill, reinforcements 10.1 The recommendations on materials, design,

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construction, drainage and detailing presented in this 10.2 It should be noted that provisions in this code
code are applicable for reinforced soil structures are applicable for typical situations. It may therefore
used for different applications. However, in some not be adequate to directly adopt the same in the case
instances, the procedures given in this code may not of ‘a typical’ situations arising out of geometry,
be sufficient for the complete design of the loading and field conditions, which need to be
reinforced soil structures and additional analyses, carefully investigated, analysed and designed.
detailing and treatments may be required to ensure
the safety, serviceability and durability of the 11 ORGANIZATION OF THE CODE
structure. Examples of such structures include:
This code comprises 10 sections. Section 1 defines
a) Tall reinforced soil structures (reinforced
the scope, terminology and symbols and presents a
soil walls with height greater than 15 m and
brief outline of the basic concepts, design
reinforced soil slopes with height greater
philosophy and some of the limitations of this code.
than 30 m): In some cases, it may be
Section 2 provides recommendations on
required to consider aspects like the
geotechnical and geophysical investigations and
compressibility of fill, compressibility of
testing. Section 3 pertains to the materials including
facing and their effects on connections. It
reinforcement, facing, fill and drainage. Section 4
may be required to supplement the design
covers the design of reinforced soil walls
calculations recommended in this code
with a normal retaining function including
with more advanced numerical analysis
recommendations on the design of structures with a
techniques like finite element or finite
complex geometry and waterfront structures.
difference methods;
Section 5 presents the design and detailing of
b) Reinforced soil structures with more than reinforced soil slopes. Section 6 pertains to the
two tiers; and design of reinforced soil true abutments and
c) Reinforced soil structures retaining water Section 7 provides recommendations on the design
or exposed to water bodies: Although some of shored reinforced soil structures. Section 8 covers
guidance is given in Section 4, the effects the design of embankments on poor ground
of submergence, seepage, sudden draw stabilized with basal reinforcement or basal
down, internal erosion and piping, scour, mattress. Section 9 provides recommendations on
flow velocity, current velocity, abrasive the drainage of reinforced soil structures. Section 10
forces, and cyclic waves etc need particular presents recommendations on the detailing and
attention with respect to material construction of reinforced soil structures.
specifications, design, detailing,
construction and monitoring.

SECTION 2
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS

12 INTRODUCTION the reinforced soil structures, for example,

for global stability analysis;
12.1 This chapter provides requirements related to
b) To obtain data on subsurface conditions at
subsurface investigations for reinforced soil
the location of the reinforced soil structures
structures, including the planning and reporting of
for the design and monitoring of ground
subsurface investigations and general requirements
improvement;
for commonly adopted field and laboratory tests.
c) To obtain data on subsurface conditions at
12.2 The objectives of subsurface investigations for the location of the reinforced soil structures
reinforced soil structures include: for assessment of construction problems
and difficulties; and
a) To obtain data on subsurface conditions at
the location of the reinforced soil structures d) To identify potential, borrow areas of fill
for evaluation of stability and serviceability materials and to assess the geotechnical and
of the reinforced soil structures, including chemical characteristics as well as quantity
lateral sliding, bearing capacity, lateral of fill materials.
extrusion, global stability, liquefaction,
ground subsidence, settlement, and 12.3 The subsurface investigations shall be carried
drainage. At select locations, data on out by personnel with specialized knowledge and
subsurface conditions may be required in a experience of fieldwork and laboratory testing.
direction perpendicular to the alignment of

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A qualified and experienced geotechnical engineer b) The type/classification of each
shall prepare the geotechnical investigation report. subsurface stratum at the location of
reinforced soil structures;
13 GEOTECHNICAL CATEGORIES
c) Geotechnical design parameters
for subsurface strata including
For analysis purposes, reinforced soil structures are drained/undrained shear strength
geotechnically categorized as follows: parameters, deformation modulus,
a) Geotechnical Category A — These consolidation characteristics,
structures include: permeability, liquefaction potential;
1) Conventional reinforced soil ramps – d) The depth of groundwater table and its
walls or slopes; and seasonal variations;
2) Reinforced soil slope embankments e) The availability and volume of suitable
and earth structures fill materials and their characteristics
including grain size distribution, grain
b) Geotechnical Category B — These are shape, atterberg limits, shear strength
reinforced soil structures that fall outside parameters, compaction characteristics,
the conventional indicated as Category A, chemical characteristics (resistivity, pH,
such as: chloride content);
1) True abutments; f) Information on underground utilities
2) Shored reinforced soil structure; and obstructions which may cause
3) Reinforced soil structures with height difficulties in the construction of
greater than 10 m; reinforced soil structures or which may
be affected or damaged by the
4) Reinforced soil structures with
construction of reinforced soil
foundations requiring ground
structures; and
improvement;
5) Reinforced soil systems involving g) Any other specific subsurface features
abnormal risks, complex profiles, which may pose a risk to the
unusual or exceptionally subsoil safety, serviceability, durability and
conditions, or difficult loading constructability of the reinforced soil
conditions; structure.
6) Systems in highly seismic zones
15 COMPONENTS OF THE SUBSURFACE
(Zone 4 and Zone 5); and
INVESTIGATION PROGRAMME
7) Systems in probable areas of scour,
areas subjected to flooding and The major components of the subsurface
sudden drawdown, site instability, or investigation programme include the following:
persistent ground movements for any
reason. 15.1 Desk Study
Subsurface investigations for geotechnical This includes a review of available information on
Category A structures shall require standard local geology and geotechnical data at nearby
detailed geotechnical investigations. Geotechnical locations. The information will be greatly useful in
Category B structures shall require additional planning the extent of investigations and selecting
investigations necessary to those circumstances that the appropriate method of investigation and
classify the structure and its components under that selection of appropriate field tests and sampling.
category.
15.2 Site Reconnaissance/Walkover Survey
14 INFORMATION REQUIRED FROM THE
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS 15.3 Geological Mapping
The important information required from the 15.3.1 Test Pits
subsurface investigation programme includes the
following: Test pits are suitable for sites where rock is
a) The sequence, depth, thickness of encountered at shallow depths. Representative and
subsurface strata at the location of the undisturbed soil samples could be collected
reinforced soil structures; from test pits. Test pits are also suitable for visual

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inspection of subsurface strata and verifying the boreholes in some cases) for determination
presence of utilities and other underground features. of grain size distribution, grain shape,
Atterberg limits, specific gravity, organic
15.3.2 Soundings content, compaction characteristics, shear
strength characteristics, permeability, swell
Static cone penetration test (SCPT) is suitable in characteristics, chemical characteristics
sedimentary deposits like sands, clays and silts. including resistivity, pH and chloride
SCPT is generally not suitable in dense gravels, content; and
boulders, residual soils, IGMs and rocks.
e) Tests on groundwater samples may be
required in some cases (for example, where
15.3.3 Boreholes
groundwater may flow into hillside
reinforced soil structures) to determine
Boreholes are suitable in most ground conditions
resistivity, pH and chloride content.
and facilitate exploration up to large depths and
facilitate collection of representative and
16 INFORMATION REQUISITES TO
undisturbed samples of soils and rock cores and
PLANNING AN INVESTIGATION
conducting of field tests at different depths.
Boreholes also allow determination of ground water
The information from project inputs, preliminary
levels and collection of ground water samples.
desk studies, and site reconnaissance shall be
reviewed before planning an investigation.
15.3.4 Field Tests in Boreholes
16.1 Project Inputs
Field tests are conducted at regular intervals at
different depths in boreholes. Field tests include:
The geotechnical category of the structure shall be
Standard penetration test (SPT), field vane shear test
determined. Due consideration shall be given to
(FVST) and pressure meter test (PMT).
various aspects and requirements of the project on
which geotechnical factors will have an impact,
15.3.5 Geophysical Tests
minor or major.
The geophysical investigations shall be conducted as
a supplement to the geotechnical investigation in 16.2 Preliminary Desk Studies for the Feasibility
major projects. Phase of the Project

15.3.6 Laboratory Tests on Soil, Rock and Ground Prior to the first site visit or chalking out the first
Water Samples — Laboratory tests include: subsurface investigation program, initial desk
studies shall be carried out to collect necessary
a) Tests on representative soil samples of general information, including:
foundation strata (SPT samples from
borehole, bulk samples from test pits) for a) Seismicity of the region within which the
determination of grain size distribution, project site is located;
Atterberg limits, specific gravity, organic b) Topography maps of the region to a scale
content; amenable for study;
b) Tests on undisturbed soil samples from c) Records of high-water levels, flood levels,
foundation strata (usually thin-walled tube and other hydrological data;
samples from medium stiff to very stiff
clay/silt strata) for determination of shear d) Erosion and scour data for the adjoining
strength and consolidation characteristics; river(s), if any;
c) Tests on rock cores from foundation strata e) Landslides, subsidence etc in the region;
for determination of porosity, uniaxial
f) Any geotechnical phenomena peculiar to
compressive strength (soaked and
the region, including the presence of
unsoaked), point load index (soaked and
expansive soils, chemical content of sub-
unsoaked). Usually coring in rock and tests
soil and/or groundwater that could be
on rock cores will be required only in cases
harmful to geosynthetics, concrete or
where the rock is encountered at less than
reinforcement steel;
10 m depth below GL;
d) Tests on representative soil samples of fill g) Subsurface investigation reports for the site
materials (usually bulk samples from if conducted in the past or reports for sites
test pits, but may include samples from in the vicinity;

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h) Construction records of sites in the vicinity, e) Trial pits and hand auger details that would
including the following information: give some details of the upper regions of
the sub-surface;
1) Type of foundations adopted;
f) Any outstanding geological features such
2) Load-carrying capacities considered;
as ravines, faults, escarpments, flow
3) Deformations of the foundations, if patterns on a macroscopic scale of
any observed and recorded; adjoining river, stream etc;
4) Groundwater encountered and how it g) Evidence of landslides and a visual review
was tackled during deep excavations; of slope stability in hilly terrain by an
expert eye;
5) Issues related to expansive soils;
h) Water levels in streams and river traversing
6) Distresses in the constructed structure, at/near the site, including seasonal
if any; and fluctuations, high flood marks, etc;
7) Any problems/issues encountered j) Evidence of changes in flow patterns of
during construction. watercourses;
j) Underground obstacles that can hamper
k) Groundwater levels as observed from local
geotechnical investigations, including open wells and seasonal fluctuations as
water supply lines, sewer lines, obtained from local inquiries;
drainage systems, buried electrical/
optic fibre/telecommunication cables, an m) Behaviour of existing structures, including
above-ground structure such as overhead bridges and culverts, their subsoil and
transmission lines requiring safe clearances foundation details, foundation types, their
etc; load-carrying capacities, construction
problems, if any, scour issues, river
k) Any changes expected in the course and training works, etc; and
profile of a stream nearby;
n) Inquiries for sources of supply of water and
m) Availability of water at the site, including electric power during investigations.
the adequacy of borewells; and
n) Logistics to the site to bring equipment 17 PLANNING, DESIGN AND EXECUTION
from the nearest rail head and approach OF THE SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
roads. Also, consider the need to make PROGRAMME
temporary unpaved roads to facilitate
equipment movement to various test 17.1 The key elements in the planning and design of
locations. the subsurface investigation program include the
following:
NOTE — The above information may be available
with Survey of India, Geological Survey of India,
local authorities, including the collector’s office, the a) The number, location and depth of
local PWD and Gram Panchayats. Further boreholes, soundings (SCPT) and test pits
information may be obtained from the locals and
along the alignment and perpendicular to
agriculturists residing in the locality.
the alignment of the reinforced soil
16.3 Site Reconnaissance structures;

Information obtained from preliminary desk studies b) The type and number (frequency) of field
shall be confirmed by a site reconnaissance. The tests to be conducted in boreholes for
following points shall be noted during the various types of strata;
reconnaissance: c) The type and number of undisturbed
a) The local topography of the site; samples to be collected from boreholes;
b) Obstructions above the ground and below d) The laboratory test program for soil, rock
the ground, including culverts, etc; and groundwater samples from foundation
strata;
c) The nature of the vegetation, including the
types of crops cultivated, which can reflect e) The type, spacing and depth of geophysical
upon the soil type, ground moisture investigations along the alignment and
conditions, water table etc; perpendicular to the alignment of the
d) Access to the site locations; reinforced soil structures;

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f) The scope of geological mapping to be a) Finalization of the key elements of the
carried out by geologist; subsurface investigation program during
the planning phase;
g) The number, location and depth of test pits
and boreholes (where applicable) in borrow b) Termination of boreholes, additional
areas and laboratory test programme for fill boreholes, tests, any changes in the
materials; and programme, etc during the fieldwork
phase;
h) The information to be included in the
factual and interpretative reports for c) Finalization of the laboratory test
geological, geotechnical and geophysical schedules; and
investigation reports.
d) Review the factual and
interpretative geotechnical/geological/
17.2 The above key elements should be finalized on
geophysical investigation reports to
the basis of a careful evaluation of all relevant
ensure that the reports include
factors and in consultation with the agencies
necessary and sufficient information for
responsible for the design and construction of the
the design.
reinforced soil structures.
18 EXPLORATION METHODS
17.3 Important aspects to be considered while 18.1 Trial Pits
finalizing the key elements of the subsurface
investigation programme include: Trial pits shall be excavated to the required depth to
collect samples and perform relevant tests. The four
a) The type of the reinforced soil structure and sides of the pits if needed, shall be stabilized by
performance requirements – reinforced soil either telescoping (stepped excavation) or by
structures retaining embankments, hillside shoring and strutting. In every trial pit, including
fills or load bearing abutment; height and those excavated for tests, pocket penetrometer tests
face inclination of reinforced soil shall be generously carried out at different depths in
structure, width of embankment; type of different strata in plastic soils.
reinforcement – geosynthetic/metallic;
The soil profile for all four walls of the trial pit shall
b) Topography of the site;
be logged. Each wall shall be identified with respect
c) Ground conditions — Selection of to compass direction. Measurement of depths from
appropriate field tests and sampling the ground surface to the boundaries of various strata
methods require some information on the shall be measured at the four corners of the pit.
nature of the strata anticipated. This
information may be available from desk Disturbed Sample locations shall spread over the
study, previous investigations in nearby marked area in the borrow area.
locations, investigations done during
feasibility and preliminary investigation 18.2 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
phases and local experience;
Standard Penetration Tests shall be carried out in a
d) Poor ground conditions — Requirements borehole as per IS 2131, generally at 3.0 m intervals
for investigations may be more stringent in and at every noticeable change of stratum. The first
the case of poor ground conditions like test shall generally begin at 1.0 m to 1.5 m depth,
very soft and soft clays, organic soils, deep unless UDS can be collected at that depth.
deposits of weak and compressible soils Generally, SPT and UDS shall be conducted
etc, for example, more number of boreholes alternatively at 1.5 m intervals. If UDS cannot be
and soundings, deeper boreholes and collected at a depth owing to subsoil conditions, it
soundings; and shall be replaced by the SPT below the disturbed
e) Seismicity — Liquefaction of the zone during the sampling attempt. Samples from the
foundation strata is an important split spoon sampler of SPT shall be maintained as
consideration in Seismic Zone IV and disturbed samples.
Zone V.
SPT shall also be conducted in weathered/soft rock
17.4 The agency responsible for designing the with rock quality designation (RQD) less than
reinforced soil structures should be actively 25 percent. Its procedure shall be the same as for soil
involved in the technical aspects at all stages of the except that penetration for 20 and 100 blows shall be
subsurface investigation programme. noted.

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18.3 Vane Shear Test (VST) b) Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves
(MASW) — in both normal and irregular
Field vane shear tests shall be conducted in soil profiles;
boreholes with very soft to firm cohesive strata, as
c) Cross Hole Seismic Tests — using three
per procedure in IS 2720 (Part 30), to evaluate shear
boreholes, one for source and two for
strengths, particularly where undisturbed samples
receivers;
are difficult to collect.
d) Electrical Resistivity Method — to
At each test location, the vane shear test shall be determine soil resistivity or detect weak
conducted in two stages; zones under hard strata; and
a) In the first stage, the test shall be done in e) Ground Penetrating Radar — to detect
undisturbed soil; and utilities and other anomalies in the
subsurface.
b) In the second stage, the test shall be
conducted on the remoulded soil.
Geophysical investigations shall be treated as
supplementary testing and not a substitute for direct
18.4 Permeability Test
physical testing in geotechnical investigations.
Permeability tests shall be conducted following
18.7 Calibration of Equipment for Testing
IS 5529 (Part 1) for soils and rocks in a borehole, as
per the design and construction requirements. All the equipment/instruments for any of the above
methods shall be properly calibrated at the start of
The test shall be conducted as a series of tests at the work to reflect factual values. The instruments
different pressures at a given depth. A series of three shall be tested at an approved laboratory, and the test
tests is desirable with the maximum pressure applied reports shall be made available.
in three equal increments, then reduced with
decrements of the same amount. 19 NUMBER, LOCATION AND SPACING OF
BOREHOLES
18.5 Static Cone Penetration Test
19.1 Reinforced Soil Structures
This test shall be conducted as per IS 4968 (Part 3).
An electric cone shall be preferred for testing over The number, spacing and location of boreholes shall
the mechanical cone. be decided with a view to obtain reasonably reliable
and sufficiently detailed information on the
18.6 Geophysical Methods subsurface conditions along the alignment of the
reinforced soil structures. The recommendations
Geophysical methods shall be used as per the given in the Table 1 shall be considered as
requirements of the project and the expected site minimum requirements.
conditions. Depending on the requirements, one or
more of the following methods can be adopted:
a) Seismic Refraction — in normal soil
profile conditions;

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Table 1 Minimum Requirement for Number, Location and Spacing of Boreholes
(Clause 19.1)

Sl No. Type of Reinforced Soil Height/Ground Number/Spacing/Location of

Structure Conditions Boreholes

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) Reinforced soil walls and steep Height > 10 m or poor 50 m(2)(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
slopes on reasonably level ground conditions(1)
ground retaining embankments
ii) Height < 10 m or other 100 m(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
than poor ground
conditions
iii) Reinforced soil closure walls of Minimum two boreholes(9)
approach embankments
iv) Reinforced soil true/load bearing Minimum two boreholes (9)
abutments
v) Height > 10 m or poor 100 m(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
ground conditions(1)
Reinforced soil shallow slopes
vi) on reasonably level ground Height < 10 m or other 200 m(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
retaining embankments than poor ground
conditions
vii) Hillside reinforced soil walls and 100 – 200 m(10)
slopes
viii) Basal reinforced embankments 100 m(2)(3) (4) 5) (7)
on poor ground

(1)
Poor ground conditions include a) Soils having low shear strength and high compressibility like very soft/soft/medium stiff clays
and silts (SPT N < 8 or undrained shear strength < 50 kPa) and organic soils, b) Very loose/loose sands (SPT < 10)
susceptible to liquefaction.
(2)
In the case of embankments, the recommended spacing is for the embankment as a whole. The boreholes should be distributed on
both sides of the embankment to evenly cover the reinforced soil structures on either side.
(3)
At least one borehole should be at the location of the maximum height of reinforced soil structure/embankment.
(4)
At critical locations (for example, location of maximum height of reinforced soil structure/embankment), one to two additional
boreholes or SCPT may be carried out outside the footprint of the reinforced soil structure/embankment to assess the
subsurface conditions in a direction perpendicular to the alignment of the reinforced soil structure/embankment for global
stability analysis.
(5)
Where subsurface conditions are favourable up to 30 percent of the boreholes may be replaced by static cone penetration tests
(SCPT), subject to the approval of the engineer.
(6)
At locations where rock/weathered rock is encountered at a shallow depth, which can safely support the reinforced soil structure,
test pits may be used instead of boreholes, subject to the approval of the engineer.
(7)
For reinforced soil structures and embankments with a length of more than 500 m, it is recommended to carry out geophysical
investigations. Where geophysical investigations are carried out complying with the requirements of this code, the spacing of
boreholes may be increased up to twice the value prescribed above.
(8)
Boreholes shall be located within or very close to the footprint of the reinforced soil zone as far as possible, except for (4) as noted
above.
(9)
Boreholes shall be located within the footprint of the reinforced soil zone, preferably one borehole each close to the ends of the
reinforced soil wall.
(10)
For reinforced soil walls and slopes in hilly areas, access to drilling equipment may be a significant constraint. In such cases, it is
advisable to use a judicious combination of geophysical methods and boreholes, which may be finalized in consultation with an
engineering geologist during the planning phase. The engineering geologist is expected to reconnaissance the site, map geological
features, and identify suitable locations for investigations.

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19.2 Borrow Areas and Ash Ponds and retained fills and which may undergo shear
failure, significant deformation, or liquefaction,
The geotechnical testing shall be carried out for thereby influencing the stability or serviceability of
1 sample per 3 000 m3 of soil from the prospective the reinforced soil structures.
borrow area. Hence, the location and spacing of
geotechnical test points shall depend upon the 20.3.2 The depth of investigation should be decided
estimated areal extent of the borrow area and/or ash based on the zone of interest or significant influence
pond. for different design limit states. The depth of the
zone of interest for different design limit states is as
Geotechnical investigations shall be carried out by follows:
trial pits, which may be followed by boreholes for
deeper exploration, as per need. a) Bearing capacity of reinforced soil
structure: 1.5 times the height of the
20 DEPTH OF EXPLORATION reinforced soil structure;
b) Overall bearing capacity of embankment:
20.1 Geophysical Tests Width of embankment;

Depth of exploration by geophysical investigations c) Settlement: 4 times the width of

is generally guided by the purpose of the embankment/hill-side fill; and
investigation and the geometry of reinforced soil d) Liquefaction: 25 m.
structure:
a) For detecting utilities, the depth of 20.3.3 The depth of boreholes/soundings shall be
exploration can be up to 5 m; sufficient to obtain the required information for all
weak/compressible/liquefiable strata within the
b) For other anomalies in soil strata, it shall be
zone of interest.
at least 10 m or 1.5 times the height of
structures whichever is higher; and
20.3.4 As a general rule, the depth of
c) For seismic design, if needed, the depth of boreholes/soundings shall not be less than the
explorations shall be at least 30 m. values recommended in Table 2.

20.2 Trial Pits

20.4 Static Cone Penetration Tests
Owing to inherent limitations, the depth of
exploration with trial pits is limited to 6 m or within Owing to practical limitations of the static cone
weak or weathered rock. Trial pits are generally apparatus, the maximum depth of exploration does
clubbed with boreholes that do not have major not generally exceed 10 m to 15 m, depending on the
limitations for depth of exploration. subsurface strata encountered.

20.3 Borehole Investigations 21 SELECTION OF TYPE OF TEST

20.3.1 The depth of borehole exploration shall be The field and laboratory test methods for each type
sufficient to investigate all strata which may of strata should be chosen appropriately to
experience a significant increase in stresses due to determine geotechnical design parameters. General
the loads imposed by the reinforced soil structures guidance is given in the Table 3.

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Table 2 Recommendations for Minimum Depth of Boreholes
(Clause 20.3.4)

Sl No. Type of Reinforced Soil Structures Minimum Depth of Boreholes/Soundings

(1) (2) (3)
i) Reinforced soil walls and slopes Least of the following: (1) (2) (3)
retaining embankments, closure walls
a) Four times the height of the
of approach embankments; true
reinforced soil structure
abutments
b) Two times the average width of
embankment
c) 30 m

ii) Hillside reinforced soil walls and Least of the following: (1) (3)
slopes
a) Four times the height of the
reinforced soil structure
b) 30 m

iii) Basal reinforced embankments Least of the following: (1) (2) (3)
a) Two times the average width of
embankment
b) 30 m

(1)
Boreholes may be terminated if the rock or weathered rock with SPT N  100 is encountered at a depth  10 m;
in such cases drilling into rock is not usually required. When rock is encountered at a depth less than 10 m, the
continuity of rock strata must be ensured by drilling a minimum of 3 m into the rock.
(2)
At locations with deep deposits of compressible soils, boreholes/soundings shall extend to all layers of organic
soils and fine-grained soils (clays/silts) with a consistency ranging from very soft to stiff (SPT N < 15 or
undrained shear strength < 100 kPa), within the zone of interest. Caution must be exercised at sites where silt/clay
strata alternate with sand/gravel strata. At such locations, the depth of exploration should be decided based on
the understanding of local geology and past experience.
(3)
In seismic zone IV and zone V minimum depth of boreholes and soundings shall not be less than 25 m unless the
rock is encountered at a lesser depth.

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Table 3 Selection of Type of Tests Based on Subsoil Strata
(Clause 21)

Sl No. Design Limit Property Type of Soil Suitable Remarks

State
Preferred Acceptable
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
i) Bearing capacity/ Effective angle Sands SCPT, SPT, PMT, DMT 1) Laboratory tests on
global stability of shearing Gravels SPT, PMT reconstituted samples may not
resistance () Residual soils SPT, PMT correctly represent in-situ
conditions.
2) For PMT, borehole diameter
should be uniform and
compatible with the pressure
meter and borehole sides shall
be stable.
Very soft/soft FVST SCPT SPT may be used with caution
clays/silts when it is not practically
feasible to conduct FVST or
CPT.
Undrained shear Medium stiff to SCPT, PMT, SPT Driving the sampler using
strength (su) stiff clays/silts Lab tests on impact shall be avoided.
good quality
UDS
Very stiff to hard Use of SCPT is limited to its
clays/silts PMT, SPT, SCPT reaction capacity.
ii) Settlement Sands SCPT, PMT, SPT
Drained modulus DMT
(E) Gravels PMT, SPT
Residual soils PMT, SPT
Undrained Clays/silts SCPT, PMT, SPT
modulus (Eu) DMT

e0, Cc, Cr, p, cv Clays/silts Consolidation tests on good Correlations with liquid limit,
quality UDS water content etc are not
reliable
iii) Liquefaction Sands SPT, SCPT, Vs
where
SCPT = Static cone penetration test;
SPT = Standard penetration test;
PMT = Pressure meter test;
FVST = Field vane shear test;
DMT = Dilatometer test;
UDS = Undisturbed sample;
Vs = Shear wave velocity;
e0 = Initial void ratio;
Cc = Compression index;
Cr = Recompression index;
p = Pre-consolidation pressure; and
Cv = Coefficient consolidation in vertical direction.

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22 BORING AND SAMPLING f) The core shall be removed from the
drill-hole immediately if blocking of the bit
22.1 Boring in Soils or grinding of the core is apparent,
regardless of the length of the run made
a) Hand-held augers can be used to drill for
thus far;
shallow depth, generally restricted to site
reconnaissance activities; and g) The ease or difficulty of drilling at different
depths shall be carefully noted and
b) Mechanised boring shall be used to create
recorded during drilling. The returning drill
deep boreholes. Three primary methods of
water shall be kept constantly under
mechanised boring are:
observation, and its character, such as
1) Percussion drilling w/o casing; clarity, turbidity, colour, shall be recorded;
2) Wash boring; and h) Core recovery and rock quality designation
3) Rotary drilling. (RQD) shall be noted for each run
immediately after cores are taken out of the
During boring, unnecessary disturbance to the soil barrel; and
should be avoided, particularly through non-plastic j) Each core piece shall be serially and
and dry soils, soft to medium stiff clay strata. The sequentially numbered from the top
net hydraulic head at the bottom of the borehole is downwards as soon as the core pieces are
zero or slightly on the positive side within the removed from the core barrel and
borehole. Close-fitting tools such as bailer shall be accordingly placed in core boxes.
withdrawn slowly to avoid suction pressures:
a) Diameter of Boreholes — It shall permit 22.3 Soil Sampling
collecting undisturbed samples of 90 mm
to 100 mm diameter. Typically, the 22.3.1 Undisturbed Soil Sampling in Boreholes
borehole diameter is about 150 mm; and
22.3.1.1 Undisturbed soil samples (UDS) shall be
b) Casing in Boreholes — If a borehole generally collected at every 3.0 m interval and at
requires casing, the casing bottom shall be every identifiable change of soil formation. Samples
maintained within 150 mm from the
shall be minimum 90 mm diameter and generally
borehole bottom unless it reaches a stratum
450 mm long, as per IS 2132.
requiring no casing. The casing shall never
be in advance of the borehole bottom
22.3.1.2 Thin-walled open drive sampler, as per
during undisturbed sampling, standard IS 2132, shall be generally used for sampling. Its
penetration tests, and other in-situ tests. tube and cutting shoe (or edge) shall be free from
rust, pitting, burring, or other defects. Use of oil
22.2 Drilling in Rock inside the sampler shall be at the minimum
a) Boring in rock strata shall be done by using practicable.
a rotary cutting tool tipped with tungsten
carbide bits, though diamonds bits are 22.3.1.3 The collection of undisturbed samples in
preferred for better core recovery; non-cohesive (sand and silty soil) strata is difficult.
b) Drill-hole size shall generally be Piston samplers, mazier samplers or other
NX (76 mm); specialised sand samplers shall be used, but with
utmost precautions.
c) Core barrels shall normally be double-tube
ball-bearing, swivel type, with the core 22.3.1.4 The borehole bottom shall be cleaned
lifter (catcher) located in the lower end of carefully before sampling. Every care shall be taken
the inner barrel. A triple-tube core barrel to avoid disturbance of material to be sampled. The
shall be used where the rock is highly sampler shall be lowered to the borehole bottom
fragmented and the rock quality without impact and pressed into the soil in a single
designation (RQD) is less than 10 percent; continuous movement at a slow rate. The sampler
d) Drilling shall be carried out in such a shall never be pushed or driven to its full length to
manner that maximum core is recovered; avoid any pressure on the sample collected inside the
e) Coring runs shall be limited to a maximum sampler.
length of 3.0 m. When less than 50 percent
core length is recovered from a run or when 22.3.2 Disturbed Soil Samples
a geological feature is to be accurately
determined, the length of the run can be 22.3.2.1 Disturbed soil samples shall be taken at
reduced up to 0.3 m unless directed every 1.5 m interval and at every significant change
otherwise by the geotechnical engineer; of stratum in a borehole. The samples shall be placed

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without delay in air-tight glass jars or sealed 22.5.3 All samples shall be clearly labelled,
polythene bags. indicating job number, borehole number, sample
number, date of sampling, a brief description of the
22.3.2.2 Bulk disturbed samples from boreholes or sample (type, elevation etc). The top or bottom of
trial pits shall be collected if the material in the undisturbed samples shall be clearly labelled. Each
ground includes gravel or cobble-sized particles. such label shall be pasted on the container and
Such samples shall be representative. Unless another shall also be placed inside the container.
specified, it shall be a minimum of 3 kg when
collected from boreholes and 10 kg when collected 22.6 Transporting and Storing Samples
from trial pits. The samples shall be sealed into
heavy-duty polythene bags immediately after they 22.6.1 Sampling tubes containing undisturbed soil
are collected. samples shall not be exposed to direct sun and shall
be kept in shade covered with wet nonwoven
22.4 Water or Leachate Samples material. These tubes shall be transported in robust
containers with the packing of polyurethane foam or
22.4.1 Water samples shall be collected from other similar resilient material.
boreholes and at the trial pits, as specified. Likewise,
leachate samples shall be collected from areas 22.6.2 Rock cores shall be segregated accurately for
storing pond ash if it is to be used as reinforced fill each run by labelled separator blocks of at least
or backfill. 25 mm thickness. No box shall contain more than
6 m of the core. Depths of all runs shall be marked
22.4.2 The water/leachate sample shall be collected on the partitions with indelible paint. The core boxes
in an airtight, scrupulously clean glass, inert HDPE shall be prominently marked “FRAGILE, HANDLE
bottle, or jerry can. The bottle or can should be WITH CARE” and the TOP and BOTTOM of the
rinsed three times with water/leachate being box shall be clearly marked.
sampled before filling with the sample. The quantity
of each sample collected shall be about 1 litre. 22.6.3 Shipping of the samples to the testing
laboratory and their testing shall be completed as
22.4.3 The water/leachate samples shall be tested as early as possible. All unused and excess samples,
soon as possible after sampling, for sulphate (SO3) after testing, shall be retained and properly stored for
and chloride contents and its pH, and for other three months after the report submission.
cations and anions as required, with due
consideration to the material of geosynthetics 22.7 Specific Observations During Boring
proposed for the system.
The following observations shall be noted during
22.5 Sealing and Labelling Samples boring:
a) Sequence and thickness of different strata;
22.5.1 Immediately after taking an undisturbed
b) Visual description and thickness of each
sample in a tube, the cutting shoe and the adapter
stratum, including soil type, consistency,
head shall be removed along with the disturbed
colour etc;
material in that. The visible ends of the sample shall
each be trimmed off any wet disturbed soil. The ends c) Groundwater table;
shall then be coated alternately with four layers of d) Joints, fissures, artesian conditions etc;
just molten microcrystalline wax or other similar e) Spacing, condition and orientation of
material. Any space remaining at the ends of the discontinuities;
sample tube shall be solidly filled with damp saw
f) Rock quality designation (RQD); and
dust or other similar material. The ends of the
sample tube shall be covered with tight-fitting caps, g) Presence of lime, mica etc.
preferably screw caps.
22.8 Backfilling of Boreholes
22.5.2 Block samples collected from trial pits The boreholes must be appropriately backfilled
shall be coated with a succession of layers of immediately after the boring is completed.
microcrystalline wax, preferably reinforced with
layers of needle punched nonwoven. These samples 23 LABORATORY TESTS
should be packed in a suitable material and placed in
a strong case. Large samples shall be provided with 23.1 Soil and water/leachate samples procured
a tight-fitting formwork or packed in a rigid cement during geotechnical fieldwork shall be tested/
or resin to prevent fissure opening under their analysed in an appropriate laboratory. All laboratory
self-weight. tests shall be performed by qualified and

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IS 18591 : 2024

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experienced personnel familiar with and having material of geosynthetics (uncoated and
access to equipment and facilities to accurately unprotected) being used, even if the geosynthetic
determine data necessary for requirements under this reinforcement is adequately coated. While normal
code. reduction factors for environmental deterioration
may be considered, it is necessary to study reduction
23.2 Laboratory tests shall be carried out in factors for the geosynthetic, considering the ions and
accordance with the prescribed procedures in the their concentrations detected in the leachate.
relevant BIS codes of practice, standards and
guidelines and/or other specific requirements 24 THE REPORT
indicated for the project. In case of any anomalies or
contradictions between field observations and 24.1 Essence of the Subsurface Investigation
laboratory test results, the laboratory tests shall be Report
repeated as long as the sample is available.
24.1.1 The report shall generally contain the
23.3 Laboratory tests on foundation/subgrade geological history of the site, and field and
material shall be according to tests routinely laboratory observations and test results. It shall
conducted on foundations of structures. Tests shall include details of boreholes and pits, geophysical
include the requirements to determine expansive sections, summarised test data, observations and
characteristics of the overburden as well as the conclusions. It shall essentially be in SI units.
potential for liquefaction of subsurface soil strata in
Seismic Zone III upwards. 24.1.2 Actual/raw field data and laboratory
observations, and calculations of test results shall be
23.4 The disturbed soil samples from borrow areas made available along with the report.
shall be tested at least for the following:
24.1.3 The observations and results shall, in general,
a) Grain size distribution, including be summarised as per the format given in Annex D.
determination of fines (less than However, it can be modified as per the findings and
75 microns) and clay content (less than project requirements.
2 microns);
b) Liquid limit, plasticity index, shrinkage 24.2 Contents of the Report
limit on fines fraction, if any;
The report shall at least include the following, as
c) Compacted dry density — Moisture applicable:
content relationship by the modified
proctor method and determination of a) Plot plan with marked locations of all
maximum dry density and optimum sampling and test locations;
moisture content. Filter materials should be b) Layout of the borrow area or ash pond with
self-compacting, its dry density shall be marked locations of trial pits, boreholes,
measured by light hand tamping; and leachate samples, as applicable;
d) Free swell index test on a representative c) Generalised subsurface profiles along
soil sample. Soil with more than 25 percent various sections along with the SPT values
swell index shall not be used as any of the and other sounding test results;
fill; d) Geophysical test interpretations for
e) Permeability test on samples compacted to subsurface profile and observations of the
95 percent modified proctor density. Filter water table and any peculiar conditions
material should also be tested at light hand such as artesian conditions, sand blow;
tamping density; e) Graphical representation of cone
f) Consolidated drained test or direct shear penetration test results including tip
tests, as applicable, on samples at optimum resistance and friction;
moisture content condition, compacted to f) Rock mass rating as per the field
95 percent modified proctor density; and observations and IS 13365 (Part 1);
g) Chemical analyses of the material g) Chemical analyses results of groundwater
including its pH, sulphates and chloride and leachate samples along with details of
contents, particularly if pond ash is the locations and depths of sampling; and
backfill material. h) Summary of testing results, field as well as
the laboratory, including relevant graphs,
23.5 Water and leachate samples shall be routinely charts diagrams.
tested for pH and sulphate and chloride contents.
Leachates from pond ash shall particularly be tested A typical format for summarising the borehole and
for ions that can be detrimental in any manner to the test pit results is given in Annex D.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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SECTION 3 MATERIALS

25 SCOPE The performance of the reinforced soil wall mainly

depends on the friction between reinforcement and
This section specifies the requirements of different soil. Hence, a fill material with high frictional
materials to be used in reinforced soil structures. All characteristics is required and generally specified in
the designs and construction should conform to the practice. The performance requirements generally
specifications detailed in this chapter. eliminate soils with clay contents. From a
reinforcement capacity point of view, lower quality
26 FILL MATERIAL wall fills could be used for RS wall structures;
however, a high quality granular wall fill has the
26.1 In reinforced soil (RS) structures, advantages of better drainage, providing better
geosynthetics/metallic reinforcement, fill material, durability for metallic reinforcement, and requiring
drainage arrangement and facing elements are the less reinforcement. There is also significant
major components. Unlike reinforced concrete handling, placement and compaction advantages in
cantilever retaining wall, soil fill, and using granular soils. These include an increased rate
geosynthetics/metallic reinforcement with facings of wall erection and improved maintenance of wall
form a reinforced mass and act together as a alignment tolerances.
retaining structure. The engineering properties of a
reinforced fill and retained fill material in reinforced 26.3.1.2 In general, all fill material used in the
soil structures are of critical importance thus should structure for RSW structures should be free from
be given special consideration. The reinforced fill organic or other deleterious materials. It should
material should be a select fill and must conform to conform to the gradation limits, plasticity index (PI)
the properties as specified. Fig. 1 gives a schematic and soundness criteria listed below, and this presents
diagram showing different fills in reinforced soil a broad gradation range that is applicable across the
structure. country. Unstable broadly graded soils and gap
graded soils should be avoided. These soils tend to
26.2 The selection criteria of reinforced fill should pipe and erode internally, creating problems both
consider the completed structure's long-term with loss of materials and clogging the internal
performance, construction phase stability, and the drainage systems. Table 4 gives the requirements of
degradation environment created around the a select reinforced fill for an RS wall.
reinforcements. Much of engineering communities’
knowledge and experience with reinforced soil walls 26.3.1.3 While using metallic reinforcement or
(RSW) structures to date has been with select, metallic connection system, it should be ensured that
cohesionless backfill. Granular soils are ideally the fill's electro-chemical properties are satisfactory
suited to reinforced soil walls (RSW) and reinforced and would not cause or trigger corrosion of the
soil slope (RSS) structures. The conservative reinforcement. The soil shall have a resistivity of
reinforced fill property criteria cannot completely more than 5 000 ohm-cm at saturation. The water
replace a reasonable degree of construction control extract from the soil should not have chlorides more
and inspection. than 100 ppm, sulphates do not exceed 200 ppm
and pH ranges from 5 to 10. Metallic reinforcement
should not be used for soils with a resistivity of less
26.3 In general, these select reinforced fill materials
than 1 000 ohm-cm.
could be more expensive than lower-quality
materials. The specification criteria for each 26.3.1.4 Water used for compaction shall have a
application (walls and slopes) differ somewhat resistivity of more than 700 ohm cm. Besides, the
primarily based on the completed structure's water used for compaction shall have sulphates as
performance requirements (allowable deformations) SO3 less than 400 mg/lit, chlorides less than
and the design approach. The following sections 2 000 mg/l, and pH not less than 6, organic content
provide the fill requirements. less than 200 mg/l and suspended matter less than
2 000 mg/l. All the above chemical tests should be
26.3.1 Granular Fill : Select Material for the done as per IS 3025.
Reinforced Zone of Walls
26.3.1.5 The compaction specifications should
26.3.1.1 Reinforced soil walls require high-quality include a specified lift thickness and the allowable
fill for durability, good drainage, constructability, range of moisture content with reference to the
and good soil reinforcement interaction which can optimum. Compaction moisture control should be
be obtained from well-graded, granular materials. ± 2 percent of optimum moisture content and

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IS 18591 : 2024

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compaction should be based on 95 percent of and thinner lifts (maximum compacted layer
maximum dry density [Heavy compaction thickness is the same as the fill compaction layer
IS 2720 (Part 8)], compaction methodology of thickness) should be adopted near the wall face to
reinforced fill are different near the wall facing prevent the build-up of high lateral pressures and
within 1.5 m. Lighter compaction equipment facing panel movement.
(for example: walk-behind vibratory plate or roller)

FIG. 1 SCHEMATIC SHOWING DIFFERENT FILLS IN A REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE (NOT TO SCALE)

Table 4 Select Granular Fill Requirements for Reinforced Soil Walls

(Clauses 26.3.1.2 and 26.3.5)

Sl No. IS Sieve Size Percent Passing Method of

Test, Ref. to

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) 75 mm 100
ii) 425 micron IS 2720
60 to 90
(Part 4)
iii) 75 micron 0 to 15
NOTES
1 The plasticity index IS 2720 (Part 5) should be less than or equal to 6 and Cu should be greater than 2.
2 Fill containing soil greater than 15 percent passing 75 micron sieve, but less than 10 percent of particles smaller than
15 microns are acceptable. The plasticity index should be less than 6 and the drained angle of internal friction should
not be less than 30°.
3 By keeping in mind about the construction survivability of geosynthetics and epoxy coated reinforcements, it is
recommended that the maximum particle size for these materials be reduced to 19 mm for geosynthetics and epoxy and
PVC coated steel reinforcements unless construction damage assessment tests are or have been performed on the
reinforcement combination with the specific or similarly graded large size granular fill.
4 The materials shall be substantially free of shale or other soft, poor durability particles. The material shall have a
magnesium sulphate soundness loss of less than 30 percent after four cycles or a sodium sulphate value less than
15 percent after five cycles [soundness test as per IS 2386 (Part 5)].

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IS 18591 : 2024

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26.3.2 Select Reinforced Fill for Reinforced Soil reinforced fill. As with reinforced fill, a cohesion
Slopes value of zero is conservatively recommended for
the retained fill's long-term, effective strength. The
26.3.2.1 RSS structures are normally not constructed angle of internal friction should be greater than 25°
with rigid facing elements. Less select reinforced fill [see IS 2720 (Part 11) or IS 2720 (Part 12) or
can be used for RSS since facings are typically IS 2720 (Part 13)] and PI should be less than
flexible and can tolerate some distortion during 20 [IS 2720 (Part 5)] for the retained fill. The fines
construction. Even so, a high-quality embankment content passing through 75 micron sieve shall be less
fill meeting the following gradation requirements to than 50 percent. Drainage detailing should be taken
facilitate compaction and minimize reinforcement care as per Section 9.
requirements is recommended. Table 5 presents the
recommended reinforced fill requirements for 26.3.4.2 For back to back walls wherein the free
RSS construction. ends of the two walls' reinforcement are spaced apart
less than or equal to one-half the design height of the
26.3.2.2 RSS reinforced fill compaction should be taller wall, same material as reinforced fill should be
based on 95 percent of MDD [IS 2720 (Part 8)] and used for the space between the free ends of the
± 2 percent of optimum moisture. Issues with reinforcements as well.
drainage problems, excessive distortion and
settlement must be carefully evaluated with 26.3.4.3 If undisturbed samples cannot be obtained
fine-grained and/more plastic soils. for back cut construction, friction angles may be
obtained from in-situ tests or by correlations with
26.3.3 Design Strength of Reinforced Fill index properties. The strength properties are
Materials required for the determination of the coefficients of
earth pressure used in design as well as for overall
The angle of internal friction should not be less than stability analysis. In addition, the position of
30° (see IS 2720 (Part 11) or IS 2720 (Part 12) or groundwater levels above the proposed base of
IS 2720 (Part 13). In all cases, the cohesion of the construction must be determined in order to evaluate
reinforced fill is to be neglected. hydrostatic stresses in the retained fill and plan an
appropriate drainage scheme to control groundwater
26.3.4 Retained Backfill and Natural Retained conditions. An appropriate drainage scheme behind
Soil the reinforced zone also needs to design for the
reinforced wall to retain any waste materials and
26.3.4.1 Retained backfill can be different from the poorly draining materials (refer Section 9).

Table 5 Fill Requirements for a Reinforced Soil Slopes

(Clauses 26.3.2.1, 26.3.5 and 42.2.1)

Sl No. IS Sieve Size, µ Percent Passing Method of Test,

Ref. to
(1) (2) (3) (4)
i) 80 000 100
ii) 4 750 20 to 100 IS 2720
iii) 425 0 to 60 (Part 4)
iv) 75 0 to 50
NOTES
1 The plasticity index of soil IS 2720 (Part 5) should be less than or equal to 20.
2 By keeping in mind about the construction survivability of geosynthetics and epoxy coated reinforcements, it is recommended
that the maximum particle size for these materials be reduced to 19 mm for geosynthetics and epoxy and PVC coated steel
reinforcements unless construction damage assessment tests are or have been performed on the reinforcement combination with
the specific or similarly graded large size granular fill.
3 Magnesium sulphate soundness loss has to be of less than 30 percent after four cycles (or a sodium sulphate value less than
15 percent after five cycles).

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IS 18591 : 2024

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26.3.5 Pond Ash should be ensured that the aggregates are not friable,
flaky, elongated and are sound in strength.
In view of the abundant availability of pond ash in Alternatively, a geo-composite that ensures
India, it has been successfully utilised as a adequate drainage can be provided. The typical
backfill/reinforced fill in many inter changes drainage detailing for RS structures under different
approaches. Pond ash is also generally preferred conditions is given in Section 9.
material for RSS construction over weak
subsoil, both drained and undrained conditions. Table 6 Gradation Requirements for Drainage
IS 3812 (Part 2) provides description about pond ash
Bay
and bottom ash. Either pond ash or bottom ash can
be used as reinforced fill or retained fill. Chemical (Clause 26.3.6)
requirements of pond ash and bottom ash for Sl No. Sieve Opening Size Percentage
reinforced fill or retained fill application shall be as mm Finer
per Table 1 in IS 3812 (Part 2). The material shall
(1) (2) (3)
satisfy soundness test as per Table 2 of IS 3812
(Part 2). i) 37.5 90 to 100
Pond ash used for reinforced fill and retained fill ii) 20.0 80 to 100
shall be free-draining and shall have PI < 6 and iii) 12.5 0 to 20*
Cu > 2. It is recommended to use pond ash with
MDD greater than 10 kN/m3 [IS 2720 (Part 8)]. The
minimum angle of friction of pond ash shall be 30° 27 REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS
[IS 2720 (Part 11) or IS 2720 (Part 12) or
IS 2720 (Part 13)]. Even if the pond ash material Reinforcements can be made from metals
does not meet the gradation criteria for backfill/ (generally steel) or polymeric materials.
reinforced material (Table 4 and Table 5), this Reinforcement shall only be used if its suitability,
criterion is relaxed, considering high shear strength including durability, has been proven by trials or
and good permeability characteristics of pond ash experience, and by approved tests, carried out on the
or bottom ash. product.

Under no circumstances, multiple fill materials 27.1 Steel Reinforcement

should be used for a given stretch of wall/slope.
27.1.1 Hot Dip Galvanised Steel Strips
Metallic reinforcement should not be used in the
pond ash with a resistivity of less than 3 000 ohm 27.1.1.1 The steel strips shall be galvanized hot
cm. The pond ash should not show chlorides more rolled steel strip with transverse ridges to have high
than 100 ppm, sulphates do not exceed 200 ppm pullout capacity type high adherence (HA) or thicker
and pH ranges from 5 to 10 when metallic at connection point type high adherence reinforced
reinforcement is used. (HAR) strips.
During the construction, every care should be taken 27.1.1.2 The steel strips shall have minimum tensile
for proper drainage of the reinforced fill portion, and strength of 490 MPa complying with the
it shall be ensured that there is no movement of requirements of IS 2062 with minimum elongation
particles of pond ash through the joints in the facing (on base metal) of 18 percent or the steel strips shall
panel. Further details can be referred in drainage and have minimum tensile strength of 550 MPa and yield
construction Section 9 and Section 10. strength of 450 MPa complying with minimum
guaranteed elongation (on base metal) of 17 percent.
26.3.6 Requirements for Natural Drainage
The steel strip shall have minimum tensile, bearing
Materials
and shear strength of 490 MPa, complying with the
Typically, RS structures are not designed to requirement of IS 2062. Fig. 2 shows typical steel
withstand hydrostatic pressures. Where hydrostatic strip reinforcement used in reinforced soil walls and
pressures are likely due to submergence, the design Fig. 3 shows the typical connection details.
should account for such pressure. To ensure that
these conditions are realised in the field, adequate 27.1.1.3 The steel strips shall be positively
drainage measures need to be taken. A drainage bay connected using nuts and bolt with the facing panels
of a minimum 600 mm width at the back of the by using lugs, which are placed during pre-casting.
facing is recommended. The desirable gradation of The panel lugs are manufactured from hot-rolled
the aggregate to be used in the bay is included in steel strip. The steel strip used for lugs should have
Table 6. Besides meeting gradation requirements, it minimum tensile of 490 MPa, complying with the

*The fines (passing 0.075 mm sieve) preferably be 0 percent to 5 percent.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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requirement of IS 2062, except the elongation They shall be carefully inspected to ensure they are
(on base metal) shall be minimum 22. After true to size and free from defects that may impair
fabrication, the HA and HAR strips and panel lugs their strength or durability. The chemical
are hot dip galvanized requirements as per IS 4759, requirement of the steel listed below as soil
except that the average zinc coating weight is not reinforcement shall be as given in Table 7.
less than 520 g/m2 (75 micron).
Nominal dimensions and the design strength of the
27.1.1.4 Reinforcing strips shall be cut to the lengths strips and panel lugs for 100 years of design life are
and tolerances shown on approved drawings. Holes given in Table 8.
for bolts shall be punched in the locations shown.

Table 7 Chemical Requirement of the Steel Reinforcement

(Clause 27.1.1.4)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement, Percent

Max
(1) (2) (3)
i) Carbon: C 0.24
ii) Manganese: Mn 1.6
iii) Phosphorus: P 0.045
iv) Sulphur: S 0.045
v) Silicon: Si 0.55

Table 8 Minimum Dimensions of Steel Strips and Panel Lugs

(Clause 27.1.1.4)

Sl No. Material Type Nominal Nominal Design Strength (1), TD (kN)

Requirements Width Thickness

(mm) (mm) Main Body Connection

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

i) 405 Ribbed strip 40 5 40.87 30.42
ii) 405 Ribbed lug 40 4 – 39.02
iii) As per IS 2062
455 Ribbed strip 45 5 44.9 44.9(2)
iv) 455 Ribbed lug 45 4 – 47.56

(1)
Assumes a design life of 100 years.
(2)
Connection capacity limited by main body strength.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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FIG. 2 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL CARBON STEEL STRIP

FIG. 3 SCHEMATIC OF CONNECTION WITH STEEL STRIP

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IS 18591 : 2024

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27.1.2 Fasteners 27.2 Polymeric Reinforcement

Bolts and nuts shall be hexagonal in shape and high 27.2.1 Polymeric reinforcement can take many
strength screw conforming to IS 1364 (Part 3). They forms, such as strips, grids or sheets. Like steel
shall be 12 mm in diameter 40 mm in length with strips, polymeric strips shall be installed at
shank, hot-dip galvanized conforming to IS 5358. predetermined vertical and horizontal spacing
required by design. In contrast, only vertical spacing
27.1.3 Ladder Soil Reinforcement shall be specified for grids or sheets installed as
full-width (or with coverage ratio) reinforcement.
The ladder reinforcement shall be made of steel bar
of minimum 8 mm diameter of grade Fe 500 or 27.2.2 As required by the design, polymeric
Fe 415. The cross welded bars shall be minimum reinforcement shall be provided with certified values
8 mm diameter of 150 mm centre to centre spacing of design strengths pertaining to the specified design
of same grade. The welding shall be done by electric life and operating temperature of the reinforced fill
fusion welding process at factory. The ladder soil structure and, based on tensile creep rupture and
reinforcement shall be galvanized as per IS 2629 isochronous load-strain characteristics. The geogrid
except the zinc coating which shall be minimum and geostrap used as polymeric reinforcement
520 g/m2. materials in walls and slopes shall conform to the
IS 17373 and IS 17372 respectively. The woven
27.1.4 Hot-Dip Galvanized Prefabricated Welded geotextile made from virgin polymer of polyester and
Steel Mesh polypropylene used for walls and slopes shall
conform to the requirements specified in Table 9 and
The galvanized welded steel mesh shall be made Table 10 respectively. The woven geotextile made
from hard drawn steel wire having minimum from virgin polymer of polyester used for basal
diameter of 8 mm and complying with IS 432 reinforcement shall conform to the requirements
(Part 2), galvanization shall be done as per IS 2629 specified in Table 11. The geogrid used for basal
except the zinc coating which shall be minimum reinforcement shall conform to requirements specified
610 g/m2. The welding shall be done by electric in IS 17373.
fusion welding process at factory.

Table 9 Requirements of Woven Geotextile Made from Virgin Polymer of

Polyester for Walls and Slopes
(Clause 27.2.2)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirements Method of Test,

Ref to
(1) (2) (3) (4)
i) Ultimate tensile strength (machine ≥ 60 IS 16635
direction: MD), kN/m
ii) Ultimate tensile strength (cross ≥ 20 IS 16635
direction: CD), kN/m
iii) Elongation at ultimate strength ≤ 15 IS 16635
(MD&CD), percent
iv) Chemical resistance, strength retained ≥ 70 IS 17363
after 72 h immersion, percent
NOTES
1 Molecular weight of the polyester polymer shall be greater than 25 000 g/mol.
2 Carboxyl end groups < 30 mmol/kg.
3 The design strength of reinforcement shall be calculated as per method given in Section 4.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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Table 10 Requirements of Woven Geotextile Made from Virgin Polymer of Polypropylene
for Walls and Slopes
(Clauses 27.2.2 and 42.4)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Method of Test, Ref to

(1) (2) (3) (4)
i) Ultimate tensile strength (machine ≥ 60 IS 16635
direction: MD), kN/m
ii) Ultimate tensile strength (cross direction: ≥ 20 IS 16635
CD), kN/m

iii) Elongation at ultimate strength in MD and ≤ 35 IS 16635

CD, percent

iv) Chemical resistance, strength retained after ≥ 70 IS 17363

72 h immersion, percent
NOTE — The design strength of reinforcement should be calculated as per the method given in Section 4.

Table 11 Requirements of Woven Geotextile Made from Virgin Polymer of Polyester — Basal
Reinforcement
(Clauses 27.2.2 and 42.4)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Test Method,

Ref to
(1) (2) (3) (4)
i) Ultimate tensile strength (machine ≥ 100 kN/m IS 16635
direction: MD)
ii) Ultimate tensile strength (cross ≥ 20 kN/m IS 16635
direction: CD)

iii) Elongation at ultimate strength ≤ 15 % IS 16635

(MD&CD)

iv) Chemical resistance, strength retained ≥ 70 % IS 17363

after 72 h immersion

NOTES

1 Molecular weight should be greater than 25 000 g/mol.

2 Carboxyl end groups < 30 mmol/kg.
3 The design strength of reinforcement should be calculated as per Section 8.
4 The minimum strain requirements shall be satisfied as per Section 8 for a given application.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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28 POLYMERIC DRAINAGE PRODUCTS 28.2 A geo-composite drainage layer shall
comprise of a drain core with a geotextile filter
28.1 Nonwoven geotextiles used for separation, thermally bonded on both sides. The textile filters
filtration and drainage functions shall be as per s h a l l have flap extending beyond the core on both
IS 16362. Drainage geo-composites may also be edges. The drainage composite used in separation,
considered for drainage applications. Based on the filtration and drainage functions shall conform to the
requirements and resistance to installation as per the requirements specified in Table 12, Table 13,
site condition, the geotextiles can be classified as Table 14 and Table 15.
follows for various applications in reinforced soil
walls and slope applications.

Table 12 Selection Criteria of Geotextile Class Based on Application

(Clauses 28.2 and 42.4)

Sl No. Type of Geotextile Application

(1) (2) (3)
i) Class 1 These should be used for separation applications where harsh
installation condition prevails such as surrounding the drainage
aggregate used as chimney drain between retained soil and reinforced
soil, slope applications etc.
ii) Class 2 These should be used where moderate installation condition prevails
such as:
1) Separating the reinforced fill (pond ash) and 600 mm
drainage bay in reinforced soil walls; and
2) RS wall panel joints.
iii) Class 3 These shall be used at less severe installation condition.

Table 13 Requirements of Drainage Composite

(Clause 28.2)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Tolerance Method of Test,

Ref to
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i) Thickness at 2kPa, mm, Min 6 – IS 13162 (Part 3)
ii) Mass per unit area, g/m², Min 1 040 – IS 14716
iii) Tensile strength MD/ 20/20 - 10 Percent IS 16635
CMD, kN/m
iv) CBR puncture resistance, 3 000 IS 16078
N, Min
v) Resistance to weathering To be covered with IS 13162 (Part 2)
soil for 14 days
vi) Resistance to chemicals Excellent IS 17363
NOTE — Manufacturer has to provide test report for the factors, such as compression creep, chemical and biological clogging
and geotextile intrusion, to derive long term flow.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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Table 14 In-Plane Flow Requirements of Drainage Composite
(Clause 28.2)
Sl No. Confining Unit of In-plane Water In-plane Water Flow Method of
Pressure, kPa Measurement Flow MD (R/S) Hydraulic MD (S/S) Hydraulic Test, Ref to
Gradient - 1.0 Gradient - 0.1

Requirement Tolerance Requirement Tolerance

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (6)
i) 20 litre/m.s 2.4 - 0.40 0.67 - 0.13 IS 17179

ii) 100 litre/m.s 1.95 - 0.33 0.53 - 0.11 IS 17179

iii) 200 litre/m.s 1.45 - 0.24 0.37 - 0.07 IS 17179

NOTES
1 S/S with soft/soft foam contact surfaces to simulate textile intrusion into the core due to soil pressure from both sides.
2 R/S rigid/soft contact surfaces to simulate conditions where composite is placed against rigid concrete surface on one side and soil on other side.
3 Placement of drainage composite shall be carried out at site by keeping machine direction in vertical direction.

Table 15 Requirements of Geotextile for Drainage Composite

(Clause 28.2)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Tolerance, Percent Method of Test, Ref to

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

i) Thickness at 2kPa, mm 1 - 20 IS 13162 (Part 3)
ii) Tensile strength MD/CMD, 9.5/9.5 - 13 IS 16635
kN/m
iii) Pore size; O90 µm 120 ± 30 IS 16237
iv) CBR puncture resistance, N 1 600 - 20 IS 16078
v) Dynamic perforation cone 32 + 20 IS 13162 (Part 4)
drop, mm
NOTE — The geocomposite drain shall be tested for UV resistance and oxidation. The samples shall be tested at reputed NABL
accredited geosynthetics testing laboratory, IITs etc. The report shall not be older than 5 years.

Example Calculation of Geocomposite Drain for flow line in both directions

Vertical Drainage Ultimate flow through soil (q) = K × H × (Nf/Nd)
= 5 × 10-5 × 10 × 1 = 0.5 litre/s.m
Height of RS wall = 10 m

Permeability of soil (K) = 5 × 10-5 m/s (assumed, Reduction factor for retaining walls (as per Koerner,
for sandy soil) page 873 Vol 2 Table 8.5)
Unit weight of backfill soil (ɣ) = 20 kN/m3 For elastic deformation (RDIN) = 1.4
Coefficient of active earth pressure (Ka) = 0.5 For creep resistance (RDCR) = 1.3
Pressure at bottom of wall, P = Ka ɣ H = 0.5 × 20 ×
10 = 100 kPa For chemical clogging (RDCC) = 1.3

Assuming (Nf/Nd) = 1, where Nf and Nd are No. of For biological clogging (RDBC) = 1.25

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IS 18591 : 2024

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Required flow rate = q × RF = 0.5 × 2.96 = 1.48 l/m.s 30.1.2 Sacrificial Welded Mesh for Temporary
= 1.5 l/m.s (approx). Facing Support

At i = 1 and 100 kPa pressure, the required flow Welded mesh panels for temporary support can be
rate = 1.5 l/m.s. fabricated from ungalvanized TMT/Mild steel bars
of minimum 8 mm diameter. The steel bars used to
NOTE — The reduction factors considered are for calculation fabricate temporary welded mesh panels shall be as
purpose only and the values may vary for different
geo-composite drains. The same shall be verified from the test per specifications of the solution provider and shall
results of drainage composite by the manufacturer. be appropriate for the temporary support function
and the working stress that the temporary facing is
29 OTHER POLYMERIC PRODUCTS anticipated to be subjected to. The temporary welded
mesh panels may be fabricated at factory or site by
The specifications of other polymeric products used means of suitable welding process.
in reinforced soil structures shall conform to the 30.2 Bearing Pad Specifications
requirements specified in following table.
Walls using segmental precast concrete panels
require bearing pads in their horizontal joints
Sl No. Product Requirement
(and diagonal, if applicable) that provide some
compressibility and movement between panels
(1) (2) (3)
during elastic compression and settlement of the
i) Perforated pipes for As per IS 15328 reinforced fill and preclude concrete-to-concrete
carrying drainage contact. These materials are generally ethylene
(perforations may be propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber pads or
done at site) HDPE. Two bearing pads are usually used on 1.5 m
wide panels and at least three bearing pads with 3 m
ii) Geomembrane As per IS 16352 wide panels. A minimum of two bearing pads are
(barrier) HDPE used per horizontal panel joint.
iii) Geocells (load As per EPDM bearing pads shall meet the following
bearing applications) IS 17483 (Part 1)
material requirements given Table 16.
iv) Geocells (erosion As per
protection of slopes) IS 17483 (Part 2) 30.3 Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECP)

RECPs generally used are made of biodegradable

natural fibres such as straw, jute, coir or wood
30 OTHER MATERIALS shavings (used individually or in combination)
stuffed into polymeric or organic nettings on either
30.1 Technical Specification of Welded Wire side to form a mat or blanket like structure.
Mesh Facing Obviously when mats are made using natural fibres,
they would be biodegradable also, but they don't
30.1.1 Permanent Facing System provide everlasting protection. RECPs are used in
combination with seed beds to enhance the
Galvanized welded mesh panels for permanent establishment of vegetation.
facing shall be fabricated from minimum 8 mm
diameter steel bars manufactured and cold drawn as The RECP shall meet the requirements specified in
per IS 7887 Grade 4 or SAE 1018 with yield strength Table 17.
350 MPa, tensile strength 450 MPa, minimum
elongation 10 percent. Welding penetration at joints Field conditions like harsh areas/high survivability
of welded mesh panels shall be minimum 8 percent requirements may warrant use of RECP mats with
of the combined diameter of the unwelded steel bars. tensile strength of 35 kN/m or more.
The weld penetration thus achieved shall provide
30.4 Others
weld strength of minimum 12 kN. The welding shall
be done by automatic or semi-automatic electric All facings systems and facing units, including
resistance welding process without using filler connections between facings and reinforcement and
wires. The weld strength of 12 kN shall be validated jointing materials, when these are needed, shall
by uniaxial weld test of samples taken randomly conform with the specification for the works and
from fabricated welded mesh panels. After welding, exhibit the long-term properties required by design.
the completed wire mesh panels shall be hot dip The other materials used in reinforced soil structures
galvanised for ensuring minimum zinc deposit of shall conform to the requirement as specified in
500 gm per sqm (70 micron) as per IS 4759. Table 18.

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IS 18591 : 2024

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Table 16 Requirements of Bearing Pads
(Clause 30.2)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Method of Test, Ref to

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) Base polymer EPDM –
ii) Colour Black Visual
iii) Grade, type and class of EPDM Grade 2, Type A, Class A ISO 4097
iv) Hardness (Sh.A) 80 ± 5 IS 13360 (Part 5/Sec 11)
v) Tensile strength (MPa), Min 12 IS 3400 (Part 1)
vi) Elongation at break, percent, Min 200 IS 3400 (Part 1)
vii)
Heat ageing at 70 °C for 70 h
Change in hardness, (points), Max ± 15 IS 3400 (Part 4)
Change in tensile, percent, Max ± 30
Change in elongation, percent, Max - 50 –
viii) Compression set at 70 °C for 22 h, 50 IS 3400 (Part 10/Sec 1
percent, Max and Sec 2)
ix) Resistance to ozone, quality, retention 85 IS 3400 (Part 20)
rating, percent, Min
x) Water resistance for 70 h at 100 °C, 10 IS 3400 (Part 6)
volume change, percent, Max
xi) Max ash content, percent 8±2 IS 11720 (Part 5)

Table 17 Requirements of Other Materials Rolled Erosion Control Products

Used in Reinforced Soil Structures
(Clause 30.3)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement Method of test,

Ref to
(1) (2) (3) (4)
i) Tensile strength, kN/m, Min 2 IS 16635
ii) Mass, gm/m2, Min 250 IS 14716
iii) Thickness at 2 kPa, mm, Min 6.5 IS 13162 (Part 3)
iv) UV resistance, strength retained 80 IS 17363
after 500 h exposure, percent

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IS 18591 : 2024

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Table 18 Requirements of Other Materials Used in Reinforced Soil Structures
(Clause 30.4)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirement

(1) (2) (3)
All units shall be free of cracks or defects that would interfere with
the unit's proper placing or significantly impair the structure's
strength or permanence
i) Reinforced concrete panels
Concrete panels shall be made of minimum of M-35 concrete.
Minimum thickness of 160 mm (excluding architectural finish)
Minimum steel requirement as per IS 456
ii) Precast concrete modular blocks As per 33.1.3
iii) Soil bags for wraparound fascia As per manufacturer specifications
iv) Vegetation As per 44.3 (locally available should be preferred)
v) Levelling pad — PCC Plain cement concrete (PCC) with minimum strength of 15 MPa
vi) Steel/polymer connections to As per manufacturer specifications
geosynthetic
vii) Gabion: woven wire mesh As per IS 16014 (for verticals faced and inclined units for reinforced
soil structures)

SECTION 4 DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL WALLS

31 SCOPE significant external loads:

This chapter deals with the design aspects of 32.2.1 Simple Geometry
reinforced soil wall systems for various soil
retaining applications. a) RS walls with horizontal backfill;
b) RS walls with sloping surcharge; and
32 GENERAL c) RS walls with broken slope.
32.1 Introduction 32.2.2 Complex Geometry
The reinforced soil retaining walls are structural a) Bridge abutments with RS walls (Section 6
systems where in soils are internally stabilized by — Reinforced soil true abutments or any
the inclusion of discrete layers of reinforcing strip loading cases);
elements which are generally placed horizontally
b) Multi-tiered RS walls;
between successive lifts of fill during construction.
The soil and reinforcement behave as a coherent c) Trapezoidal RS walls;
composite mass and resist the earth pressures from d) Back-to-back RS walls;
the retained soil and other externally imposed loads.
Reinforced soil structures with a face inclination e) Shored RS walls; and
greater than or equal to 70° from horizontal are f) Water Front RS walls.
generally considered as reinforced soil walls and
with a face inclination less than 70° from horizontal 32.3 Reinforced Soil Wall Applications
are considered as reinforced soil slopes. These are
more economical solutions over their conventional The reinforced soil walls are cost-effective
counterparts for example, reinforced concrete alternatives for applications compared to similar
retaining structures such as mass gravity walls, height reinforced concrete and gravity retaining
RCC retaining walls etc. walls. These includes approach to the structures such
as highways, flyovers, rail over bridge, vehicular
32.2 Types of Reinforced Soil Walls underpass and cattle underpass, bride abutments,
wing walls, temporary walls, waterfront structures
Reinforced soil walls are categorized as follows for river training, landscaping walls etc. These are
based on the geometry, surcharge loads and other also suitable in areas where the right-of-way is

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limited due to which embankments with slopes placed within the reinforcement zone in RS walls.
cannot be constructed. The proposed gradation of the fill ensures that it is
well graded, free draining and has adequate shear
33 REINFORCED SOIL WALL ELEMENTS strength once it is compacted.
AND MATERIALS PROPERTIES
33.1.1.1.2 Cohesion of the reinforced soil fill is
33.1 The typical cross section of reinforced soil
neglected in the design. The maximum effective
wall is shown in Fig. 4 which includes different
design friction angle shall be limited to 34°.
components of RS walls such as soil reinforcement,
reinforced fill, retained backfill, drainage media,
nonwoven geotextile, facing system, connection 33.1.1.1.3 For metallic reinforcement or metallic
system, levelling pad, coping beam, friction slab, connection system, it should be ensured that
crash barrier and other accessories. electro-chemical properties of the fill are
satisfactory and would not cause or trigger corrosion
33.1.1 Reinforced Fill and Retained Backfill of the reinforcement. Metallic reinforcement should
Properties not be used for soils with a resistivity of less than
1 000 ohm cm. The fill electro-chemical properties
Reinforced soil walls require high quality shall be as per Section 3 material.
granular fill for durability, adequate drainage,
constructability and soil reinforcement interaction. 33.1.1.1.4 The compaction specifications should
The reinforced fill and retained backfill shall be well include a specified lift thickness and allowable range
graded, free from organic or other deleterious of moisture content with reference to optimum.
materials and shall comply with the requirements Compaction moisture control should be ± 2 percent
mentioned in Section 3 material. of optimum moisture content. The compaction
properties are to be determined from modified
33.1.1.1 Reinforced fill proctor compaction tests using heavy compactor.
33.1.1.1.1 Reinforced fill refers to the soil material

FIG. 4 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF REINFORCED SOIL WALLS

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33.1.1.1.5 Pond ash can also be used as a fill material 33.1.2.1 Extensible reinforcement
in RS walls. The properties for the pond ash as fill
shall be in accordance to the specifications as given Reinforcements that sustain the design loads at
in Section 3 material of code of practice. strains greater than 1 percent. Types of
reinforcements includes polyester uniaxial geogrid,
33.1.1.2 Retained backfill polymeric straps, geotextiles etc. The strength of
polymeric reinforcement is affected by temperature
33.1.1.2.1 The key properties required for retained and time. Therefore, it is important that the strength
backfill are the strength and unit weight based on is evaluated considering these two factors. The
evaluation and testing of subsurface or borrow pit tensile strength shall be evaluated by conducting
data. As with reinforced fill, a cohesion value of zero wide width tensile test as per relevant test method.
is conservatively recommended for the long-term,
effective strength of the retained backfill. 33.1.2.2 Inextensible reinforcement
The strength properties are required for the
determination of the coefficient of earth pressure Reinforcement that sustains the design loads at
used in design as well as overall stability analysis. In strains less than or equal to 1 percent. Types of
addition, the groundwater levels above the proposed reinforcement includes metallic strips, grids and
base of construction must be determined to evaluate plates. In order to meet the design life, the metallic
hydrostatic stresses in the retained zone and plan an reinforcement shall be coated with zinc to delay
appropriate drainage scheme to control ground water exposure and corrosion. The zinc coating shall
conditions. confirm to relevant IS code. A sacrificial thickness
of minimum 0.50 mm shall be provided on all sides
33.1.1.2.2 It is recommended that same material which designing.
shall be used for retained fill as that of reinforced fill
that is the properties of the retained backfill shall be For inextensible reinforcements (metallic
same as those for the reinforced fill materials as per reinforcements), coherent gravity method is being
Section 3. In case if significant amount of retained followed for the design of reinforced soil walls. This
backfill is required, the minimum internal friction method is based on the monitored behaviour of
angle shall be relaxed to 25° and plasticity index structures using inextensible reinforcements and has
shall be less than equal to 20. In case of retained evolved over a number of years from observations
backfill with different soil properties that the on a large number of structures, corroborated by
reinforced fill, the design shall be done considering theoretical analysis.
the actual properties of reinforced fill and retained
backfill. 33.1.3 Facing Systems

33.1.1.2.3 If reinforced fill material is pond ash, the 33.1.3.1 Facing is an important component of
same material must be used for retained backfill. reinforced soil systems. Facings such as full height
panels, discrete/segmental concrete panels, modular
33.1.1.2.4 In case of existing natural ground or concrete blocks, welded wire grid, woven steel wire
slope, the retained mass might not be purely mesh, gabions and wrap around systems are
cohesionless. In such situations, drainage commonly used for reinforced soil structures.
blanket/chimney drainage/geo-composite drain shall Following are the major functions of the facings:
be provided between the reinforced soil zone and
retained soil as per the specifications given in a) Prevention of localized failures that is
Section 3. ravelling of fills between reinforcement
layers and erosion control in slopes;
33.1.2 Soil Reinforcement: Extensible and b) Flexible to accommodate deformations up
Inextensible Reinforcement to some extent;
The reinforcement for RS walls includes metallic c) Temporary formwork;
and polymeric type of reinforcements. Based on the d) Ease of construction; and
stress/strain behaviour of the reinforcing elements e) Architectural finish.
these are typically classified into extensible and
inextensible reinforcements. Relevant IS codes as 33.1.3.2 The facing shall be designed to withstand
mentioned in Section 3 material shall be referred stresses which typically includes normal stresses
for the specifications of soil reinforcements. The arising due to panels/blocks above it and forces and
tests (tensile strength and elongation of soil moments arising from connections to soil
reinforcement) related to the soil reinforcement reinforcement.
shall be performed at an independent accredited
laboratory which is accredited by a competent 33.1.3.3 The chosen facing should be compatible
authority. with the extensibility of reinforcement.

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Compatibility to ensure flexibility of the system layer between the drainage aggregates and the
should be attained by choosing an appropriate reinforced fill material.
combination of facing and the reinforcement.
33.1.4.3 A chimney drain should be provided
33.1.3.4 Concrete panels should be of minimum between the retained backfill and the reinforced fill
M35 concrete strength. The minimum thickness of to ensure proper drainage wherever RS walls are
the panels shall be 160 mm (excluding any provided to support cohesive retained soil with
architectural finishing). The reinforcement design of higher fine (specifically clay) content. The chimney
facing panels shall comply with the requirements as drain should be designed to carry the discharge and
given in the subsequent sections of this chapter should be provided vertically at the back of the
which is in line with IS 456. reinforced fill and continued in a horizontal extent to
a depth well below the toe of the RS wall and lead
33.1.3.5 Modular blocks should be manufactured to a drain meant to carry the discharge away from
using a block making machine and cast from a the RS wall.
cement sand mix to attain a minimum concrete
strength (M35) of 35 N/mm2. In case of blocks, the 33.1.4.4 The risk due to water and the extent of
hollow area shall not exceed 40 percent of the drainage measures required will depend on the type
cross-sectional area. The outer side of the block shall of the reinforced soil structure and the severity of its
have a minimum thickness of 85 mm and inner side exposure to water:
45 mm. Blocks may also be profiled to create
hollows between adjacent blocks. The hollow space a) Reinforced soil structures which are above
shall be filled with clean, 20 mm down sound ground water table and above high flood
aggregate to add to friction between the reinforcing levels: examples include embankments in
grid and facing blocks. The manufactured blocks sites not affected by floods and hill side
and panels should have consistency in dimensions fills where the ground water table is
and shapes. permanently below the founding level of
the reinforced soil structure. The main
33.1.3.6 Connection between the facing and the soil source of water in these structures is
reinforcement shall be done by using appropriate infiltration of rain water or snow melt from
connector which is compatible with the type of the the surface or from leaking pipes;
reinforcement and the facing system. In general, the
b) Hill side fills with high water table
connectors used are nut or bolt, HDPE inserts with
conditions: where the ground water table
bodkin joint, hollow embedded devices,
can rise above the founding level of the
polymeric/steel rods or any other type of proven
reinforced soil structures, relatively large
arrangement which is experimentally tested and
volumes of water may enter the reinforced
proven well. Connections of the facing element and
fill and design of drainage measures should
the soil reinforcement should be clearly defined and
cater to this;
tested appropriately in accredited testing facilities.
c) Reinforced soil structures which are likely
33.1.4 Drainage Considerations to be partially submerged: reinforced soil
structures located in flood-prone sites may
33.1.4.1 In normal conditions in order to ensure that be subjected to partial submergence during
no hydrostatic as well as pore pressure is developed the floods. Design should consider the
in the reinforced soil structure, adequate drainage effects of higher hydrostatic pressures and
measures need to be taken. A drainage bay of sudden draw down; and
minimum 600 mm width at the back of the facing
shall be provided as an adequate drainage measure. d) Reinforced soil structures exposed to water
Additionally, the aggregates shall not be friable, bodies: bridge approach embankments and
flaky, elongated and are sound in strength. The reinforced soil walls/slopes supporting
materials shall meet the requirements as described the banks of water bodies like
in Section 3 materials. rivers/streams/canals/ponds/reservoirs may
be subject to periodic submergence up to
33.1.4.2 Alternatively, drainage composite with the high water level and may be impacted
combination of drainage bay of 300 mm shall be by water currents. The effects of
provided behind the facing of RS walls for ensuring hydrostatic pressures, seepage pressures,
adequate drainage. However, it is not recommended scour, internal erosion and piping should be
to use drainage composite when pond ash is used as carefully evaluated and appropriate counter
reinforced fill. In case of pond ash, 600 mm wide measures provided.
drainage bay shall be used and a non-woven
geotextile shall be provided as a separation/filtration 33.1.4.5 The various approaches to minimize the

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effects of water include: construction and maintenance of the structure which
are also equally important. This design chapter has
a) Proper surface drainage measures to collect been written on the assumptions that the
and dispose of the surface runoff; aforementioned points are properly followed as per
the code of practice.
b) Use of impervious barriers to minimize the
infiltration of surface water into the 34.1.2 In the past, reinforced soil walls were
reinforced soil structure; designed using various design methods such as
c) Use of fill with sufficient permeability to allowable stress design, limit state design, limit
quickly remove the water entering into the equilibrium methods etc. Although these
reinforced soil structure and dissipate the conventional design methods based on factor of
excess pore water or hydrostatic pressures; safety can provide a basis for a safe design, load and
d) Provision of adequate subsurface drainage resistance factor design approach, being a much-
arrangements including granular/ advanced limit state method is being followed in this
geosynthetic drains, perforated pipes, panel code of practice for the design of reinforced soil
drains etc; walls.
e) Designing for anticipated excess pore-
34.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
water pressures or hydrostatic pressures
Overview
including the effects of sudden drawdown;
f) Provision of appropriate granular or 34.2.1 Load and resistance factor approach is latest
geotextile filters to prevent internal erosion design methodology adopted for the design and
and piping; and analysis of structures. This design philosophy has
g) Protection against scour through adequate been gaining ground in areas of structural
embedment and using scour protection engineering practice in many parts of the word such
aprons. as India, United States, Canada, Europe etc for
example, the euro code for soil retaining structures
Guidance for design and detailing of drainage uses the limit state design methodology, which is
measures is provided in Section 9. very similar to the LRFD methodology.

33.1.4.6 The details of other RS wall components 34.2.2 LRFD method is based on the principle that
such as friction slab, crash barrier, coping beam, the strength (resistance) of various materials is
vertical construction joints etc shall be as per design scaled down by some factors while the applied loads
and drawing. The drawing detailing of such are scaled up by some factors, and thereby the
components shall be referred from Section 10 structural elements are designed using reduced
detailing and construction. strength and increased loads. The strength of
materials considered for design is the ultimate
34 DESIGN strength, which results in utilization of elastic,
plastic and strain hardening stages of material
34.1 Design Philosophy thereby giving economical and safe design
consistently. The factors by which strength is
34.1.1 The aim of design is to achieve an acceptable reduced depends on the confidence of predictability
probability that any structure being designed will of strength of the material. Similarly, load factors are
perform satisfactorily during the intended service more for those loads which are highly unpredictable
life of the structure. Therefore, the design than loads which can be more accurately predicted.
philosophy shall include the design procedure for Thus load factor for dead load is less than that for
durability, construction and use in service as a live load or wind load as dead load will not vary as
whole. The reinforced soil wall (RSW) shall sustain much as live or wind loads. Further, LRFD method
all the loads and deformations of normal also considers serviceability limits like maximum
construction and use, adequate durability and allowable deflection, settlement etc in addition to
resistance to the extreme events which might occur the strength design.
in the design life of the structure based on the
geophysical condition of the location of the 34.2.3 Regardless of the design methodology, the
structure. The safe, serviceable and durable design fundamental analytical methods for reinforced soil
of a structure does not result only from design walls such as external and internal stability
calculations, due considerations shall be given to the evaluation remain unchanged. The primary change
properties of the materials, proper detailing of the is in the way the loads and resistances are compared
structural components, good construction practice and how the uncertainty is incorporated into the
and workmanship, quality control, inspection during design procedure.

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34.3 Definitions of Loads and Load Combinations arrangement. This load shall be categorized under
ES type loading.
34.3.1 The applicable loads which shall be account
for the design of RSW are as follows: 34.3.7 For most RS wall designs, strength limit
states control the member sizes. Service limit state
a) Dead load;
may control aspects such as joint width openings and
b) Live load (traffic); construction sequences based on the anticipated
c) Strip load (imposed load); deformations.
d) Earthquake load;
34.3.8 Extreme events may affect both member sizes
e) Hydrostatic load; and as well as deformations. The extreme events that
f) Impact load. require due consideration in the design of reinforced
soil walls are earthquake, vehicular impact and flood
34.3.2 These loads are categorized as permanent and or scour condition.
transient. The abbreviations and definitions of
different loads which are considered for the design 34.3.9 Based on the strength and service criteria,
of reinforced soil walls are shown in Fig. 5 and reinforced soil walls are designed for the following
summarized in following table: load combinations:
Permanent Loads a) Strength I;
EH Earth pressure on reinforced soil zone b) Service I;
due to retained soil mass c) Extreme event I (seismic event);
ES Crash barrier-friction slab load or d) Extreme event II (vehicular impact event);
w-beam load as a strip footing, etc and
e) Extreme event III (flood event and scour).
EV Vertical pressure or weight of
reinforced soil zone, sloping 34.3.10 The extreme event load combinations are
surcharge weight, dead load due to checked based on the location of the structure or the
pavement layers, etc event that may happen in future. The load factors
which shall be used for different load combinations
Transient Loads are discussed later in this chapter.
CT Impact load on barriers 34.4 Mode of Failures and Performance Criteria
EQ Earthquake load (seismic load)
34.4.1 Reinforced soil wall may fail in the following
LS* Live load surcharge/vehicular live
three modes that is, external, internal and compound.
load (traffic load)
In load and resistance factor design (LRFD), the
external and internal stability of the reinforced soil
34.3.3 An example of an ES load on RS wall is the wall are evaluated at strength limit states and overall
pressure from a spread footing above the reinforced stability and wall movements are evaluated at the
mass. An example of EV load is a sloping fill above serviceability limit state. These different modes of
the top of RS wall and weight of reinforced soil failure are related to the failure of the reinforced soil
zone. zone as follows:
a) External: The failure surface is located
34.3.4 As per IRC : 78, 710.6.9 live load due to outside the reinforced soil zone;
traffic (qT) is considered equivalent to 1.2 m of the
earth fill. The minimum value of live load shall be b) Internal: The failure surface is located
24 kPa. qT refers to traffic load. inside the reinforced soil zone; and
c) Compound: The failure surface is located
34.3.5 For railways, airports and aviation projects, partly inside and partly outside the
etc the live load values shall be increased reinforced soil zone.
accordingly considering the heavy axle load.
34.4.2 External stability is evaluated by assuming
the reinforced soil zone as a coherent mass with
34.3.6 In addition to the applicable loads as lateral earth pressure acting on the back side of the
mentioned in Table 24, if the gap slap pedestal is block. The three external stability modes of failure
resting on the reinforced soil wall. The dead load involve the check for following potential failure
due to the gap slab and the pedestal shall also be mechanisms (see Fig. 6):
considered in the load calculation for the design of
reinforced soil wall based on the span length and a) Sliding on the base;
geometry of the gap slab and pedestrian b) Limiting eccentricity; and
arrangement. This load shall be categorized under
ES type loading. c) Bearing capacity.
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ES (crash barrier-friction
slab load) EV (vertical load due to soil weight, sloping surcharge load, load due to
pavement layers, etc).

EH (lateral soil
pressure)

FIG. 5 DIFFERENT APPLICABLE LOAD TYPES ON REINFORCED SOIL WALLS

FIG. 6 POTENTIAL EXTERNAL FAILURE MECHANISM OF REINFORCED SOIL WALLS

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34.4.3 Internal Stability mode involves the failure of considered safe if the ratio of the factored resistance
reinforcement and depends on mainly three factors to that of the factored load is greater than 1. This
that is tensile resistance of reinforcement against ratio is termed as capacity to demand ratio (CDR).
rupture, soil-reinforcement interaction for pull out The lateral and vertical wall movements should be
and internal sliding. within the limits as stated later in the design
procedures.
34.4.4 Global stability analysis and compound
stability analysis of the reinforced soil wall shall be 34.5 Design Procedures
performed to check for any external failure mode
and for any internal failure mode other than the The basic design parameters, steps, and analysis for
aforementioned failure mechanism of external and reinforced soil wall are listed in Table 19. These
internal stability. steps are for walls with simple geometry. Additional
considerations shall be given for the design of walls
34.4.5 The factored resistance and the factored loads with complex geometries such as superimposed RS
for different checks are computed and the design is walls, true abutments etc see Fig. 18.

Table 19 Basic Design Steps for Reinforced Soil Walls

(Clause 34.5)

(1) (2) (3)

i) Step 1 Establish project requirements
ii) Step 2 Establish project parameters
iii) Step 3 Initial sizing: Wall embedment depth, design height, minimum reinforcement length and
vertical spacing of reinforcement
iv) Step 4 Coefficient of lateral earth pressure
v) Step 5 Nominal load calculations
vi) Step 6 Summary of load factors and resistance factors
vii) Step 7 External stability analysis

a) Evaluate direct sliding

b) Evaluate eccentricity
c) Evaluate bearing capacity
viii) Step 8 Internal stability analysis
a) Geometric characteristics of soil reinforcements
b) Coverage ratio calculation
c) Reinforcement layout
d) Potential failure surface
e) Define unfactored loads
f) Calculate factored tensile forces in the reinforcement layers
g) Calculate soil reinforcement resistance
h) Internal stability with respect to rupture
j) Internal stability with respect to pullout or adherence
k) Check for internal sliding

ix) Step 9 Check for connection strength and design of facing elements
x) Step 10 Check for settlements, vertical and lateral wall movements
xi) Step 11 Slope stability analysis (global stability and compound stability analysis)

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34.6 Project Requirements Sl No. Slope in Front of Minimum Depth
Wall (d) to Top of
The requirements of the project such as wall design Levelling Pad
height, batter angle, backslope and toe slope, loading
conditions, performance criteria, and construction (1) (2) (3)
constraints must be defined prior to proceeding with iii) Horizontal H/10
the design. (abutments)

34.7 Project Parameters iv) 3H : 1V H/10

The following parameters must be defined or v) 2H : 1V H/7

provided by the client or the contractor based on the vi) 1.5H : 1V H/5
properties discussed in the code of practice and
other relevant references for the Reinforced soil
walls: 34.8.1.2 It shall be noted that larger embedment
a) Existing topography of the location; depths may be required depending on shrinkage and
swelling of foundation soil, seismic activity and
b) Subsurface conditions across the site and
scour. A larger embedment depth may also be
appropriate geophysical investigation;
required based on bearing, settlement and global
c) Reinforced fill: engineering properties of stability calculations. In case of possibility of scour,
the reinforced fill material; the embedment depth should be below the maximum
d) Retained backfill: engineering properties of estimated scour depth. Embedment is usually not
the retained backfill, addressing all required for RS walls founded on rocks.
possible fills that is, in situ, imported,
onsite, etc; and
34.8.1.3 A minimum horizontal bench of 1.2 m
e) Seismic zone of the project location. width measured from the facing shall be provided
in front of walls founded on slopes as shown in
The engineering properties of the reinforced fill and Fig. 7 (B) This bench is intended to provide
retained backfill shall be as per the descriptions in resistance against bearing failure and to provide
Section 4 and Chapter 3 on materials. access for maintenance inspections.

34.8 Initial Sizing: Wall Embedment Depth,

34.8.2 Design Height (H)
Design Height, Minimum Reinforcement Length
and Vertical Spacing of Soil Reinforcements
The full height of the reinforced soil wall considered
34.8.1 Wall Embedment Depth for design is the sum total of embedment depth and
the final exposed height of the wall up to the top of
34.8.1.1 The toe of the wall shall be embedded the facing unit as shown in Fig. 4.
below the ground surface. The required embedment
depth shall be decided based on various factors such 34.8.3 Minimum Reinforcement Length
as vertical pressure imposed on foundation, erosion
and scour, slope geometry at the toe, presence of The minimum length of reinforcement to initiate
drains adjacent to the toe and risk of exposure of the the design shall be greater of 0.7 H or 3.0 m, (where
toe due to subsequent excavation. The minimum H is the design height of the RS wall). This initial
embedment depths shall not be less than those length is checked for internal and external stability
listed in Table 20. calculations and shall be increased accordingly. In
general, the geometrical distribution of soil
Table 20 Minimum Embedment Depths for reinforcement shall be as per Fig. 4. In some
Reinforced Soil Walls specific cases, the top few layers of reinforcement
(Clause 34.8.1.1) will require higher length for pull out internal
stability requirements. In some cases, bottom most
Sl No. Slope in Front of Minimum Depth reinforcement layer will require higher length of
Wall (d) to Top of reinforcements for internal sliding. In such situation
Levelling Pad the bottom most reinforcement shall be increased
and the geometrical distribution of the few bottom
(1) (2) (3) layers shall satisfy the criteria as shown in Fig. 8.
i) All geometries 1 000 mm Structures with sloping surcharge and broken back
minimum slope usually require longer reinforcements often of
the order of 1.0 H or higher.
ii) Horizontal (walls) H/20

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34.8.4 Vertical Spacing of Soil Reinforcements vertical spacing may be limited to a lower value to
satisfy the stability of RS walls. However, the
The spacing of reinforcement shall be established criteria of maximum vertical spacing of
based on the design principles. The general practice reinforcement is limited to 800 mm. RS walls with
is to keep the vertical spacing constant and increase modular blocks where the connection capacity is by
the density of reinforcement with depth by friction, the maximum vertical spacing of
increasing the coverage ratio of reinforcement. reinforcement shall be minimum of twice the block
However, the criteria of constant spacing may be depth (measured from front face of block to the rear
relaxed in situations as per the structure face of block) or 600 mm. In case of wrap around
requirements. The vertical spacing of the primary facing RS walls, the maximum spacing shall not be
reinforcement shall not be greater than 800 mm for greater than 500 mm to avoid bulging.
all types of facing systems (example: segmental/
discrete panels, gabion mesh units etc) and for all 34.9 Earth Pressure Coefficient Calculation
types of soil reinforcements (example: geogrids,
geostrips, metallic reinforcements etc) in order to 34.9.1 The horizontal earth pressure exerted by the
provide a coherent reinforced soil mass. Depending retained fill on the reinforced fill zone shall be
upon the type and dimensions of facing units, the considered as shown in Fig. 9.

(A)

(B)

FIG. 7 RS WALL EMBEDMENT REQUIREMENTS (A) LEVEL TOE CONDITION AND (B) BENCHED SLOPE TOE
CONDITION (D = MINIMUM DEPTH FOR HORIZONTAL SLOPE AND ds = MINIMUM DEPTH FOR SLOPING TOE)

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.

∆ ≥ 2∆
FIG. 8 GEOMETRIC REINFORCEMENT DISTRIBUTION CRITERIA OF RS WALL

qT

FIG. 9 EARTH PRESSURE INCLINATION (Δ) FROM HORIZONTAL

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34.9.2 The horizontal earth pressure coefficient shall near vertical RS wall can be computed as per the
be calculated as per the Coulomb’s Expression as following expression:
given below:
𝐾𝑎𝑏 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) ... (4-3)
ɸ 𝑏

2
sin2 (θ + ɸb)
Kab =
sin (ɸb + f) sin (ɸb − β)
2 ….. (4-1)
[1+√
sin (θ − f) sin(θ + β)
] sin2 θ sin(θ − f) where

ɸb = effective friction angle of retained

backfill (degrees).

where 34.9.6 Based on the geometry of the RS wall, the

above-mentioned Coulomb’s expression can be
 = nominal slope of backfill behind wall
considered for earth pressure computation with
(degrees);
appropriate modifications. Some of the cases are
f = angle of friction between retained discussed below for different RS wall geometries:
backfill and reinforced soil, set equal
to  (degrees); Case 1: Vertical wall and a sloping backfill — The
active coefficient of earth pressure shall be
ɸ = effective friction angle of retained
calculated as per Coulomb’s Expression in equation
backfill (degrees); and (4-1) for near-vertical walls (defined as walls with a
θ = 90° for vertical, or near (< 10°) face batter of less than 10° from vertical) and a
vertical wall (degrees). sloping backfill.
NOTE — The earth pressure force, (FT) in Fig. 12, is
oriented at the same angle as the backslope, β, as it is
assumed that δ = β.

 Case 2: Vertical wall with broken backslope — The

active earth pressure coefficient for this condition is
computed using equation (4-1), with the design
β angle and the interface angle δ both set equal to I,
as defined in Fig. 13.

Case 3: Battered wall with or without backslope —

 For an inclined front face and reinforced zone (that
is batter) equal or greater than 10 degrees from
F vertical, the coefficient of earth pressure can be
calculated using above equation where θ is the face
inclination from horizontal, and β the surcharge
 slope angle as shown in Fig. 14. The wall friction
angle δ is assumed to be equal to β.
FIG. 10 WALL INCLINATION ANGLE
34.10 Nominal Load Calculations
34.9.3 In case of inextensible reinforcements
(metallic reinforcements), the horizontal earth 34.10.1 The applicable loads for reinforced soil
pressure exerted by the retained backfill on the walls are defined in Section 4. Loads for reinforced
reinforced fill zone acts at an angle δ from the soil wall includes earth pressure on reinforced soil
horizontal as shown in Fig. 10. In case of extensible zone due to retained soil mass (EH), crash barrier-
reinforcements, the inclination of horizontal earth friction slab load or w-beam load as a strip footing,
pressure (δ) shall be considered as zero. footing resting on RS wall etc (ES), vertical pressure
or weight of reinforced soil zone (EV), sloping
34.9.4 In case of coherent gravity method, the surcharge weight (EV), dead load due to pavement
inclination of horizontal earth pressure is expressed layers (EV) and Live Load surcharge (LS) that is,
by the following equation: traffic load (qT). Loads due to earthquake and water
if applicable shall also be evaluated and the stability
𝛿 = (1.2 − ) ɸb
𝐿
….. (4-2) shall be checked with appropriate load combinations
𝐻 as mentioned in Section 4.
34.9.5 Alternatively, for extensible reinforcement
(polymeric reinforcements), the active earth
pressure expression for horizontal backslope and

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34.10.2 The load calculations depend on the 10° from the vertical is shown in Fig. 14.
geometry of the reinforced soil wall. The nominal
(unfactored) load calculations for RS wall with 34.11 Load Factors and Resistance Factors
horizontal backslope with extensible reinforcement
is shown in Fig. 11. In case of inextensible 34.11.1 The load factors for different loads and
reinforcement, the lateral earth pressure acts at an load combinations as discussed in Section 4 are
angle δ from horizontal as discussed in Section 4 mentioned in Table 21 and Table 22. The load
(Fig. 10). factors to use for simple geometry RS walls for
external stability calculations are illustrated in
34.10.3 Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 show the earth pressure Fig. 15 and Fig. 16. The maximum EV load factor
developed on the vertical plane at the back end of should be used for internal stability calculations.
the reinforcements (both extensible and inextensible
reinforcements) for RS walls with sloping backfill 34.11.2 Live loads are not used on specific design
and broken backslope geometry respectively. steps since they contribute to stability. These are
Reinforced soil wall with a batter of greater than identified in subsequent design steps.

qT H Kab

FIG. 11 EXTERNAL ANALYSIS: NOMINAL EARTH PRESSURES; HORIZONTAL BACKSLOPE WITH TRAFFIC
SURCHARGE

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FIG. 12 EXTERNAL ANALYSIS: EARTH PRESSURE; SLOPING BACKFILL CASE

𝛾r 𝐿 (ℎ − 𝐻) 𝛾r 𝑥 (ℎ − 𝐻) 𝛾r (𝐿 − 𝑥) (ℎ − 𝐻) 𝛾r 𝑥 (ℎ−𝐻)
𝑉2 = if x = L; 𝑉2 = + if x < L; 𝑉2 = if x > L
2 2 2 2

FIG. 13 EXTERNAL ANALYSIS: EARTH PRESSURE WITH BROKEN BACK SLOPE AND TRAFFIC SURCHARGE

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FIG.14 NOTATION FOR COULOMB ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURES USED WITH BATTER, θ, GREATER THAN 100°
MEASURE FROM HORIZONTAL IN CLOCKWISE DIRECTION

Table 21 Typical Reinforced Soil Wall Load Combinations and Load Factors
(Clauses 34.11.1 and 35.2.1)

Sl No. Load Combination EH LL Use One of These at a Time

Limit State ES LS
EV
EQ CT
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
i) Strength I γp 1.75 – –

ii) Extreme event I γp γEQ 1.00 –

iii) Extreme event II and

γp 0.50 – 1.00
Extreme event III

iv) Service I 1.00 1.00 – –

NOTES
1 γp = load factor for permanent loading. May subscript as γP-EV, γP-EH, etc.
2 γEQ = load factor for live load applied simultaneously with seismic loads

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Table 22 Typical Reinforced Soil Wall Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp
(Clause 34.11.1)

Sl No. Type of Load Load Factor

Maximum Minimum

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) DC: Component and attachments 1.25 0.9
ii) EH: Horizontal earth pressure
a) Active 1.5 0.9
iii) EV: Vertical earth pressure
a) Overall stability
1.00 N/A
b) Retaining walls and abutments 1.35 1.00
iv) ES: Earth surcharge 1.5 0.75

γEV −MIN = 1.00

γEH −MAX = 1.50

FIG.15 TYPICAL LOAD FACTORS FOR SLIDING STABILITY AND ECCENTRICITY CHECK

γEV −MIN = 1.35

γEH −MAX = 1.50

FIG.16 TYPICAL LOAD FACTORS FOR BEARING CALCULATIONS

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34.11.3 The resistance factors for the external The retained backfill resultant, F1, is:
stability analysis of reinforced soil walls are listed 1
in Table 23. F1 = K γ H2
2 ab b …..(4-5)

Table 23 External Stability Resistance Factors

for Reinforced Soil walls For a uniform surcharge, the resultant is:
(Clause 34.11.3) F2 = Kab qT H ..…(4-6)
where
Sl No. Stability Resistance
Mode Factor Kab = active earth pressure coefficient for the
retained backfill;
(1) (2) (3)
b = unit weight of the retained backfill soil;
i) Sliding 1.0 H = height of the retaining wall; and
ii) Bearing 0.65 qT = uniform live load surcharge = (γr )(ℎ. )
or minimum 24 kPa.
34.12 External Stability Analysis
Case 2: Wall with sloping backfill: (see Fig. 12)
As with conventional gravity and semi gravity
retaining structures, following are the potential Calculate nominal retained backfill force resultant
external failure mechanisms are usually considered per unit width, FT
in sizing reinforced soil walls which are: 1
FT = K γ h2 ….. (4-7)
a) Direct sliding along the base; 2 ab b
b) Limiting eccentricity; and where
c) Bearing capacity check.
Kab = active earth pressure coefficient for
the sloping backfill;
34.12.1 Evaluate Direct Sliding
h = total height of wall, H and slope at
34.12.1.1 Sliding resistance along the base of the the back of the reinforced zone; and
wall is evaluated using the same procedures as for γb = H + L tan β
spread footing on the soil. The live load surcharge is
not considered as a stabilizing force when checking Case 3: Wall with broken backslope: (see Fig. 17)
sliding, that is, the sliding stability check only
applies the live load above the retained backfill. The Calculate nominal retained backfill force resultant
driving force generally include factored horizontal per unit width, FT
loads due to earth, water, seismic and surcharges.
1
The factored resistance against failure by sliding FT = Kab γb h2 ……(4-8)
(RR) can be estimated by: 2
where
RR = ϕ R  …..(4-4)
where Kab = active earth pressure coefficient
for the broke backslope;
ϕ= resistance factor for shear 
resistance between soil and h = total height of wall, H, and slope
foundation (equal to 1.0 for sliding at the back of the reinforced
of soil-on-soil, see Table 24); and zone;
γb = H + L tan β; if H + L tan β ≤
R = nominal sliding resistance between
(H + S); S is height of broken
reinforced fill and foundation soil.
backslope; and
34.12.1.2 Calculation steps and equations to γb = H + S; if L tan β > S.
compute sliding for two typical cases are as follows:
Note that these equations should be extended to
a) Calculate nominal thrust, per unit width, include other loads and geometries, for other cases,
acting on the back of the reinforced zone; such as additional traffic surcharge and pavement
layers loads.
Case 1: Wall with horizontal backslope:
(see Fig. 11) b) Calculate the nominal and factored
horizontal driving forces. For a horizontal

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backslope and uniform live load surcharge: External loads that increase sliding resistance should
only be included if those loads are permanent.
Σ F=F 1 + F2 ….. (4-9) Minimum load factors should be used in the above
equation as it results in minimum resistance for the
sliding limit state.
Pd = γEH F1 + γLS F2 …..(4-10)
e) Compare factored sliding resistance, Rr, to
For a sloping backfill condition: the factored driving resistance to check that
the resistance is greater; and
FH = FT cosβ ....(4-11)
f) Check the capacity demand ratio (CDR) for
Pd = γEH FH = Pd = γEH FT cosβ ....(4-12) sliding, CDR = Rr/Pd. If the CDR < 1.0,
increase the reinforcement length, L and
Use the maximum EH load factor (= 1.5) in these repeat the calculations.
equations because it creates the maximum driving
force effect for the sliding limit state. 34.12.2 Evaluate Eccentricity
c) Determine the most critical frictional 34.12.2.1 The system of forces for checking the
properties at the base and choose the eccentricity at the base of the wall is shown in
minimum soil friction angle from the three Fig. 17. The eccentricity limit is checked by
possibilities as follows: applying the live load above the retained backfill
only as shown in Fig. 11. The influence of live load
1) Sliding along the foundation soil, if its (over reinforced soil zone) for resistance calculation
shear strength (based on effective is ignored. The eccentricity, e, is the distance
stress parameters cfd + tan ɸfd, or total between the resultant foundation load and the center
stress parameters that is, undrained of the reinforced zone (that is, L/2) as illustrated in
condition for fine grained soils Fig. 17. The eccentricity, e can be obtained from the
cfd + tan ɸfd) is smaller than that of following equation:
reinforced fill material shear strength;
2) Sliding along the reinforced fill (ɸr); ΣMD - ΣMR
e= ….(4-15)
and ΣV
3) For sheet type reinforcement, sliding
along the weaker of the upper and where
lower soil-reinforcement interfaces. MD = destabilizing moment;
The soil-reinforcement friction angle
MR = resisting moment; and
ρ, should be measured by means of
interface direct shear tests. In the V = vertical load.
absence of testing, it may be taken as
2/3 tan ɸr. 34.12.2.2 Equations to compute eccentricity for two
typical cases are as follows:
d) Calculate the nominal components of
resisting force and the factored resisting Wall with horizontal backslope
force per unit length of the wall. For a
horizontal backslope and uniform live load Calculation steps for the determination of the
surcharge, the live load is excluded since it eccentricity beneath a wall with a horizontal
increases sliding stability: backslope and a uniform live load surcharge are as
follows, with respect to Fig. 17.
Rr = γEV V1 × µ ….(4-13)
Calculate nominal retained backfill and surcharge
For a sloping backfill condition: force resultants per unit width.

Rr = [γEV (V1 + V2) + γEH (FT sinβ)] × µ ….(4-14) For a vertical wall, with horizontal backslope and
uniform live load surcharge, calculate the
eccentricity e as follows:
where
 = minimum of tangent soil friction angle ɸ γEH - MAX F1 (H/3) + γLS F2 (H/2)
e= …(4.16)
[tan ɸ’fd,
tan ɸ’r,
or (for continuous γEV-MIN V1
reinforcement) tan ρ].

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b) Wall with sloping backfill

The eccentricity beneath a wall with a sloping backfill and no surcharges is calculated as follows, with respect
to Fig. 17.

Calculate e with factored loads. For a wall with a sloping backfill, the eccentricity is equal to:

γEH-MAX FT cosβ (h/3) - γEH-MAX FT sinβ ( L2 ) - γ EV-MIN V2 ( L6 ) ...(4.17)

e=
γEV-MIN V1 + γEV-MIN V2 + γEH-MAX FT sinβ

c) Eccentricity check criteria

e is considered acceptable if the calculated location of the resultant vertical forces (based on factored loads)
is within the one-fourth of base width for soil foundations (that is, emax ≤ L/4) and three-eighth of the base
width for rock foundations (that is, emax ≤ 3/8 L). Therefore, for each strength limit load group, e must be less
than emax. If e is greater, then a longer length of reinforcement is required.

qT qT

Reinforced Soil Zone Retained backfill

Φ. γr
Φ γb
CLE
H
H F2 = qT HK ab

1
F1 = γb H2 K ab
V1 = γr HL 2
H
H 2
L-2e
σv 3

e C
R Kab qT

L qT = Live Load (Traffic Surcharge)

B
R = Resultant of Vertical Forces
FIG. 17 CALCULATION OF ECCENTRICITY AND VERTICAL STRESS FOR BEARING CHECK, FOR HORIZONTAL
BACKSLOPE WITH TRAFFIC SURCHARGE CONDITION

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

L/6 Retained backfill

ΦĀ γb
1
FT = γb h2 K ab
Reinforced Soil Zone 2
ΦĀγr 
h

ℎ
L-2e
3
σv
C
R
e
L

FIG. 18 CALCULATION OF ECCENTRICITY AND VERTICAL STRESS FOR BEARING CHECK, FOR SLOPING BACKSLOPE
CONDITION

34.12.3 Evaluate Bearing Capacity L = width of foundation, equal to reinforcement

length L at base; and
34.12.3.1 Bearing calculations require both a eB = eccentricity for bearing calculation (not
strength limit state and a service limit state equal to eccentricity check e).
calculation. The strength limit calculations check
that the factored bearing pressure is less than the The eccentricity in equation (4-19) is different from
factored bearing resistance. Service limit that of the eccentricity in limiting eccentricity
calculations are used to compute nominal bearing criteria check because different load factors
pressure for use in settlement calculations. The (maximum in place of minimum) are considered.
weight and width of the wall facing are typically Also note that bearing check applies the live load
neglected in the calculations. The bearing check above both the reinforced zone and the retained
applies live load above both the reinforced zone backfill.
and the retained backfill, as shown in Fig. 11.
34.12.3.2 Calculation steps for reinforced soil wall
General Shear* — To prevent bearing failure on a with either a horizontal backslope or uniform live
uniform foundation soil, the factored vertical load surcharge and for sloping backfill are as
pressure at the base of the wall, as calculated with follows:
the uniform Meyerhof-type distribution, does not
exceed the factored bearing resistance of the a) Calculate the eccentricity, eB, of the
foundation soil: resulting force with factored loads. For a
wall with horizontal backslope and uniform
qr ≥ quniform …..(4-18) live load surcharge centered about the
reinforced zone, the eccentricity is equal to:
The uniform vertical pressure is calculated as:
γEH-MAX F1 (H/3) + γLS F2 (H/2)
∑V …..(4-19) eB = (4-20)
σv or quniform = γEV-MAX V1 + γLS (qT)L
L - 2eB
where Where, terms mentioned in the equation were
previously defined.
ΣV = summation of vertical forces;

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Note that when checking the various load factors, e) As indicated in step 2 and step 3, σV-F can
and load combinations the value of eB will vary. be decreased and qr can be increased by
Also note that when the calculated value of lengthening the reinforcements, though
eccentricity, eB, is negative, a value of 0 should be only marginally. The nominal bearing
carried forward in the design stress equation, that is, resistance often may be increased by
set L’ = L. additional subsurface investigation and
better definition of the foundation soil
b) Calculate the factored vertical stress σV-F at properties. If adequate support conditions
the base assuming Meyerhof-type cannot be achieved or lengthening
distribution. For a horizontal backslope and reinforcements significantly increases
uniform live load surcharge, the factored costs, improvement of the foundation soil
bearing pressure is: may be considered.
γEV-MAX V1 + γLS (q ) L NOTES
σV-F = T
(4-21)
L - 2eB 1 It shall be noted that the local/punching shear failure
are unlikely to happen owing to larger foundation
For a wall with sloping backfill the factored bearing width (> 3.0 m) of reinforced soil walls and therefore,
it is sufficient to check general shear only. The local
stress is: shear failure need not be considered for reinforced soil
walls, except for lateral squeeze/foundation extrusion.
γEV-MAX V1 + γEV-MAX V2 + γEV-MAX FT sinβ
σ V-F = 2 Lateral squeeze is a special case of local shear that
L - 2eB (4-22) can occur when bearing on a weak cohesive soil layer
overlying a firm soil layer. Lateral squeeze failure
Note that (L-2eB) is set equal to L when the value of results in significant horizontal movement of the soil
eccentricity is negative. A negative value of under the structure. To prevent local shear of
structures bearing on weak cohesive soils it is required
eccentricity may be found for some extreme that:
geometries, for example, a wall section with very
long reinforcement and a steep, infinite backslope. γrH ≤ 3cut (4-25)

Note that while checking the various load factors where

and load combinations the value of eccentricity, eB,
will vary and a critical value must be determined by γr = unit weight of the reinforced fill, H is the
comparisons of applicable load combinations. height of the wall and cut is the nominal
total stress cohesion of the foundation soil.
Equations 4-21 and 4-22 shall be extended to
include other loads and geometries for other cases. 34.12.4 Internal Stability Analysis

c) The nominal bearing resistance, qn is Internal failure of a reinforced soil wall can occur in
determined as: three different ways:
a) Failure by elongation or breakage of the
qn = cfd Nc + 0.5L'γfd Nγ + γ D (Nq - 1) (4-23) reinforcements: The tensile forces in the
inclusions become large that the inclusions
where elongate excessively or break, leading to
cfd = cohesion of the foundation soil; large movements and/or possible collapse
𝛾fd = unit weight of the foundation soil; of the structure;
b) Failure by pullout: The tensile forces in the
Nc, Nq = bearing capacity coefficients (as per
reinforcements become larger than the
and Nγ IS 6403); and pullout resistance, leading to large
L’ = effective foundation width, equal to movements and/or possible collapse of the
L-2eB; set L’ = L if eB is negative. structure; and
c) Internal direct sliding at reinforcement
d) The factored bearing pressure (qr) should level.
be greater than the factored bearing stress,
that is, qR ≥ qV-F; 34.12.5 Geometric Characteristics of Soil
Reinforcements
qr = ϕqn (4-24)
Soil reinforcements can be either of two types that
where is, inextensible (that is, metal strips, bars or grids) or
ϕ = resistance factor, for reinforced soil walls extensible (for example, geosynthetic/polymeric
this factor is 0.65. materials such as polymeric straps, geogrids,
geotextiles). The internal stability analysis of

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reinforced soil wall is primarily governed by the center-to-center horizontal distance
nature of reinforcement that is, the design varies by between them. The cross-sectional area is
material type due to their extensibility relative to soil not required, since the strength of a
at failure. The geometric characteristics required for geosynthetic strip is expressed by a tensile
the two types of reinforcements for the design force per unit width.
calculations are as follows:
34.12.6 Coverage Ratio Calculations
a) Metal strips, bars and grids — A layer of
steel strips, bars or grids is characterized by
Coverage ratio (Rc) is defined as the ratio of
the cross-sectional area, the thickness and
effective width (b) of reinforcement measured from
perimeter of the reinforcement element,
the center to center of the outside of longitudinal
and the center-to-center horizontal distance
bars to the centre-to-centre horizontal spacing (Sh)
between elements; and
between the reinforcements.
b) Geotextiles, polymeric strips and geogrid
— A layer of geosynthetic strips is Rc = b/Sh (4-26)
characterized by width of the strips and the

FIG. 19 SOIL REINFORCEMENT COVERAGE RATIO FOR GEOGRID

b Sh

FIG. 20 SOIL REINFORCEMENT COVERAGE RATIO FOR GEOSTRIP

For example — Coverage ratio of a geogrid strip of effective width equal to 240 mm with 2 connections and
2 strips in each connection for an average width of panel 2 000 mm is as below:
Width of Geogrid strip × No. of connectors × No. of strips per connector
= Average width of panel
240 × 2 × 2
= = 0.48
2 000

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34.12.7 Reinforcement Layout based on the failure plane considering the type of
failure surface based on the type of reinforcement.
For providing a consistent reinforced soil zone, the This critical slip surface in RS wall is assumed to
vertical spacing of the reinforcement should not coincide with the locus of the maximum tensile force
exceed 800 mm. Following are the two practical in each reinforcement layer. A bi-linear failure
ways for reinforced soil walls: surface that divides the reinforced zone in active and
resistant zones is considered in case of inextensible
a) For reinforcements such as strips, grids or reinforcement as shown in Fig. 20 while a rankine
mats with segmental precast concrete failure surface is considered for extensible type of
facings, the vertical spacing is maintained reinforcements because such reinforcements can
constant and the reinforcement density is elongate more than the soil, before failure and do not
increased with depth by increasing the significantly modify the shape of the soil failure
number and/size of the reinforcement; and surface as shown in Fig. 21.
b) For continuous sheet reinforcements,
made of geotextiles or geogrids, a 34.12.9 Define Unfactored Loads
common way of varying the reinforcement
density is to change the vertical spacing The primary source of loadings for a reinforced soil
because it easily accommodates spacing wall for internal stability calculations is the earth
variations. The range of acceptable pressure from the reinforced fill and any surcharge
spacing is governed by consideration of loadings on the top of the reinforced soil zone. The
placement and compaction of the fill. The maximum tensile force is mainly related to the type
reinforcement density (vertical spacing, of reinforcement in the RS wall, which, in turn, is a
grade etc) can also be varied by changing function of the modulus, extensibility, and density
the strength especially if wrapped facing of reinforcement. Fig. 21 shows the relationship
techniques requiring a constant wrap between the type of reinforcement and the
height are used. overburden stress. The Kr/Kab ratio for metallic type
reinforcement decreases from the top of the wall fill
34.12.8 Potential Failure Surface to a constant value 6 m below this elevation while
in case of extensible reinforcement, the Kr/Kab ratio
The internal stability of the reinforced soil mass is is constant.

FIG. 21 LOCATION OF POTENTIAL FAILURE SURFACE FOR INTERNAL STABILITY DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL
WALLS FOR INEXTENSIBLE REINFORCEMENTS

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For walls with a face batter angle (θ) 10° or more from the vertical,

- tan (θ - β) + √ tan (ϕ - β) [tan (ϕ - β) + cot (ϕ + θ - 90)][1+ tan (δ + 90 - θ) cot (ϕ + θ - 90)]

tan (Ψ - θ) =
1+ tan (δ + 90 - θ) [tan (ϕ - β) + cot (ϕ + θ - 90)]

with δ = β
θ = wall batter angle
For wall with a broken backslope, use δ = β

δ=
Angle of friction between retained backfill and reinforced soil, set equal to  (deg)

FIG. 22 LOCATION OF POTENTIAL FAILURE SURFACE FOR INTERNAL STABILITY DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL
WALLS FOR EXTENSIBLE REINFORCEMENTS

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Kr/Kab

Kr/Kab

FIG. 23 VARIATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF LATERAL STRESS RATIO (KR/KAB) WITH DEPTH IN A RS WALL

The lateral earth pressure coefficient Kr is reinforced soil zone is assigned a load type
determined by applying a multiplier to the active “EV” with a corresponding maximum load
earth pressure coefficient. The active earth pressure factor of 1.35 which is always used to find
coefficient shall be computed using coulomb the critical stress;
expression as given in equation (4-1).
2) Any vertical surcharge above the
34.12.10 Calculate Factored Tensile Forces in reinforced soil zone that is due to soil or
Reinforcement Layers considered as an equivalent soil surcharge
is assigned a load type “EV”. In this
a) Calculate Horizontal Stress scenario, a live load traffic surcharge that is
represented by an equivalent uniform soil
The horizontal stress at any given depth within the surcharge of height heq is assumed as load
reinforced soil zone is expressed as: type “EV”. This is in contrast to the
external stability analysis where the live
σH = Kr [σv] + ∆σH .....(4-27) load traffic surcharge is assumed as load
type “LS” because in external stability
where, Kr is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure analysis the reinforced soil wall is assumed
in the reinforced soil zone and is obtained from Fig. to be a rigid block;
24. σv is the factored vertical pressure at a depth of
interest and H is the factored horizontal stress 3) The unit weight of the equivalent soil
due to pressure generated from external surcharges surcharge is assumed to be the same as the
if any. unit weight of the reinforced soil zone, γr,
which is generally greater than or equal to
The vertical pressure computed at each layer of the unit weight of the retained backfill; and
reinforcement shall take into account the
overturning effect for inextensible reinforcements. 4) Any vertical surcharge that is due to the
non-soil source is assigned a load type
Assumptions for the computation of factored “ES.” An example of such a load is the
vertical pressure, σ v for internal stability analysis: bearing pressure under a spread footing on
top of reinforced soil zone. However, the
1) Vertical pressure due to the weight of the application of the load factor of

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γ = 1.50 that is assigned to load type
P-ES where, γ r is unit weight of soil in the reinforced soil
“ES” is a function of how the vertical zone and γ EV-MAX is the maximum load factor for
pressures are computed as follows: load type “EV” The value of Kr is obtained by
assuming that: (i) variation of Kr/Kab ratio shown in
i) If the vertical pressures are based on Fig. 22 starts from top of the reinforced soil zone,
nominal (that is, unfactored) loads, and (ii) Kab is computed using coulomb’s
then use γP-ES = 1.50; and expression equation (4-1).

ii) If the vertical pressures were based on Example 2:

factored loads, then use γP-ES = 1.00.
This is because once the loads are Reinforced soil wall with sloping backfill:
factored they should not be factored Example of this configuration is shown in Fig. 13.
again.
As shown in Fig. 23, the sloping surcharge is
It is recommended that the factored vertical pressure approximated by an equivalent uniform soil
be evaluated using both the above approaches and surcharge of height, Seq. The horizontal stress at any
the larger value chosen for analysis. depth z below the top of the reinforced soil zone is
as follows:
The supplemental factored horizontal pressure, H
could be from a variety of sources. Examples of σH = Kr [γr (z + Seq) γEV-MAX] ....(4-29)
supplemental horizontal pressures are as follows:

1) Horizontal pressures due to the horizontal where = r is unit weight of soil in the reinforced
(shear) stress at the bottom of a spread soil zone and EV-MAX is the maximum load factor
footing on top of reinforced soil zone. for load type “EV”. The value of Kr is obtained by
assuming that: (i) Variation of Kr/Kab ratio shown in
2) Horizontal pressures from deep foundation Fig. 22 starts from top of the reinforced soil zone,
elements extending through the reinforced and (ii) Kab is computed using coulomb’s expression
soil zone. equation (4-1).

Supplemental horizontal pressures are assigned a Example 3:

load type “ES” since they represent surcharges on or
within the reinforced soil zone. However, similar to Reinforced soil wall with level backfill and live
the vertical pressures due to non-soil loads, the load surcharge: this configuration is commonly
used for grade-separator roadways.
ro
application of the maximum load factor of
γP-ES = 1.50 that is assigned to load type “ES” is a
function of how the horizontal pressures are The live load is assumed as an equivalent uniform
compared as follows: soil surcharge of height, heq (equal to 1.2 m) the
horizontal stress at any depth z below the top of the
1) If the horizontal pressures are based on reinforced soil zone is as follows:
nominal (that is, unfactored) loads, then use
γES-MAX = 1.50. σH = Kr [γr (z + heq) γEV-MAX] ....(4-30)
2) If the horizontal pressures were based on
factored loads, then use γP-ES = 1.00. This is The value of Kr is obtained by assuming that: (i)
because once the loads are factored they Variation of Kr/Kab ratio shown in Fig. 22 starts
should not be factored again. from top of the reinforced soil zone, and (ii) Kab is
As with vertical pressure, it is recommended that the computed using coulomb’s expression equation
factored horizontal pressure be evaluated using both (4-1).
the above approaches and the larger value chosen for
analysis. Example 4:
Following are the equations for horizontal stress
calculation for four different RS wall configurations: Bridge abutment with a spread footing on top of
reinforced soil wall.
Example 1:
Reinforced soil wall with level backfill and no The bridge superstructure rests on a spread footing
surcharge: The horizontal stress at any given on top of a reinforced soil wall. For development of
depth z below the top of the reinforced soil zone the equation of horizontal stress, refer to Fig. 24
is given as follows: and Fig. 25. The live load is assumed as an
equivalent uniform soil surcharge of height, heq, the
σH = Kr [(γr z) γEV-MAX] ….(4-28) height of the roadway fill above the reinforced soil

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zone is h, and ∆σv and ∆σH increase TMAX. Then the horizontal stress at any depth z below the top of the reinforced
zone is as follows:
σH = Kr [γr (z + h + heq ) γEV-MAX + (∆σv-footing) γP-ES] + (∆σH ) γP-ES ...(4.31)

where, ∆σv and ∆σH are the vertical and horizontal pressures at the bottom of the spread footing. The value of γP-ES
is 1.50 if unfactored pressures are used, and is 1.00 if factored pressures are used with the final value being on larger
values of (v-footing) γP-ES and (H) γP-ES.
The value of Kr is obtained by assuming that: (i) the variation of Kr/Ka ratio shown in Fig. 22 starts from the finished
pavement grade behind the spread footing, and (ii) Ka is computed using Coulomb’s expression equation (4-1).

This configuration is discussed in more detail in Section 6 reinforced soil abutments. It is included here as an
example of a complex system of surcharges that can be used to explain the computation of horizontal stress for such
cases.
1
Seq = ( ) 0.7 H tanβ
2

σv = Seqγr

Seq = equivalent uniform height of soil

σv

0.7H

L
FIG. 24 CALCULATION OF VERTICAL STRESS FOR SLOPING BACKFILL CONDITIONS FOR INTERNAL STABILITY

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.

where

D1 = effective width of applied load at any depth, calculation shown above;

bf = width of applied load. For footings which are eccentrically loaded (that is, bridge
abutment footings), set bf equal to the equivalent footing width B’ by reducing it by 2e’,
where e’ is the eccentricity of the footing load (that is, bf - 2e’);
Lf = length of footing; .
Qv = load per unit length of strip footing;
Qv’ = load on isolated rectangular footing or point load; and
z1 = depth where effective width intersects back of wall face = 2d1 - bf.

Assume the increased vertical stress due to the surcharge load has no influence on stresses used to evaluate
internal stability if the surcharge load is located behind the reinforced soil mass. For external stability,
assume the surcharge has no influence if it is located outside the active zone behind the wall.

FIG.25 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS FROM CONCENTRATED VERTICAL LOAD FOR INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
STABILITY CALCULATION

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Fig. 26 (a) Distribution of Stress for Internal Stability Calculations

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Fig. 26 (b) Distribution of Stress for External Stability Calculations

FIG. 26 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES FROM CONCENTRATED HORIZONTAL LOADS

b) Calculate maximum tension, TMAX under construction. In this case, σH, calculated at
the level of the reinforcement, is at the center of the
Maximum factored tension TMAX in each contributory height. The contributory height is
reinforcement layer per unit width of the wall based defined as the midpoint between vertically adjacent
on the vertical spacing Sv: reinforcement elevations, except for the top and
bottom layers reinforcement.
TMAX = σH SV (in force per unit reinforcement width)
....(4-32) For the top and bottom layers of reinforcement, Sv
is the distance from the top or bottom of the wall
The term Sv is equal to the vertical reinforcement respectively, to the midpoint between the first and
spacing for a layer where vertically adjacent second layers of reinforcement. Sv distances are
reinforcements are equally spaced from the layer illustrated in Fig. 26.

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Svn = contributory height to determine reinforcement tension

Sv4

Sv3

Sv2

Sv1

FIG. 27 REINFORCEMENT LOAD CONTRIBUTORY HEIGHT

The maximum reinforcement tension, TMAX, for the where

top and bottom layers of reinforcement, and for
intermediate layers that do not have equally spaced Rc = ratio of gross width of strip, sheet, or grid
adjacent layers, is calculated as the product of the to the center-to-center horizontal spacing
contributory height and the average factored between the strips, sheets or grids; for
horizontal stress acting upon that contributory example, Rc = 1 for full coverage
height. The average stress can be calculated based reinforcement.
upon the tributary trapezoidal area (that is, average
of the stress at top and at the bottom of the For discrete reinforcements of known spacing and
contributory height) or at the midpoint of the segmental precast concrete facing of known panel
contributory height, as illustrated in Fig. 26. dimensions, TMAX (force per unit width) can
alternatively be calculated per discrete
reinforcement, PTMAX-D, per panel width, defined as:
For discrete reinforcements (metal strips, bar mats,
geogrids, polymeric straps etc). TMAX (force per PTMAX-D = σH Sv WP ....(4-34)
Np
unit width) may be calculated at each level as
PTMAX-UWR in terms of force per unit width of where
reinforcement, as:
PTMAX-D = maximum factored load in
σH Sv
PTMAX-UWR = .....(4-33) discrete reinforcement
Rc element;

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where element, or per unit reinforcement width. Tal is the
nominal long-term tensile strength of the
PTMAX-D = maximum factored load in reinforcement.
discrete reinforcement
element; The available tensile strength of
WP = width of panel; and metallic reinforcements, Tal, is calculated as
NP = number of discrete follows:
reinforcements per panel Fy Ac
width. Tal = ….(4-36)
b
34.12.11 Calculate Soil Reinforcement Resistance where
b = gross width of the strip, sheet or
The factored soil resistance is the product of the
grid;
nominal long-term strength, coverage ratio and
applicable resistance factor, ϕ. The resistance Fy yield stress of steel; and
=
factors for the tensile rupture of RS Wall soil
reinforcements are summarized in Table 24. The Ac = design cross section area of the
factored tensile resistance, Tr, is equal to: steel defined as the original cross
section area minimum corrosion
Tr = ϕ Tal ….(4-35) losses anticipated to occur during
the design life of the wall. Refer
Tal and Tr may be expressed in terms of strength Table 25 for sacrificial thickness.
per unit width of the wall, per reinforcement

Table 24 Sacrificial Thickness to be Allowed on Each Surface Exposed to Corrosion

(Clauses 34.3.6, 34.12.1.1, 34.12.11 and 35.2.4 )

Sl No. Design Working Reinforcement Sacrificial Thickness

Life (Years) Material (mm)

Land Based Fresh Water

Structure Structure
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i) 5 B 0.25 0.25
G 0 0
ii) 10 B 0.35 0.4
G 0 0
iii) 50 B 1.15 1.55
G 0.3 0.55
iv) 60 B 1.35 1.68
G 0.38 0.63
v) 70 G 0.45 0.7
vi) 120 G 0.75 1.0

Key
B black steel (ungalvanized)
G galvanized steel

NOTES
1 Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate service lives.
2 These values apply to steels embedded in fills.
3 Sites of special aggressiveness are to be assessed by specific study.

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The available long-term strength for polymeric percentages of the ultimate product load,
reinforcements, Tal, is calculated as follows: for periods of up to 10 000 h. Creep testing
shall be carried out by ‘conventional’ creep
Tult Tult testing as per IS 14739 or a combination of
Tal = = ...(4-37) stepped isothermal method (SIM) as per
RF RFID × RFCR× RFD × RFW IS 17365, which is an accelerated method
where using stepped increases in temperature to
allow tests to be performed in a matter of
Tult = ultimate tensile strength of days;
reinforcement;
d) Durability reduction factor — Reduction
RF = reduction factor. The product of factor for durability is dependent on
all applicable reduction factors; susceptibility of geogrid to attack by
RFID = installation damage reduction chemicals, thermal oxidation, hydrolysis,
factor; environmental stress cracking and
RFCR = creep reduction factor; micro-organisms. Durability tests shall be
RFD = durability reduction factor; and carried out as per IS 17365; and
RFW = weathering reduction factor. e) Weathering reduction factor — Reduction
factor for weathering account for
a) Ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcement exposure prior to installation
reinforcement — Tult is taken as the basis or of permanently exposed material.
for the long term strength. It is a statistical
value generated from the mean strength of RFID, RFCR, RFD and RFW reflect the actual long term
production material less two standard strength losses, analogous to loss of steel strength
deviations sometimes referred to as the due to corrosion. Some strength losses occur
minimum average roll value (MARV), immediately upon installation, and others occur
unless otherwise defined; throughout the design life of the reinforcement.
Much of the long-term strength loss does not begin
b) Installation damage reduction factor — A to occur until near the end of the reinforcement
reduction factor that accounts for the design life. It is recommended that tal values for
damaging effects of placement and specific products be determined from in-house,
compaction of soil or aggregate over the agency evaluation or third-party evaluation of
geosynthetic during installation. This independent test results.
factor shall be determined based on actual
installation damage test. This test shall be The designer should check to make sure that the
carried out as per method given in manufacturer data are representative of the products
IS 17368; likely to be received at the project site (that is, the
product test data should be current, and the product
c) Creep reduction factor — A reduction manufacturing process, polymer source etc, should
factor that accounts for the effect of creep not have changed since the testing was conducted).
resulting from long-term sustained tensile In all cases, the geosynthetic product line must be
load applied to the geosynthetic. Creep re-evaluated on a periodic to assess any changes that
testing is essentially a constant load test on may affect the product and corresponding reduction
multiple product samples, loaded to various values.

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Table 25 Resistance Factors for Tensile and Pull out Resistance for RSW
(Clauses 34.12.11, 34.12.13 and 34.12.15)

Sl No. Reinforcement Type and Loading Condition Resistance

Factor

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) Metallic reinforcement and Strip Reinforcements (1)

connectors Static loading 0.75

Combined static/earthquake loading 1.00
Combined static/traffic barrier impact (2)
1.00
Grid Reinforcements (1,3)

Static loading 0.65

Combined static/earthquake loading 0.85
Combined static/traffic barrier impact(2) 0.85
ii) Geosynthetic reinforcement and Static loading 0.90
connectors Combined static/earthquake loading 1.20
Combined static/traffic barrier impact (2)
1.20
iii) Pullout resistance of tensile Static loading 0.90
reinforcement (metallic and Combined static/earthquake loading 1.20
geosynthetic)
Combined static/traffic barrier impact (2)
1.00
NOTES
1 Apply to gross cross-section less sacrificial area. For sections with holes, reduce gross area in accordance with AASHTO (2007)
article 6.8.3 and apply to net section less sacrificial area.
2 Combined static/traffic barrier impact resistance factors are not presented in AASHTO.
3 Applies to grid reinforcements connected to rigid facing element, for example, a concrete panel or block. For grid reinforcements
connected to flexible facing mat or which are continuous with the facing mat, use the resistance factor for strip reinforcements.

The soil reinforcement vertical layout, factored 34.12.13 Internal Stability with Respect to Pull-Out
tensile force at each reinforcement level, and the or Adherence
factored soil reinforcement resistance were defined
in the previous three steps (a, b and c). With this The following criteria should be satisfied for safety
information, select suitable grades (or strength) against pullout of reinforcement:
of reinforcement, or number of discrete
reinforcements, for the defined vertical TMAX
ϕ Le ≥ ….(4-39)
reinforcement layout. Then with this layout check F* ασV CRc
pullout and, as applicable extreme event loadings.
Adjust the layout if/as necessary. where
TMAX = maximum reinforcement
34.12.12 Internal Stability with Respect to Rupture tension;
Le = the length of embedment in the
Stability with respect to breakage of the resisting zone. Note that the
reinforcement required that: boundary between the resisting
and active zones may be
TMA X ≤ Tr ….(4-38) modified by concentrated
loadings;
where
F* = pull-out resistance factor:
TMAX = the maximum factored load in
a) 1.2 + log Cu at top of
reinforcement equation (4-32); and
structure and tanr at a
Tr = the factored reinforcement tensile depth of 6m or below for
resistance equation (4-35). metallic reinforcement;

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b) 0.7 tanr to tanr for C = 2 for strip, grid, and sheet type
geogrids, geostraps and reinforcement (number of
geotextiles in the absence surfaces);
of test results. If test results
are available, the F* value Rc = coverage ratio; and
shall be according to the
test results; and ϕ = resistance factor for soil
reinforcement pullout. Refer:
Table 25.
c) 1.1 at top and 0.8tan r at
6 m or below with soil as Each layer of reinforcement should be checked, as
reinforced fill for pullout resistance and/or tensile loads may vary with
polymeric straps or reinforcement layer and accordingly the required
geostrips. 1.0 at top and embedment length in the resistance zone shall be
0.7 tan r at 6 m or below determined.
with flyash as reinforced
fill for polymeric straps or If the traffic or other live load is present, it is
geostrips. It is applicable recommended that TMAX be computed with the live
for full height reinforced loads and that the pull-out resistance be computed
soil walls and should be excluding live loads. This addresses the possibility
necessarily be supported of the live loads being present near the front of the
with test results wall but not above the reinforcement embedment
showcasing the value of length. The pull-out resistance and the TMAX can be
F* at different normal calculated with the live load excluded if it can be
stresses. shown that the live load will be on the active and
resistant zones at the same time or on the resistant
Pullout resistance factor zone alone.
shall be verified using
pullout test; If the criterion is not satisfied for all reinforcement
layers, the reinforcement length has to be increased
Α = scale correction factor and/or reinforcement with a greater pull-out
(generally 1.0 for metallic resistance per unit width must be used, or the
reinforcement and 0.8 for reinforcement vertical spacing may be reduced to
geosynthetics reinforcements decrease TMAX.
that is geogrids). For polymeric
strap, a default scale effect The total length of reinforcement, L, required for
correction factor of 0.8 can be internal stability is then determined from:
adopted for design. However,
higher scale correction factor L = L a + Le ….(4-40)
can be used if substantiated by
pull out test data to account for where
non-linear stress reduction over La is obtained from Fig. 28 and Fig. 29 for
the embedded length simple structures not supporting concentrated
of reinforcements, strain external loads such as bridge abutments.
softening of compacted
reinforced fill, extensibility of Based on Fig. 20 and Fig. 21, the
the reinforcing element and following relationships can be obtained for La:
different lengths of reinforcing
element; For RS wall with extensible reinforcements, vertical
face and horizontal backfill:
σv = nominal vertical stress at the
La = (H - z) tan (45 - ϕ'/2) ....(4-41)
reinforcement level in the
resistance zone, including
distributed dead load where
surcharges, neglecting traffic z = depth to the reinforcement level.
loads. (see Fig. 22) for
computing v for sloping For RS wall with inextensible reinforcement,
backfills; refer Fig. 20.

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FIG. 28 NOMINAL VERTICAL STRESS AT THE REINFORCEMENT LEVEL IN THE RESISTANT ZONE, BENEATH A
SLOPING BACKFILL

34.12.14 Check for Internal Sliding 34.12.15 Check for Connection Strength

The connection of the reinforcements with the

The internal sliding shall be checked at each
reinforcement layer. The live load surcharge is not facing should be designed for TMAX. The resistance
considered over the reinforced zone as a stabilizing factors (ϕ) for the connectors are the same as for the
force similar to external stability sliding check. reinforcement strength and are listed in Table 25.

a) Connections to concrete panels — Metallic

The capacity to demand ratio (CDR) for internal reinforcements for reinforced soil walls
sliding is the ratio of factored horizontal driving constructed with segmental panels are
force to the nominal vertical resisting force at a structurally connected to the facing by
particular reinforcement layer. either bolting the reinforcement to a tie
strip cast in the panel or connected with a
For reinforcement at jth layer, CDR can be bar connector to suitable anchorage devices
estimated as the ratio of the nominal vertical in the panels.
resisting force (Rr) to that of factored horizontal
driving force (Pd). The value shall be greater than Polyester geogrids and geotextile should
1.0 for each layer. Live load shall be excluded in not be cast into concrete for connections,
computing the vertical resistance. However, the due to potential chemical degradation. As
driving force shall include the influence due to live per the design requirements for different
load.

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connection arrangement are available for settlement can affect the functionality of the
various geosynthetics soil reinforcements. structure in a specific manner and differential
settlements produces severe effects on the
Connection strength testing to be completed structure. Therefore, it should be ensured
conducted at accredited laboratories to that the construction and post construction
derive the ultimate connection test. The settlements are within the acceptable limits. The
value for ultimate connection strength maximum settlement limits for various components
derived at laboratories, shall be always and conditions shall be per Table 26.
more than 1.25 times to the TMAX.
34.12.16.2 The stiffness (axial and lateral), size, and
b) Connections to Concrete Panels — The number of bearing pads should be sized such that the
nominal long-term connection strength, final joint opening shall be at least 15 mm ± 5 mm
Talc developed by frictional and/or unless otherwise shown on the plans.
structural means is determined as follows:
34.12.16.3 Post construction movements occurs due
(Tult × CRcr) ….(4-42) to long term settlement of foundation soil, internal
Talc =
RFD compression of reinforced fill, internal creep strain
of reinforcements and creep strain of backfill with a
where high fines content. These shall generally be avoided
nominal long-term by limiting the internal creep strain of the
Talc =
reinforcement/facing reinforcement to 1 percent.
connection strength per unit
reinforcement width at a 34.12.16.4 Conventional settlement analyses should
specified confining pressure; be carried out to ensure that immediate,
consolidation, and secondary settlement are less
Tult = ultimate tensile strength of the
than the performance requirements of the project.
geosynthetic soil
The settlement is evaluated under bearing pressure
reinforcement, defined as the
computed at a Service I limit state.
minimum average roll value
(MARV);
34.12.16.5 Significant estimated post-construction
RFD = reduction factor to account for foundation settlements indicate that the planned top
chemical and biological of wall elevations need to be adjusted. This can be
degradation; and accomplished by increasing the top of wall
CRcr = long-term connection strength elevations during wall design, or by providing height
reduction factor to account for adjustments within the top of wall coping, and/or by
reduced ultimate strength delaying the casting of the top row of panels to the
resulting from the connection. end of erection. The required height of the top row,
would then be determined with possible further
34.12.16 Check for Settlements, Vertical and Lateral allowance for continuing settlements. Where the
Wall Movements anticipated settlements and their duration, cannot be
accommodated by these measures, consideration
34.12.16.1 Settlements arising due to internal must be given to ground improvement techniques
compression are normally small once compaction is such as wick drains, stone columns, dynamic
done effectively. However, the facing should be able compaction, the use of lightweight fill or the
to cope up with the internal compression. The total implementation of two-phased construction.

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Table 26 Maximum Settlement Limits for Various Components and Conditions
(Clause 34.12.16.1)

Sl No. Fascia Type (In Order of Longitudinal Total Settlement Post Construction Settlement
Flexibility) Differential Settlement After 10 Years of Operation
(mm) (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i) Full height panels 1V : 500H 100

ii) Discrete precast concrete 1V : 100H 100 to 300

panels, with initial joint
width of 20 mm, bearing
pads, L/H ≈ 1

iii) Precast concrete segmental 1V : 200H 100 to 300

100 (see Note 5)
blocks

iv) Steel wire grid/mesh, 1V : 50H 100 to 300

gabions

v) Wrap around with geogrids; 1V : 20H 100 to 500

geocells

NOTES
1 The following shall be considered when high settlement is expected:
a) The fascia to be adopted should be flexible and compressible; and
b) For both panel and block fascia, slip (shear) joints shall be provided. The interval of slip joints shall be decided based on the extent of
differential settlement, and it is in the range of 25 m to 40 m.

2 When transverse differential settlements occur, the rear of the reinforced soil block would normally exceed those at the fascia end. If anticipated
differential settlements in the transverse direction are significant, the reinforcement connection with the fascia is likely to be overstressed. To reduce
(if not eliminate) such overstressing, the fill of the reinforcement zone shall be so placed, such that it slopes gently down towards the fascia end, and
the reinforcement shall be laid on the sloping surface. While this procedure is expected to reduce additional stresses at the fascia connection, it shall
require careful monitoring of surface drainage during construction to prevent rain water runoff flowing towards the fascia.

3 Two staged construction

This type of construction may be adopted where the structure is constructed on weak soils, being treated by PVDs as ground improvement technique.
The reinforced soil structure is first constructed with a soft/compressible fascia systems. The deformations shall be monitored. After consolidation
settlements have taken place, the soft facing may be covered with hard fascia with appropriate detailing to cater to further minor deformations.

4 Settlement at abutments
Differential settlement up to 100 mm may be allowed for the reinforced soil wall near an abutment. The reinforced soil end wall at the transition with
the rigid main structure system, is indent of the rigid system. The transition is through a simply supported approach slab to bridge over the two systems.
This caters to differential settlements. To avoid an uncomfortable ride across the transition at high speeds, it is recommended that the differential
settlement be limited to 100 mm.

5 Post-construction settlement may be computed as follows:

a) For non-plastic foundation soils:
1) The total post construction settlement shall be the difference between, the total settlement due to the dead load and live load, and the
total settlement due to the dead load of the structure.
b) For plastic foundation soils:
1) The total post construction settlement shall be the difference between the total settlement over 10 years plus construction time, and the
total settlement during construction time.

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34.13 Slope Stability Analysis investigate potential compound failure surfaces, that
is failure planes that pass behind or under and
34.13.1 RS wall shall be analysed for slope stability through a portion of reinforced soil zone as
as per the geometry of the wall. This shall include illustrated in Fig. 28.
global stability analysis and compound stability
analysis. The evaluation of the overall stability of 34.13.6 Compound analyses should use the same
RS Wall should be investigated at the Service I load global stability resistance factors of 0.75 and 0.65.
combination and using an appropriate resistance These resistance factors are approximately
factor. The load factor at Service I limit state is equivalent to safety factors of 1.3 and 1.5,
1.0 for permanent loads. respectively as previously noted.

34.13.2 The soil shear resistance factor (ϕ) is 35 DESIGN FOR EXTREME EVENTS
defined as:
An extreme event is one whose recurrence interval
ϕ = 0.75; where the geotechnical can be thought to exceed design life. In the context
parameters are well defined, and the of RS walls, the extreme events with the applicable
slope does not support or contain a limit state shown in parentheses that require
structural element; and consideration in the design process are as follows:
ϕ = 0.65; where the geotechnical a) Seismic events;
parameters are based on limited
b) Vehicular impact events; and
information, or the slope contains or
supports a structural element. c) Super flood events and scour.

34.13.3 The stated resistance factors of 0.75 and 35.1 Design of RSW for Seismic Events
0.65 are (generally) approximately equivalent to the
safety factors of 1.3 and 1.5, respectively, that is: During an earthquake, the retained fill exerts a
dynamic thrust, PAE on the RS wall in addition to
ϕ = 0.75 ⇒ 1/0.75 ≈ 1.3 = FS ….(4-43) the static thrust. Moreover, the reinforced soil mass
is subjected to a horizontal inertia force.
ϕ = 0.65 ⇒ 1/0.65 ≈ 1.5 = FS ….(4-44)
a) External stability
34.13.4 Note that these resistance factors are stated
to the nearest 0.05, so as to not overstate the level of The external stability uses a displacement-based
accuracy of a resistance value. Therefore, if approach. Following is the design procedure:
assessing global stability with limit equilibrium
slope stability methods, the target safety factors are: 1) RS wall shall be designed as per Section 4.3
for static loading;
FS = 1.30, where the geotechnical 2) The design acceleration coefficient should
parameters are well defined; for be taken equal to zone factor based on the
static condition and sudden draw seismic zone as given in Table 27 as per
down condition; IS 1893 (Part 1);
FS = 1.50, where the geotechnical
3) Determine the total (static + dynamic)
parameters are based on limited
thrust PAE using the following method:
information (This shall be used only
at preliminary design stage);
i) Method: Mononobe-Okabe (M-O)
FS = 1.50, where the wall/slope contains formulation
or supports a structural element;
FS = 1.40 for other walls; and PAE = 0.5 (KAE) γb h2 …(4-45)
FS = 1.10, for extreme event I (seismic
event). Where, h is the wall height along the vertical plane
within the reinforced soil mass as shown in Fig. 30
34.13.5 Additional slope stability analysis to γb is the unit weight of the retained fill.

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FIG. 29 TYPICAL GEOMETRIES WHERE RS WALL COMPOUND STABILITY IS OF CONCERN: STEEP AND TALL
BACKSLOPE ON TOP OF THE WALL; TIRED WALLS; SLOPE AT THE TOP OF THE WALL AND WATER AT TOE OF THE
SLOPE

Table 27 Zone Factor

(Clauses 35.1 and 50.9.3)

Sl No. Characteristics Requirements

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i) Seismic zone II III IV V
ii) Seismic intensity Low Moderate Severe Very severe
iii) Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

KAE is the static + dynamic earth pressure coefficient obtained from equation (4-48) as follows:

cos2 (ϕb - ξ - 90 + θ)
KAE = ...(4-46)

[ ]
2

√
sin (ϕb + δ) sin (ϕb - ξ - I)
cosξ cos2 (90 - θ) cos (δ + 90 - θ + ξ) 1+
cos (δ + 90 - θ + ξ) cos (I - 90 + θ)

where

ξ = tan-1(kh/1-kv) with kh = horizontal seismic coefficient and kv= vertical seismic coefficient;
Δ = angle of wall friction. Minimum of the angle of friction for the reinforced soil zone and retained
backfill;
I = the backfill slope angle = β;
ϕb = angle of internal friction for retained backfill; and
θ = slope angle of the face.

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tan I (0.5H)
h=H+
(1 - 0.5tanI)

where I is backfill slope angle and h/2 is measures from back of wall facing
FIG. 30 DEFINITION OF HEIGHTS FOR SEISMIC ANALYSIS
4) The horizontal and vertical seismic surcharges within the limits of the reinforced soil
coefficient (kh and kv) are applied mass. The inertial force is assumed to act at the
simultaneously and uniformly to the centroid of the mass used to determine the weight
reinforced and retained fill. Typically, kv is (W).
assumed to be zero and kh is taken equal to
Example of permanent surcharges are weight of
design acceleration coefficient.
pavement layers over the reinforced soil zone.
5) PAE shall be computed using equation 4-47.
It is assumed that PAE acts at mid-height of 7) Sliding stability should be checked using a
the vertical plane of the height and resistance factor, ϕ (=1) and the full nominal
therefore the stress due to PAE is assumed to weight of the reinforced zone and any overlying
be distributed uniformly over the height h. permanent surcharges. For M-O method, the
total horizontal force is calculated as follows:
THF = Horizontal component of PAE (cos δ) + PIR +
6) The horizontal inertial force, PIR of EQ (qT) KAE H + other horizontal nominal forces
reinforced soil mass is obtained from the
due to surcharges with load factor 1.0.
given equation:
where
PIR = 0.5 (Am) (W) …(4-47)
EQ = the load factor for live load in extreme
event I limit state and qT is the intensity
of the live load surcharge.
where, Am is design acceleration coefficient and is
obtained from maximum ground acceleration Sliding resistance,
coefficient (A) as follows:
RR = ΣV (m) ….(4-49)
Am = (1.45 - A) x A ….(4-48)
where, m is minimum of tanϕ’r, tanϕ’fd or tanρ and
W is weight of the full reinforced soil mass and any ΣV is the summation of W, PAE sinδ and permanent
overlying permanent slopes and/or permanent nominal surcharge loads,

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CDRsliding = Rτ/THF > 1. The design is satisfactory. not yield realistic solutions for more
complex cases involving soils which derive
8) The limiting eccentricity and bearing shear strength from both cohesion and
resistance should be computed following friction, non-uniform backslope profiles
the same procedure as discussed in static and complex surface loadings.
design. Include all the applicable loads for
For the cases where M-O formulation leads to
extreme event I and add other applicable
unrealistic results, it is recommended that
forces to PAE if M-O method is used; and
numerical procedures using the same principles of
9) If criteria mentioned above are not met, M-O formulation may be used such as conventional
stability programs. Generalized limit equilibrium
adjust the wall geometry and repeat the
procedure as needed. slope stability method may be adopted for
determining the maximum value of total thrust PAE
Limitation on the use of M-O formulation and follow the above-mentioned stability criteria
(that is, sliding, limiting eccentricity and bearing
1) For backfill slope at 3H : 1V or steeper, it resistance check) for the analysis of the RS wall.
may not be possible to obtain a solution for
a certain combination of variables in the b) Internal stability:
M-O formulation as the term sin(φ - ξ - I)
in equation 4.48 may become negative and 1) For internal stability, it is assumed that the
represents a limiting condition as unstable active wedge develops an internal dynamic
slope condition occurs with FS = 1 wherein force, Pi which is expressed as follows:
the failure surface coincides with the
surface slope. As limiting condition is Pi = AmWa ….(4-50)
approached the earth pressures based on
M-O formulation become unrealistically where, Wa is the soil weight of the active zone as
large; and shown by the shaded area in Fig. 31 and Am is the
design acceleration coefficient. If the weight of the
facing is significant then include it in Wa
2) M-O formulation is strictly applicable to computation.
homogeneous cohesionless soils and may

FIG. 31 SEISMIC INTERNAL STABILITY OF REINFORCED SOIL WALL

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2) Reinforcements should be designed to withstand components of the loads are determined as follows:
the horizontal forces generated by the inertia
force in addition to the static forces. It is For static component:
assumed that the location and the maximum
tensile force lines do not change during seismic Tmax RF
loading. The inertia force distribution to the Srs ≥ ….(4-53)
ϕRc
reinforcement is obtained from the following
equation:
For the dynamic component:
Pi ….(4-51)
Tmd = n
Tmd RFID RD ….(4-54)
where Srt ≥
ϕRc
Tmd = factored incremental dynamic where
inertia force at layer i;
ϕ = resistance factor for combined
Pi = internal inertia force due to the
static/earthquake loading =1.20;
weight of backfill within the
active zone; and Srs = ultimate reinforcement tensile
resistance required to resist static
n = number of soil reinforcement load component;
layers within the reinforced soil Srt = ultimate reinforcement tensile
zone. resistance required to resist
dynamic load component;
The load factor for seismic forces is equal to 1.0. The Rc = reinforcing coverage ratio;
total factored load applied to the reinforcement on a
load per unit of wall width basis is computed as RF = combined strength reduction
follows: factor to account for potential
long-term degradation due to
Ttotal = Tmax + Tmd …..(4-52) installation damage, creep, and
chemical aging, equal to
where RFCR × RFID × RFD;
RFID = strength reduction factor to
Tmax = the factored static load applied to the account for installation damage to
reinforcements. The reinforcements reinforcement; and
must be designed to resist the dynamic RDD = strength reduction factor to
component of the load at any time prevent rupture of reinforcement
throughout the design life. due to chemical and biological
degradation.
Internal stability with respect to rupture — For
metallic reinforcements, the resistance factors to be Therefore, the required ultimate tensile resistance of
used while evaluating tensile failure under combined the geosynthetic reinforcement is:
static and earthquake loading are as follows:
Tult = Srs + Srt …..(4-55)
a) Strip reinforcements: 1.00; and
Internal stability with respect to pullout or adherence
b) Grid reinforcements: 0.85.
Ttotal
Le ≥ ….(4-56)
Geosynthetic reinforcements do not require a creep ϕ (0.8F* ασV CRc)
factor for the short duration seismic loading.
Strength loss in geosynthetics due to creep requires where
long-term sustained loading. The resistance of the Le = length of reinforcement in
reinforcement to the static component of load, Tmax, resisting zone;
must be handled separately from the dynamic Ttotal = maximum factored reinforcement
component of load, Tmd. The strength required to tension;
resist Tmax must include the effects of creep, but the
strength required to resist Tmd should not include ϕ = resistance factor for reinforcement
the effects of creep. pull-out = 1.20;
F* = pull-out friction factor;
For geosynthetic reinforcement rupture, the α = scale effect correction factor;

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σv = unfactored vertical stress at the reinforcement (for example modular block facing),
reinforcement level in the it should be reduced to 80 percent of its static value.
resistant zone;
C = overall reinforcement surface For mechanical connections that do not rely on a
area geometry factor (number of frictional component, 0.8 multiplier is removed from
surfaces); and the above equations.
Rc = reinforcement coverage ratio.
The required ultimate tensile resistance of the
geosynthetic reinforcement at the connection is:
For seismic loading conditions, pull-out resistance
factor is reduced to 80 percent of the value used for Tult-conn = Srs + Srt ….(4-59)
static design, unless dynamic pull-out tests are
performed to determine F* value. 35.2 Vehicular Impact Events

Check for connection strength Traffic railing impact loads are analyzed under the
extreme event II limit state. Traffic impact events
For static component of the load: tend to affect only the internal stability of RSW.

Tmax RFD 35.2.1 Crash Barriers

Srs ≥ ….(4-57)
0.8 ϕ (CRcr) Rc
The impact traffic load on barriers constructed over
For dynamic component of the load: the front face of walls must be designed to resist
the overturning moment by their own mass. The
Tmd RFD wall design should ensure that the reinforcement
Srt ≥ ….(4-58)
0.8 ϕ (CRR) Rc does not rupture or pull-out during the impact
event. This load is applied for the top two layers of
where the reinforcement.

Srs = ultimate reinforcement tensile The load factors and load combination for an
resistance required to resist static extreme event II are summarized in Table 21. A
load component; load factor, γP-EV = 1.35 is used for the static soil
Tmax = applied load to reinforcement; load. The traffic surcharge also uses the load factor
RFD = reduction factor to prevent γP-EV = 1.35 for internal stability analysis. The
rupture of reinforcement due static equivalent impact loads are multiplied by a
to chemical or biological load factor, γCT = 1.00.
degradation;
35.2.2 Reinforcement Rupture
ϕ = resistance factor for combined
static/earthquake loading = 1.20; It is recommended that the upper layer of soil
CRcr = long-term connection strength reinforcement shall be designed for a rupture
reduction factor to account for impact load equivalent to a static load of 33.5 kN/m
reduced ultimate strength of wall and the second layer be designed with a
resulting from connection; rupture impact load equivalent to a static load of
Rc = reinforcing coverage ratio; 8.8 kN/m.
Srt = ultimate reinforcement tensile
resistance required to resist The load factor for impact is equal to 1.0. The total
dynamic load component; factored load applied to the reinforcement on a load
per unit of wall width basis is:
Tmd = factored incremental dynamic
inertia force; and
CRR = short-term reduction factor to T total = Tmax + TI ….(4-60)
account for reduced ultimate
strength resulting from
connection. Ttotal = S v K r γr [ (Z + heq) γEV-MAX] + Ti (γCT)
....(4-61)
For geosynthetic connections subjected to seismic where
loading, the factored long term connection strength,
ϕTac > Ttotal. If the connection strength is dependent TI = factored impact load at layer 1 or
on friction between the facing blocks and 2, respectively;

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TMAX = reinforcement tension from static 36 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
earth and traffic loads; and COMPLEX GEOMETRIES
36.1 Superimposed Walls (2-Tier RS walls)
ti = equivalent static load for impact
load at layer i and other terms are Reinforced soil walls with higher height shall be
previously defined. given additional consideration from the viewpoint of
constructability. The wall shall be reconfigured in
35.2.3 Reinforcement Pull-out superimposed walls with an offset between the
individual tiers.
The pull-out resistance of the soil reinforcement to
The design of superimposed RS wall requires two
the impact load shall be resisted over the full length
analyses as follows:
of the soil reinforcement. The traffic surcharge shall
be included in the nominal vertical stress for pull- a) A design using simplified design rules for
out resistance calculation in case of traffic impact calculating external stability and locating
event. For pull-out, it is recommended that the top internal failure plane for internal stability;
layer of reinforcement be designed for a pull-out and
impact load equivalent to a static load of 19.0 kN/m b) A slope stability analysis including both
of wall and the second layer for 8.8 kN/m. compound and global stability analysis.
The definitions of wall heights, H1 and H2, and offset
35.2.4 Resistance Factors for Tensile and Pull-out D between walls for a 2-tier wall configuration is
Resistance shown in Fig. 32.
The resistance factor is presented in Table 24 for Depending upon the offset distance, following
combined static/traffic barrier impact. A pull-out are the design considerations for superimposed
resistance factor of 1.00 is recommended for RS walls:
metallic and geosynthetic reinforcements. 𝐻 +𝐻
a) 𝐷 ≤ ( 1 2), wall shall be designed as one
20
35.2.5 Post and Beam Railings single wall of height H = H1 + H2, with
minimum reinforcement length L1 (for upper
Flexible post and beam barriers shall be placed at a tier) ≥ 0.7 H1 and L2 ≥ 0.6 H;
distance of minimum 1.0 m from the wall face,
driven 1.5 m below pavement grades and positioned b) 𝐷 ≥ 𝐻2 tan(90° − ɸ r ), wall shall be
such that it does not damage the soil reinforcements. designed as independent wall with no
Each of the upper two reinforcement shall be surcharge load of upper tier on the bottom tier
designed for an additional horizontal load of 2.2 kN/ wall;
m of wall, for a total additional load of 4.4 kN/m. 𝐻 +𝐻 ɸ
c) ( 1 2) < 𝐷 ≤ 𝐻2 tan (45° − r ), wall
20 2
35.3 Super Flood Events and Scour shall be designed as superimposed wall.
Internal line of wall shall be shifted by D’ as
The stability of walls and abutments in areas of shown in Fig. 32. The surcharge load due to
turbulent flow must be addressed in the design. Wall upper wall on lower wall shall be 𝜎1 = 𝛾𝐻1 ;
design should be based on the total scour depths. and
Scour should be investigated for two flood
ɸr
conditions: d) 𝐻2 tan (45° −
2
) < 𝐷 ≤ 𝐻2 tan(90° − ɸ r ),
wall
internal tensile force lines and the vertical
a) Design flood; and pressure shall be as indicated in Fig. 33.
b) Check flood. Global stability and compound stability analysis
shall be checked considering all the walls in
This is an extreme event, and the extreme event limit different tiers together for all the cases covered
state applies. Resistance factors for this extreme above. The upper wall is considered as a surcharge
limit state may be taken as 1.0. for the lower wall in computing bearing pressure.

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FIG. 32 MAXIMUM TENSION LINES FOR 2-TIER SUPERIMPOSED RS WALL SYSTEM

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FIG. 33 ADDITIONAL VERTICAL STRESS FOR INTERNAL STABILITY COMPUTATION

36.2 Trapezoidal Walls pull-out calculations as given for simple geometry

RS walls.
RS wall resting on rock or any other foundation
material which will have minimal post construction 36.3 Back to Back Walls
settlements that is, foundation stratum with SPT
N value greater than 50 or sound rock. The wall Back to back walls are those which are near to each
shall be designed for external and internal stability other such that the reinforced portion of wall come
analysis. Global stability and compound stability within the active zone. As the wall comes closer,
analysis shall also be performed. earth pressure by the backfill on the reinforced block
decreases and at a point where the overlapping of
Following are the design rules for such type of the reinforcement is greater than 0.3 H2 as shown
RS wall: in Fig. 35 (where, H2 is the height of the shorter
wall) the earth pressure becomes zero. For
a) Wall shall be represented by a rectangular
situation, when the wall is at a distance such that
block (Lo, H) as shown in Fig. 34 having
D ≥ H1tan (45° - ϕ/2) as shown in Fig. 36, where
same total height and same cross sectional
there is no interference of active wedge with the
area as the stepped section for external
reinforced volume, the walls will behave
stability calculation;
independently and stability shall be obtained
b) Maximum tensile force line is same as in accordingly.
rectangular walls as per the extensibility of In between the immediate geometries as discussed
the reinforcement; and above, the earth pressure shall be linearly
c) Minimum base length of 0.4 H or 3 m interpolated for analysing sliding and overturning.
whichever is greater, with the difference in
length between the consecutive zones being 37 WATER FRONT REINFORCED SOIL
less than 0.15 H. WALL STRUCTURES

For internal stability calculations, wall is divided in In addition to conventional retaining wall and bridge
rectangular sections and for each section the abutment applications, RS walls have also been used
appropriate length L (L1, L2 and L3) is used for successfully to retain earth in waterfront locations.

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By virtue of their location adjacent to streams, may be considered based on the criticality of the
canals, rivers, lakes, coastal and other water bodies, application and/or based on recommendation by the
waterfront structures could potentially be subject to concerned authorities-in-charge. In such conditions,
partial inundation and drawdown cycles. The design the submerged unit weight of soil below the high
high flood level (HFL) in special cases discussed flood level shall be used in internal and external
subsequently shall be considered based on stability calculations.
a 100 years return period. Lesser return periods

FIG. 34 DIMENSIONING OF RS WALL WITH UNEVEN REINFORCEMENT LENGTHS

FIG. 35 OVERLAP IS 0.3 H2 AND MORE, NO EARTH PRESSURE FROM BACKFILL. H1 IS TALLER WALL AND H2 IS
SHORTER WALL

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FIG. 36 D ≥ H1tan (45°-Φ/2), INDEPENDENT WALLS

FIG. 37 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF WATER FRONT RS WALL

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The following special measures shall be considered connections and facing elements are applicable as
in design and construction of any water front mention in Section 3: Materials.
retaining structure:
In addition to drawdown conditions, water front
a) In conditions where the waterfront
structures may have subjected to other factors like
structure is subjected to fluctuations in
high velocity water flow, floating debris of varying
water level, the wall should be designed for
sizes, boulder impact, wave action. While this
rapid drawdown conditions. The structure
section does not address the full range of such
shall be checked for stability by
factors that a water front structure may be subjected
considering a minimum drawdown of
to, it is advised that all these factors be taken into
1 000 mm. Greater values of drawdown
account while proposing a system to be
shall be considered in design when site
implemented as water front structure.
conditions dictate. Effective (submerged)
unit weights should be used in the
38 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
calculations for internal and external
stability beginning at levels just below the
38.1 Introduction
equivalent surface of the pressure head
line;
At sites with poor ground conditions, it may be
b) Global stability check shall be done for all required to carry out ground improvement to ensure
critical load combinations; the stability and serviceability of reinforced soil
structures.
c) Coarse aggregate shall be used as
reinforced zone fill up to the high water Ground conditions which may require ground
level + 500 mm. The gradation of the
improvement include:
coarse aggregate to be used up to the high
water level shall be as per the gradation a) Uncontrolled/unsuitable fills like loosely
allowed in the 600 mm wide drainage bay. dumped soils, debris, waste materials;
Alternatively, well graded free draining b) Organic soils;
material can also be used as fill material
c) Weak and compressible fine-grained soils;
with coefficient of uniformity (Cu) ≥ 5. The
soil shall be non-plastic with fines content d) Expansive soils;
(75 micron passing) less than 5 percent; e) Loose coarse-grained soils; and
d) The nonwoven geotextile behind the facing f) Strata with cavities.
shall be covered 100 percent of the
reinforced soil panel face area. The overlap 38.2 Factors to be Considered in the Selection of
shall be minimum 500 mm; Ground Improvement Method

e) A geotextile filter should be provided at the A wide range of ground improvement methods are
interface of the coarse aggregate and available. The most suitable method for a particular
reinforced backfill above it, at the interface site should be chosen after a careful evaluation of all
of the retained backfill behind it, and at the relevant factors including:
interface of the coarse gravel and subgrade
beneath it. The geotextile should be as per a) Performance requirements of the
specifications in (Section 3: Materials). reinforced soil structure and the
Adjoining sections of geotextile constructed facilities supported by the
filter/separator shall be overlapped by a reinforced soil structure;
minimum of 300 mm; and
b) The reasons for which ground
f) Scour protection measures shall be
improvement is carried out and the degree
provided at the toe to ensure long term
of improvement required;
performance of the structure. Wherever
scour protection measures are provided, a c) The nature and characteristics of the poor
minimum embedment of 1 500 mm shall be strata which is to be improved;
provided for all waterfront structures.
Otherwise, the embedment depth shall be d) The depth to which improvement is to be
provided up to the scour depth + 1 000 mm. carried out;

The clauses related to pH/chemical properties of the e) The depth of ground water table;
fill material/environment and galvanization
requirements for metallic reinforcements, f) The total area which is to be treated;

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g) Time available for construction; 38.3 Overview of Ground Improvement Methods
h) Availability of necessary materials,
Guidelines on selection of ground improvement
equipment and expertise; and
methods are given in IS 13094. A broad overview of
j) Site constraints including access to the site different ground failure mechanisms for reinforced
for heavy equipment, overhead clearance, soil structures, typical ground conditions wherein
whether there are adjacent structures failures may be expected and some possible ground
which may be adversely affected by improvement methods is presented in Table 28.
impact, vibrations and excavations, etc, This is only intended to give a preliminary idea and
problems due to noise, dust, etc, may not cover all possible situations and
availability of water. techniques.

Table 28 Failure Mechanism, Ground Conditions and Ground Improvement Methods

(Clause 38.3)

Sl No. Failure Mechanism Susceptible Ground Suitable Ground Improvement

Conditions Method

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) Sliding Loose coarse grained soils Densification
Unsuitable fills, organic Excavation and replacement
soils, weak fine-grained
soils
ii) Bearing capacity and Loose coarse grained soils Densification
global stability Foundation/basal reinforcement

Unsuitable fills, organic Excavation and replacement

soils
Weak fine-grained soils Excavation and replacement
Foundation/basal reinforcement
PVDs with stage construction
Granular columns, stabilized soil
columns, piles
iii) Foundation extrusion Weak fine-grained soils Excavation and replacement
Foundation/basal reinforcement
PVDs with stage construction
Granular columns, stabilized soil
columns, piles
iv) Liquefaction Loose saturated sands Densification
v) Settlement Unsuitable fills, organic Excavation and replacement
soils
Loose coarse-grained soils Densification
Compressible fine-grained Excavation and replacement,
soils PVDs with stage construction,
Granular columns, stabilized soil
columns, piles

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39 PANEL REINFORCEMENT DESIGN where

39.1 The facing panels shall be designed in both fyd = design yield strength of steel;
vertical and horizontal directions as a one-way fy = characteristic yield strength of steel; and
spanning slab that is subjected to a uniformly γm = 1.15 as per IS 456.
distributed load (UDL) that is equivalent to the
reinforcement tension at the panel connections. The The design compressive strength of concrete shall be
UDL shall be calculated as per below equation: derived using the below relation:
γf x Tmax ….(4-62) fcu
UDL = fcud = ….(4-64)
Sv γm
where where
UDL = equivalent uniformly distributed load; fcud = design compressive strength of concrete;
γf = partial safety factor for loads = 1.0;
fcu = characteristic compressive strength of
Tmax = maximum tension per unit reinforcement concrete; and
width; and γm = 1.5.
Sv = vertical reinforcement spacing.

39.2 For strip type of reinforcement, UDL can be 39.5 The panel reinforcement provided shall satisfy
calculated based on the number of connection points bending moment, shear stress and area of steel
and maximum tension in each strip. checks in both directions (IS 456) and a safety factor
of 1.0 shall be targeted in both the checks.
39.3 The panel reinforcement shall be designed
using “Limit State Approach” as per IS 456 using 39.6 It is suitable to use structural analysis and
the following load and material factors. design software programs, to calculate the bending
moment and shear stress imposed on the facing
39.4 Material Factor (γm) panels.

The design yield strength of steel shall be derived 39.7 The serviceability checks that are
using the below relation: recommended in concrete design codes IS 456, that
is, cracking and deflection checks are not required
fy
fyd = ….(4-63) for facing panel design.
γm

SECTION 5

DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES

40 GENERAL considered as an alternative to conventional or

reinforced soil retaining walls.
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Classification of Reinforced Soil Slopes
Reinforced soil slopes are reinforced soil structures
with a face inclination less than 70 to the horizontal. The inclination of the face of the reinforced soil
Reinforced soil structures with face inclinations slope has a considerable influence on its behavior,
greater than or equal to 70 to the horizontal should method of analysis and method of construction.
be designed as walls in accordance with the methods Based on the face inclination, reinforced soil slopes
described in Section 4. With the introduction of are classified into steep slopes and shallow slopes:
suitable geosynthetic reinforcement of appropriate
length, strength and spacing, it is possible to design a) Steep Slopes — Reinforced soil slopes with
a reinforced soil slope with any face inclination up face inclinations steeper than 45 to the
to 70. In many situations, a reinforced soil slope horizontal are termed steep slopes. Some
with considerably lower right-of-way requirements form of facing should be provided for steep
and lesser volume of fill, could be a more attractive slopes to facilitate placement and
solution than a normal unreinforced slope. Also in compaction of fill adjacent to the slope
many cases, a reinforced soil slope could be face, to enable anchorage of reinforcement

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in the active zone and to provide erosion slopes are as follows:
protection; and
a) To enable the slope to be constructed with
b) Shallow Slopes — Reinforced soil slopes a steeper face inclination than would be
with face inclinations less than or equal to possible without reinforcement;
45 to the horizontal are termed shallow
b) To increase the stability of the slope for a
slopes. It is usually possible to place and
given slope angle compared to an
compact soils to face inclinations less than
unreinforced slope of same inclination; and
or equal to 45, without the need of any
formwork and a wrap-around detail to c) To provide better confinement and
anchor the reinforcement is usually not facilitate better compaction of the fill
required. Hence facings are generally not adjacent to the slope face thus reducing the
required for shallow slopes (except in case tendency for surface sloughing.
of poorly graded granular soils and fills of
lower quality like fine-grained soils, waste The major considerations in use of reinforced soil
materials etc). However short intermediate slopes could be one or more of the following:
reinforcements (secondary reinforcements) a) To reduce the width of the slope so that less
may be required to ensure surficial stability land is required for construction;
of the slope. Suitable erosion control
measures also should be provided. b) To reduce the volume of fill material;
c) To use fills of lower quality or marginal
40.3 Reinforced Soil Slopes Versus Walls
fills; and
The major differences between reinforced soil d) To enable a more robust design.
slopes and reinforced soil walls in terms of
materials, design and construction are as follows: The major applications of reinforced soil slopes are
in the construction of embankments and hillside fills
a) Because of the inclination of the slope, the
with steeper side slopes, reinstatement of failed
disturbing forces are less for a reinforced
slopes and increasing the surficial stability and
soil slope and hence the demand for soil
achieving better compaction and stability of slope
reinforcement is likely to be less compared
faces.
to reinforced soil walls;
b) A rigid/hard facing is not necessary for a 41.2 Embankments
reinforced soil slope in most situations and
flexible/vegetated facings may be Embankments include highway and railway
satisfactory; embankments including approaches to bridges and
c) In view of the significant face inclination grade separators, canal embankments, embankment
and use of flexible facings, some dams, levees and dikes. Reinforced slope could be a
post-construction deformations of the slope feasible option, where sufficient land is available to
face are acceptable and hence fills of lower accommodate the slope angle. In many situations, a
quality in comparison to walls could be used reinforced soil slope could be a more attractive
for slopes. This may permit use of local fills alternative to a conventional retaining wall or
instead of more expensive imported granular reinforced soil wall with a back slope.
fills; and
41.3 Hillside Fills
d) Reinforced soil slopes with flexible facings
have better tolerance to differential Construction of roads, railways, airports, buildings
settlements and earthquakes. and other facilities in hilly areas require earthwork
in cut and fill. Fill has to be placed and compacted
In view of these advantages, a reinforced soil slope against the existing hill slope or benches cut into the
could be a more attractive alternative to hillside. Construction of a stable unreinforced slope
conventional or reinforced soil walls in many may not be feasible or economical in many cases in
situations. view of the large base width and/or volume of fill
materials. Reinforced soil slopes could be an
41 APPLICATION OF REINFORCED SOIL attractive solution in such cases.
SLOPES
41.4 Reinstatement of Failed Slopes
41.1 Overview
While reconstructing a failed slope, it is required to
The purpose of providing reinforcements in soil increase the factor of safety to an acceptable level.

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This may be achieved by using flatter slope angles, 42.4 Drainage
better quality fill, drainage etc. In many cases,
sufficient space for flattening the slope may not Granular drains, geonets, geocomposites, perforated
available and there may be significant advantages in pipes, panel drains etc, along with suitable type of
reusing the slipped soil for reconstruction of the geotextiles may be used for drainage of reinforced
slope. Use of geosynthetic reinforcement may allow soil slopes. The materials shall meet the
the reconstruction of the slope at the same slope requirements given in 28, Table 10, Table 11 and
angle and using the same soil. Table 12 and relevant provisions of 44.3 and
Section 9.
41.5 Reinforcement to Improve Compaction and
Increase Slope Face Stability 43 DESIGN
It is difficult to properly compact the fill material in 43.1 Design Philosophy
the close vicinity of the slope face. Specifications
usually call for additional width of fill to be placed 43.1.1 The main objectives of the design of a
and compacted and then trimmed to achieve a reinforced soil slope is to satisfy the requirements of
compacted slope face. As an alternative to this safety, serviceability, durability, sustainability,
practice, use of short lengths of low strength aesthetics and constructability at the lowest possible
geosynthetic reinforcement at a vertical spacing of life cycle cost.
200 mm to 400 mm may be considered. A length of
1.2 m is usually adequate. Short lengths of relatively 43.1.2 The first requirement is to ensure an adequate
low strength intermediate or secondary margin of safety against collapse of the slope. Limit
reinforcements may be also used to improve equilibrium methods are usually adopted for the
surficial stability in both reinforced and design of slopes. A failure surface is assumed and
unreinforced slopes. the factor of safety against shear failure is calculated
using appropriate simplifying assumptions. A range
42 MATERIALS of potential slip surfaces are analysed and the slip
surface with the lowest factor of safety is located
42.1 Reinforcement using suitable search methods. It must be ensured
that the lowest factor of safety is not less than the
Geogrids, woven geotextiles, reinforced non-woven minimum prescribed factor of safety. In a large
composite geotextiles and mechanically woven number of cases, the problem can be considered to
double twisted hexagonal wire mesh made from be two-dimensional without a significant loss of
galvanized and polymer coated steel wire mesh may accuracy.
be used as soil reinforcement for the construction of
reinforced soil slopes. The reinforcement materials 43.1.3 Limit state or load and resistance factor
shall conform to the requirements given in 5. approach have not extensively been used for the
analysis and design of slopes. Also, a lumped factor
42.2 Soils and Other Fills of safety approach is more convenient to use with
most of the commercially available software for
42.2.1 Soils used as reinforced fill shall conform to slope stability analysis. In view of the current
the requirements given in 26.3.2 and Table 5. practice, this code also adopts a two-dimensional
Manufactured materials like aggregates and sands limit equilibrium method with a lumped factor of
produced by crushing sound rocks and conforming safety approach for the analysis and design of
to these specifications also may be used as reinforced soil slopes. Where three-dimensional
reinforced fill. Pond/bottom/fly ash used as effects are significant, the designer must make an
reinforced fill shall conform to the requirements evaluation and use appropriate numerical methods
given in 26.3.5. The reinforced fill shall extend the or other techniques.
free/rear end of the reinforcement by at least
300 mm. 43.2 Modes of Failure

42.2.2 Where soils behind the reinforced fill 43.2.1 Reinforced soil structures may fail to perform
comprise natural soils/geomaterials, the shear their intended function by collapse or through loss
strength parameters and pore-water pressures should of serviceability through excessive deformations.
be carefully evaluated considering the
recommendations of Section 3. 43.2.2 There are three modes of collapse for
reinforced soil slopes:
42.3 Facings
a) External, where the failure surface is
Facings for reinforced soil slopes shall meet the located entirely outside the reinforced
relevant requirements given in 43 and Section 3. zone;

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b) Internal, where the failure surface is c) Deep seated failure (global stability).
located entirely within the reinforced zone;
and 43.2.4 Internal and compound failure mode involves
c) Compound, where the failure surface is the failure of the reinforcement in one or more of
located partly within the reinforced zone the following (Fig. 39, Fig. 40 and Fig. 41):
and partly outside the reinforced zone. a) Sliding along the reinforcement;

43.2.3 External modes of failure include the b) Rupture or tensile failure of reinforcement;
following mechanisms (Fig. 38): and
a) Sliding along the base;
c) Adherence or pullout failure of
b) Local bearing capacity (lateral squeeze) reinforcement.
failure at the toe; and

(a) Sliding along base

(b) Local bearing capacity/lateral squeeze

(c) Global stability

FIG. 38 EXTERNAL FAILURE MODES FOR REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES

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FIG 39 INTERNAL SLIDING

(a) Rupture of reinforcement (b) Pull-out of reinforcement

FIG. 40 INTERNAL FAILURE MODES — RUPTURE AND PULL-OUT OF REINFORCEMENT

(a) Rupture of reinforcement (b) Pull-out of reinforcement

FIG. 41 COMPOUND FAILURE MODES — RUPTURE AND PULL-OUT OF REINFORCEMENT

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43.2.5 The serviceability of a reinforced soil slopes may be affected through one or more of the following
(Fig. 42):

a) Excessive settlement of the foundation strata;

b) Excessive post-construction strain in the reinforcement; and
c) Excessive post-construction creep deformations of the saturated fine-grained soils or other fills.

(a) Settlement of foundation strata (b) Post construction strain in reinforcement

(c) Post construction creep strain in saturated fine-grained fills

FIG. 42 FAILURE OF REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES THROUGH EXCESSIVE DEFORMATION

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43.3 Design Criteria and Performance acting on the reinforced soil slope including
Requirements self-weight of the soil, earth pressures, dead load and
live load surcharges, pore-water pressures, seepage
Reinforced soil slopes shall be designed to meet the forces, external water pressures, seismic forces
following performance requirements: should be considered in the stability analysis.
a) The minimum factors of safety prescribed When the analysis indicates that the required
in Table 29 shall be ensured; and minimum factor of safety is not achieved against one
b) The impact of deformations should be or more external modes of failure, several options
evaluated adequate precautions should be are available to increase the factor of safety:
taken to ensure that the anticipated
a) Reduce slope angle;
deformations are within the acceptable
limits. b) Increase reinforcement length;
c) Use better quality fill;
Table 29 Minimum Factor of Safety Against d) Ground improvement;
Failure for Reinforced Soil Slopes e) Use light-weight fill;
(Clause 43.3) f) Use high strength reinforcement or
mattress at the base; and
Sl No. Mode of Failure Minimum Factor
of Safety g) Internal drainage.

43.4.2 Sliding Along Base

Static Seismic
(1) (2) (3) (4) The stability against sliding of reinforced slopes
along the base should be checked using a sliding
i) Sliding 1.4 1.1
block (two-part wedge method) type of analysis
ii) Local bearing 1.3 Not (Fig. 43). The frictional resistance provided by the
failure (lateral applicable weakest layer, either the reinforced soil, the
squeeze) foundation soil or the soil-reinforcement interface,
should be used in the analysis. The analysis is best
iii) Global stability 1.4 1.1 performed using appropriate software. The
iv) Internal stability 1.4 1.1 reinforcement length should be sufficient to ensure
adequate factor of safety against sliding failure.
v) Compound 1.4 1.1
stability 43.4.3 Local Bearing Failure at the Toe (Lateral
Squeeze)
43.4 External Stability
If the reinforced soil slope is founded on a relatively
43.4.1 General thin layer of weak saturated fine-grained soil, which
is underlain by competent strata, the weak soil may
External modes of failure of reinforced soil slopes squeeze out laterally due to the stresses imposed by
include sliding along base, local bearing failure at the reinforced soil structure (Fig. 44).
the toe (lateral squeeze) and global failure. All loads

FIG. 43 SLIDING ALONG BASE

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FIG. 44 LOCAL BEARING FAILURE AT THE TOE

Where the thickness of the soft soil (Ds) is less than stability approach.
Bs/2, where Bs is the horizontal projected width of
the slope face, the factor of safety against lateral 43.4.4 Global Stability
squeeze (F) should be calculated using the following
equation: Potential failure surfaces passing behind and below
the reinforced soil zone should be analysed
2 cu 4.14 cu (Fig. 45). Both circular and non-circular slip
F= + surfaces may be considered. Care should be taken
γ Ds tanβ γ H + ws
to identify any weak soil layers in the retained fill
where or natural soils behind and/or foundation soils
below the reinforced soil zone. The failure surface
cu = undrained shear strength of soft soil; tends to pass through the weakest soil strata and
Ds = thickness of soft soil; hence the shape of the failure surface is likely to be
strongly influenced by the presence of weak strata
γ = unit weight of fill;
or seams. Where the failure is likely to be
H = height of slope; controlled by the presence of weak strata or other
β = inclination of slope face with horizontal; geological features, it may be prudent to carry out
and the analysis using both circular and non-circular
ws = uniformly distributed surcharge load. (wedge shaped) failure surfaces. Both short-term
and long-term stability should be investigated using
Where the thickness of soft soil (Ds) is greater appropriate analysis using total stress or effective
than Bs/2, the stability may be checked using a slope stress shear strength parameters.

FIG. 45 GLOBAL STABILITY ANALYSIS

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43.5 Internal Stability 43.5.2 Method of Slices

43.5.1 General 43.5.2.1 The method of slices is a very widely used

method for the analysis of slopes and this technique
43.5.1.1 Internal stability pertains to modes of is extended to reinforced soil slopes by
failure along surfaces completely located within the incorporating the additional stabilizing force
reinforced soil zone. These include internal sliding, contributed by the reinforcements (Fig. 46). Where
rupture of reinforcement and pull-out of a reinforcement layer intersects the assumed failure
reinforcement. The task of internal stability surface on a particular slice, the tension mobilized in
analysis is to arrive at a reinforcement the reinforcement is considered. Circular slip
layout : length, spacing and long-term design surfaces are the most widely used, although
strength : that ensures adequate factor of safety non-circular and composite slip surfaces also could
against internal sliding and rupture or pull-out of be used.
the reinforcement.
43.5.2.2 The overall rotational equilibrium of the
43.5.1.2 The most critical internal failure surface for sliding mass of soil is evaluated by comparing the
reinforced soil slopes depends on a number of moments of the resisting and disturbing forces about
factors including slope geometry, fill characteristics, the centre of the circular slip surface. The factor of
surcharge loads, pore-pressures, reinforcement safety against rotational failure (F) is calculated as
layout etc. A large number of potential failure the ratio of the restoring moment to the disturbing
surfaces, which may be circular or non-circular, moment using the following equation.
need to be analysed, to identify the most critical
failure surface. Therefore, internal stability analysis MRS + MRR
is usually done using computer programs. For slopes F =. MD
having simple geometry, loading conditions and soil
profile, chart solutions available in literature could where
be used for preliminary design and also to verify the
results of computer programs. However, the MRS = restoring moment due to shear strength
limitations of the chart solutions should be of the soil along the slip surface;
considered when comparing the chart solutions with MRR = restoring moment contributed by the
those of more advanced methods. reinforcements which intersects the
failure surface; and
43.5.1.3 Two types of limit equilibrium methods are
commonly used for slope stability analysis are also MD = disturbing moment due to the weight of
used for the analysis and design of reinforced soil the sliding soil mass and any external
slopes: loads or surcharges acting on the sliding
mass.
a) Method of slices; and
b) Sliding block analysis.

FIG. 46 INTERNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS — METHOD OF SLICES USING CIRCULAR FAILURE SURFACE

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43.5.2.3 The restoring moment (MRR) contributed by Fig. 47 illustrates the salient features of the two-
the reinforcement is calculated as: part wedge method. The bi-planar failure surface
consists of two line segments inclined at 1 and 2
MRR = ∑ Ti yi to the horizontal. In terms of the force equilibrium
of the two wedges, the problem is statically
where determinate. By varying the length and inclination
Ti = maximum tensile force which can be of the two line segments, a large number of failure
resisted by the reinforcement; and surfaces are analyzed and the most critical failure
surface is located. The optimum reinforcement
yi = perpendicular distance from the centre of
layout is designed to ensure the required factor of
rotation to the reinforcement.
safety.
43.5.2.4 The maximum tensile force in the
43.5.4 Check for Internal Sliding
reinforcement is limited to the long-term design
strength of the reinforcement or the available
Check for internal sliding should be carried out
pull-out resistance of the reinforcement whichever is
using a sliding block analysis. A simplified form of
lesser. The pull-out resistance of the reinforcement
two part wedge method as illustrated in Fig. 48 is
is limited by the available effective anchorage
usually used. The first segment of the bi-planar
length (Le) beyond the failure surface.
failure surface starts from the front end of the
reinforcement and is horizontal and located along
43.5.2.5 A large number of potential failure surfaces
the surface of the reinforcement. By varying the
have to be analysed to locate the most critical failure
length of the horizontal segment and the inclination
surface corresponding to the lowest factor of safety
of the second segment, a large number of sliding
and hence the analysis is carried out using computer
blocks are analyzed. The maximum length of the
programmes. A systematic search to ensure that the
horizontal segment is equal to the length of the
most critical failure surface is captured is an
reinforcement. The tensile force mobilized in the
important part of the analysis. An optimum
reinforcements which intersects the failure surface
reinforcement layout to achieve the required factor
will also contribute to the equilibrium of the wedges.
of safety is arrived at by a trial and error process.
The spacing, length and tensile strength of the
reinforcements are designed to ensure the required
43.5.3 Sliding Block Analysis
factor of safety against sliding.
43.5.3.1 Sliding block analysis considers bi-planar
43.6 Compound Stability
or tri-planar failure surfaces with the failure mass
divided into two blocks or three blocks respectively
Failure surfaces passing partly through the
(two-part wedge or three-part wedge) and the force
reinforced soil zone and partially through the
equilibrium of the sliding blocks are analysed. The
retained soil and/or foundation soils also should be
analysis considers various trial surfaces and then
analysed (Fig. 49). Both circular and non-circular
considers the equilibrium of the mass of soil above
failure surfaces may be used. The effect of the
the selected surface. Failure surfaces starting from
reinforcement should be considered on that part of
various points on the slope face, preferably at each
the potential failure surface that intersects the
point where the primary reinforcement intersects the
reinforcement layers. Both reinforcement rupture
slope face should be analyzed. The length and
and bond should be considered. The various
inclination of the failure surfaces are varied to
methods used to analyse internal stability may be
determine the most critical failure surface.
extended to analyse compound stability. The
reinforcement layout should be checked to ensure
43.5.3.2 Whenever a reinforcement layer intersects
that the required factor of safety against compound
the failure surface, the tension mobilized in the
failure mode is achieved.
reinforcement is considered in the analysis.

FIG. 47 INTERNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS — TWO PART WEDGE METHOD

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FIG. 48 CHECK FOR INTERNAL SLIDING

FIG. 49 COMPOUND STABILITY ANALYSIS USING CIRCULAR FAILURE SURFACES

43.7 Analysis and Design of Reinforced Soil However, these have some limitations like limited
Slopes using Software range of analysis methods, failure surfaces, limited
ability to handle pore water pressures and seepage,
43.7.1 Analysis of the stability of reinforced soil limited choice of soil constitutive models etc. Where
slopes against different modes of failure like sliding more advanced analysis is required for more
along base, internal stability, compound stability and complex problems, calculations may be done using
global stability involves the analysis of a large more advanced general slope stability software.
number of potential failure surfaces. Therefore,
analysis and design of reinforced soil slopes is 43.8 Serviceability
usually carried out using software. Internal stability,
compound stability and global stability checks may 43.8.1 General
be carried out using the method of slices usually
using circular failures surfaces. The search for the Serviceability of reinforced soil slopes could be
critical failure surface should ensure that all affected by one or more of the following:
potential internal, compound and global failure a) Excessive settlement of the ground
surfaces are analysed and the most critical surface supporting the reinforced soil slope;
located. Sliding check should be carried out using
sliding block method of analysis using two-part or b) Excessive post-construction creep strain in
three-part wedge method. Sliding along the base and the reinforcement; and
along the surface of all reinforcement layers should c) Excessive post-construction creep strain in
be checked. saturated fine-grained fills.

43.7.2 Design software may include programmes Reinforced soil slopes are flexible structures which
specifically developed for the design of reinforced can tolerate appreciable amounts of vertical and
soil slopes and general slope stability software. The lateral deformations. Hence, in most situations the
main advantage of specialized reinforced soil slope deformations are not usually a concern with respect
design software is that they are relatively easy to use. to the design and performance of reinforced soil

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slopes. However, in cases where the reinforced soil 43.8.4 Post-construction Creep Strain in Saturated
slopes are supporting structures or facilities which Fine-grained Fills
are less tolerant to movements, the post
construction vertical and lateral deformations of The post construction creep strains in saturated
reinforced soil slopes should be limited to the fine-grained soils are very difficult to calculate.
specified tolerable limits. Where such soils are to be used and if post
construction creep strains are a concern,
43.8.2 Settlement of Reinforced Soil Slopes consideration should be given to providing good
drainage and/or sealing of the reinforced zone.
43.8.2.1 Reinforced soil slopes are flexible Preferably, better quality fill should be used.
structures and can accommodate appreciable
amount of settlement. Hence, settlement of the 43.9 Seismic Design
foundation soils is not likely to have a significant
impact on the integrity of reinforced soil slopes in 43.9.1 Reinforced soil slopes are flexible structures
most cases. However, when settlements are of a which can withstand earthquakes without
large magnitude and associated with appreciable undergoing significant distress. In most cases, a
lateral displacements, the possibility of cracking of pseudo-static analysis would be sufficient to ensure
fill and/or additional forces being induced in the the stability and integrity of the structure during
reinforcement should be assessed. earthquakes. In the pseudo-static method, the effect
of earthquake is represented by applying an
43.8.2.2 Where the reinforced soil slope supports additional force at the centroid of the sliding mass
pavements, railway tracks, foundations etc, the which is equal to the seismic coefficient multiplied
allowable post construction settlement will be by the weight of the sliding mass. When analysing
governed by the permissible limits for total and using method of slices, an additional horizontal
differential settlement for the structures supported force equal to Ah Wi (where Ah is the horizontal
by the slope. It must be ensured that the total and seismic coefficient and Wi is the weight of the slice)
differential post construction settlements are within is applied at the centroid of each slice (Fig. 50). It is
the permissible limits applicable for the structures or assumed that this force has no influence on the
facilities supported by the reinforced soil slope. normal force and resisting moment, so that only the
driving moment is affected. External, internal and
43.8.3 Post-construction Creep Strain in the compound stability analysis should be carried out
Reinforcement considering seismic forces. Where relevant, an
additional vertical force equal to AvWi (where Av is
As a general rule, post-construction creep strain of the vertical seismic coefficient) is applied at the
reinforcement is not a serious concern for reinforced centroid of each slice. Pseudo-static seismic analysis
soil slopes in most situations. However, in situations can also be carried out using the sliding block
where the slope supports structures sensitive to method.
displacements, post-construction creep strain in the
reinforcement should be limited to 1 percent.

FIG. 50 SEISMIC STABILITY ANALYSIS — ADDITIONAL FORCE DUE TO EARTHQUAKE

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43.9.2 Reinforced soil slopes are flexible structures failures are usually shallow with depth of failure
and hence a lower value of seismic coefficient is surface limited to about 1.2 m below the slope
appropriate for slopes in comparison to reinforced surface.
soil walls. The design horizontal seismic coefficient
(Ah) for reinforced soil slopes may be taken as Z/2, 43.10.1.3 Approaches to stabilization of slope
where Z is the seismic zone factor from surface against surficial instability depend on the
IS 1893 (Part 1). slope angle and type of fill materials. The following
cases are considered:
43.9.3 In the case of important reinforced soil slopes
a) Shallow slopes constructed using well-
located in Seismic Zones IV and V, whose function
graded soils;
may be critically affected by displacements caused
by earthquakes or which are of exceptional height or b) Shallow slopes constructed using poorly
with very poor foundations, pseudo-static analysis graded or marginal soils; and
may be supplemented with more advanced methods c) Steep slopes.
if required.
43.10.2 Shallow Slopes — Well-Graded Soils
43.9.4 In the case of reinforced soil slopes founded
on submerged loose sands and non-plastic silts, with 43.10.2.1 In the case of shallow slopes (slope face
corrected standard penetration test values N less than angle  45) constructed using well-graded fills
15 in Seismic Zones III, IV and V, and less than (soils classified as GW, GM, GC, SW, SM, SC),
10 in Seismic Zone II, the liquefaction potential of intermediate layers of secondary reinforcement are
the foundation soils should be evaluated in usually sufficient to control surficial slope failures.
accordance with IS 1893 (Part 1). Marine clays and These intermediate layers of reinforcement also help
sensitive clays also may undergo liquefaction or in achieving better compaction at the face, thus
cyclic failure. The liquefaction susceptibility of such increasing soil shear strength and resistance to
soils also should be assessed. The minimum factor of erosion.
safety against liquefaction should be greater than or
equal to 1.2. If the calculated factor of safety against 43.10.2.2 The length, spacing and strength of
liquefaction is less than 1.2, suitable ground secondary reinforcement may depend on a number
improvement should be carried out prior to the of factors like type of soil, angle of slope, height of
construction of the reinforced soil slope. slope, spacing of primary reinforcement etc. The
following minimum requirements should be
43.10 Surficial Stability satisfied:

43.10.1 General a) The ultimate tensile strength of secondary

reinforcement shall be greater than or equal
43.10.1.1 The length, spacing and grade of primary to 20 kN/m;
reinforcements are decided based on stability b) The maximum unreinforced thickness of
analysis to provide acceptable factor of safety fill within a horizontal distance of 1.5 m
against external, internal and compound failure from the slope face shall be limited to
modes. Primary reinforcements may not be 400 mm; and
sufficient to ensure the stability of the very shallow c) The minimum length of secondary
zone of soils close to the slope face. reinforcement shall be 1.5 m.

43.10.1.2 The surficial soils may be prone to 43.10.2.3 These are only minimum requirements
localized instability between the primary and wherever necessary based on design needs,
reinforcement, primarily due to the effects of performance requirements or site conditions, the
infiltration of water into the surficial soils. The tensile strength and length of secondary
sources of water could be rainfall, discharge from reinforcement should be increased and/or secondary
surface drains, leaking pipes etc. Infiltration could be reinforcements should be provided at a closer
accelerated by the presence of cracks, root holes etc. spacing to ensure stability of slope face.
When infiltration rates are high, a perched water
table with seepage parallel to the slope face can 43.10.3 Shallow Slopes — Poorly Graded Soils and
develop. Due to the combined effects of loss of Marginal Fills
apparent cohesion due to saturation and development
of pore pressures due to seepage, there is an In the case of shallow slopes constructed using
appreciable reduction in the shear strength in the soil poorly graded soils (soils classified as GP, GP-GM,
and this can result in a significant reduction GP-GC, SP, SP-SM and SP-SC), non-plastic silts,
in factor of safety against surficial slides. Surficial pond ash, fine-grained soils and other lower quality

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fills, slope face stability shall be ensured by reinforcement, feasibility of vegetation, climate,
providing a suitable facing (Section 43.12). design life, possibility of submergence or exposure
to flowing water or currents, expected settlement
43.10.4 Steep Slopes etc.

For steep slopes (slope face angle > 45), a facing is 43.12.2 Vegetated Wrap-Around Facings
required to ensure slope face stability. Commonly
used types of facing include: 43.12.2.1 A geosynthetic wrap-around or wrapped
face is formed by extending the geosynthetic
a) Wrap-around with vegetation; reinforcement along the slope face and then
b) Galvanized welded steel wire mesh facing re-embedding it back into the fill for sufficient
units with stone infill; length to develop adequate anchorage. The wrapped
c) Face wrap using mechanically woven face can protect the slope face against sloughing and
double twisted hexagonal wire mesh (made surficial instability. However, the fill needs to be
from galvanized and polymer coated steel protected against surface erosion and the exposed
wire mesh) with stone infill; geosynthetic should be protected from ultraviolet
d) Geocells; and radiation. This can be achieved by establishing
vegetation on the slope face.
e) Gabions.
43.12.2.2 Steep slopes require face support during
43.11 Erosion Control construction, which could be provided through one
of the following:
43.11.1 Erosion control measures are required for
shallow slopes without facing and for wrap-around a) Temporary removable formwork;
facings. Vegetation is the most commonly used b) Soil-filled bags; and
means of erosion protection. Suitability of
vegetation must be assessed with respect to all c) Sacrificial welded wire mesh.
relevant factors including the slope angle, type of
fill, intensity of rain fall, climate, and availability of 43.12.2.3 To keep the deformations of the slope,
sufficient moisture throughout the year. When a face within acceptable limits, the spacing of primary
vegetated slope face is planned, the fill material reinforcements should be limited to 500 mm for
placed close to the slope face shall be suitable for wrap-around facing. The minimum anchorage
growth of vegetation. The effectiveness of (re-embedment) length of reinforcement measured
vegetation may be enhanced by using from the slope face shall be 1.2 m.
bio-degradable erosion control blankets made of coir
or jute, permanent turf reinforcement mats, geocells 43.12.2.4 The portion of the reinforcement which
etc. wraps the slope face is essential for surficial stability
and hence durability of this portion of the
43.11.2 In the case of shallow slopes, where reinforcement positioned along the slope surface is
vegetation is not feasible, some form of hard armour critical in ensuring the long-term stability of the
may be considered. However, stability of this layer structure. If the reinforcement undergoes significant
against sliding must be ensured through proper degradation due to prolonged exposure to solar
anchorage or veneer reinforcement techniques. radiation, fire, vandalism etc, the durability of the
structure may be compromised. Since protection of
43.12 Design of Facings the geosynthetic face wrap and erosion control is
ensured through vegetation, geosynthetic wrap-
43.12.1 General around facing will be durable only if healthy and
sustained vegetation can be ensured. Where it is not
43.12.1.1 The facing should be designed to protect possible to ensure continuous vegetation, other type
the slope face against erosion, shallow surficial of facing should be used,
slides and sloughing. In the case of steep slopes, it is
also required to facilitate the placement and 43.12.3 Other Facings
compaction of fill. This function of
containment/confinement of fill during placement Alternatives to wrap-around facings include
and compaction is a temporary one and could be galvanized welded steel wire mesh facing units with
done by temporary/removable formwork or by the stone infill, face wrap using mechanically woven
facing. double twisted hexagonal wire mesh (made from
galvanized and polymer coated steel wire mesh)
43.12.1.2 Considerations in the selection of the with stone infill, geocells, gabions or other suitable
appropriate type of facing and its design include type of facings.
slope height and angle, type of fill material, type of

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The following considerations apply in the design of conditions: Where the ground water table
these facings: can rise above the founding level of the
reinforced soil structures, relatively large
a) The facing shall satisfactorily perform all
volumes of water may enter the reinforced
its required functions during construction
fill and design of drainage measures should
and throughout the entire design life of the
cater to this;
structure : it shall serve as a form work for
fill placement and compaction; it shall c) Reinforced soil slopes which are likely to
ensure surficial stability of the reinforced be partially submerged: Reinforced soil
soil slope; and it shall protect the slope face structures located in flood-prone sites may
against erosion; be subjected to partial submergence during
the floods. Design should consider the
b) The facing shall be able to drain out water
effects of higher hydrostatic pressures and
so as to prevent the build-up of hydrostatic
sudden draw down; and
pressures or excess pore water pressures;
d) Reinforced soil slopes exposed to water
c) Erosion of fill through the facing shall be
bodies: Bridge approach embankments
prevented; a suitable nonwoven geotextile
and reinforced soil slopes supporting
shall be provided between stone infill and
the banks of water bodies like
the reinforced fill, when required;
rivers/streams/canals/ponds/reservoirs may
d) The facing shall be able to resist the applied be subject to periodic submergence up to
earth pressures without undergoing sliding, the high water level and may be impacted
overturning, structural failure or excessive by water currents. The effects of
deformations of the facing units or its hydrostatic pressures, seepage pressures,
components or elements; scour, internal erosion and piping should be
carefully evaluated and appropriate counter
e) A stable connection between the facing and
measures provided.
reinforcement shall be ensured by
developing sufficient frictional resistance 43.13.3 The various approaches to minimize the
or through mechanical fixtures; effects of water include:
f) The facing shall not deform excessively;
a) Proper surface drainage measures to
and
collect and dispose of the surface runoff;
g) The facing shall be durable.
b) Use of impervious barriers to minimize the
43.13 Design of Drainage infiltration of surface water into the
reinforced soil structure;
43.13.1 Satisfactory drainage measures should be
provided to ensure that the fill does not become c) Use of fill with sufficient permeability to
water-logged or any pore-water pressures or quickly remove the water entering into the
hydro-static pressures considered in design are not reinforced soil structure and dissipate the
exceeded. The design of drainage for reinforced soil excess pore water or hydrostatic pressures;
slopes is generally similar to that for reinforced soil
walls. d) Provision of adequate subsurface drainage
arrangements including granular/
43.13.2 The risk due to water and the extent of geosynthetic drains, perforated pipes,
drainage measures required will depend on the type panel drains, etc;
of the reinforced soil structure and the severity of its e) Designing for anticipated excess pore-
exposure to water: water pressures or hydrostatic pressures
a) Reinforced soil slopes which are above including the effects of sudden drawdown;
ground water table and above high flood
levels: Examples include embankments in f) Provision of appropriate granular or
sites not affected by floods and hill side geotextile filters to prevent internal
fills where the ground water table is erosion and piping; and
permanently below the founding level of g) Protection against scour through adequate
the reinforced soil structure. The main embedment and using scour protection
source of water in these structures is aprons.
infiltration of rain water or snow melt from
the surface or from leaking pipes; Guidance for detailing of drainage measures is
b) Hill side fills with high water table provided in Section 9.

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43.14 Design of Ground Improvement e) Increasing the shear strength of surficial
soils by generating suction through
Ground improvement may be required in the evapotranspiration.
following situations:
In addition, vegetation may provide ecological and
a) The factor of safety against external failure environmental benefits and results in an
modes (sliding, bearing failure/lateral aesthetically pleasing appearance of the slope face.
extrusion, global stability) is not adequate,
and it is not possible to achieve the required 44.2.2 Selection of Type of Vegetation
factor of safety by using other measures;
44.2.2.1 All relevant factors and site conditions must
b) The foundation strata are susceptible to
be carefully evaluated while selecting the type of
liquefaction during earthquakes; and
vegetation which is best suited for performing its
c) The settlement is more than the acceptable intended functions. Important considerations
limit. include:
a) Slope geometry: steeper the slope, more
General guidance on ground improvement is given
difficult it is for the soil to retain moisture
in 38.
and sustain the vegetation;
44 DETAILING b) Type of fill materials and feasibility of
using top soils close to slope face;
44.1 Slope Face Geometry
c) Climate and weather conditions including
rainfall, temperature and wind;
In the case of shallow slopes, fill is placed and
compacted to form a planar slope face at the required d) Whether the slope would be submerged for
angle. If slope height is large, intermediate benches long periods of time; and
may be provided for access, for providing catch
water drains, anchorage of hard armour etc, e) Role of vegetation.
depending on the requirement.
44.2.2.2 As far as possible native species of
vegetation should be used and invasive species
In the case of steep slopes, the required slope face
should be avoided.
inclination may be achieved by constructing the
slope face as a planar surface or as a series of vertical
and horizontal steps. 44.2.2.3 Where the primary functions of vegetation
are to protect the soils from erosion and to protect
the geosynthetics from solar radiation grass type of
44.2 Vegetation vegetation would be sufficient. Where surficial
stability is an important function of the vegetation,
44.2.1 Role of Vegetation plants, shrubs or vetiver grass with deeper, denser
and stronger root systems may be considered.
Vegetation improves the performance of a Woody vegetation can further improve the stability
reinforced soil slope through a variety of functions of slopes. In some situations, a mix of vegetation
including: may give better results. It would be prudent to
consult a horticulturist or soil bioengineering
a) Protecting the geosynthetics forming the specialist while selecting the appropriate type of
wrap-around face from harmful effects of vegetation.
solar radiation;
44.2.3 Grass Type Vegetation
b) Controlling soil erosion by absorbing the
Grass type of vegetation is widely used for the
impact of rain drops, reducing the energy
erosion control of both reinforced and unreinforced
of flowing water, binding the soil particles
fill slopes and natural slopes. Native species of grass
by the action of root reinforcement and by
with sufficiently deep roots should be preferred to
serving as a barrier to downward
the extent possible. Grass type vegetation may
movement of soil;
be established thorough seeding, sodding or
c) Increasing the shear strength of surficial hydro-seeding. The advantages and disadvantages of
soils through root reinforcement; each method must be carefully evaluated with
specific site requirements and constraints. A
d) Reducing the weight of any potential bio-degradable or permanent erosion control mats
unstable mass of soil through may be used to improve the performance of the grass
evapotranspiration; and cover.

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44.2.4 Vetiver Grass c) Turf reinforcement mats.

Vetiver is a special type of grass which offers several 44.2.7.2 Open weave coir and jute geotextiles are
advantages over ordinary type of grasses. The root woven fabrics made from coir or jute yarns with a
system of vetiver is deeper, denser and stronger and range of aperture sizes used to provide erosion
gives a higher degree of erosion protection and also control and facilitate vegetation establishment.
provides much better surficial stability. Vetiver can Erosion control blankets are temporary degradable
be grown in a wide range of soils and climatic products composed of biodegradable fibers like coir
conditions and is much more tolerant to adverse or other materials which bound together to form a
weather conditions including drought, flooding and continuous matrix to provide erosion control and
submergence. While vetiver offers significant facilitate vegetation establishment.
advantages, its suitability must be carefully
evaluated with respect to specific site conditions and 44.2.7.3 Turf reinforcement mats are rolled erosion
project requirements. control product composed of non-degradable
synthetic fibers, filaments, nets, woven wire mesh,
44.2.5 Woody Vegetation and/or other elements, processed into a permanent,
three-dimensional matrix of sufficient thickness.
Woody vegetation can be established on reinforced TRMs, which may be supplemented with degradable
soil slopes by planting living woody plant cuttings components, are designed to impart immediate
which are capable of rooting in moist soils. The erosion protection, enhance vegetation
cuttings are embedded into the fill at required establishment and provide long-term functionality
spacing during construction. Woody vegetation by permanently reinforcing vegetation during and
offers several benefits including shading and after maturation. Turf reinforcement mats used in
protection of the reinforcement, erosion control, applications where the erosive forces may exceed
surficial stabilization though root reinforcement and the limits of natural unreinforced vegetation or in
moisture control, ecological benefits and aesthetics. areas where limited vegetation establishment is
The plant species, length of cuttings and spacing of anticipated.
planting must be decided based on a careful
evaluation of all relevant factors. 44.3 Drainage

44.2.6 Creeper Type Vegetation Detailing considerations for drainage arrangement

for reinforced soil slopes will be similar to those for
Where the slope face is considered to be too steep reinforced soil walls and guidance is given in
for the establishment of vegetation, and the primary Section 9.
role of vegetation is to protect the geosynthetic
wrapped face from exposure to solar radiation and 44.4 Miscellaneous Details
aesthetic appearance, use of creeping plants that are
rooted at the bottom of the slope could be an option. Design details for various components like traffic
When the height of slope is more, intermediate barriers, railings, vertical and horizontal
benches also may be considered. obstructions, face penetrations etc, the
recommendations for reinforced soil walls given in
44.2.7 Use of Rolled Erosion Control Products Section 10 are generally applicable for reinforced
soil slopes also.
44.2.7.1 Rolled erosion control products include a
variety of natural or synthetic manufactured 45 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
products used to control erosion and enhance
vegetation establishment and survivability. Products The construction methodology and maintenance
include: practices for reinforced soil slopes are broadly
similar to those for reinforced soil walls and the
a) Open weave coir and jute geotextiles; recommendations given in Section 10 are generally
applicable for reinforced soil slopes also.
b) Erosion control blankets made of
bio-degradable materials like coir fibers;
and

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SECTION 6

DESIGN OF REINFORCED SOIL TRUE ABUTMENTS

46 INTRODUCTION seat which distributes the stresses to the reinforced

soil structure underneath.
The usage of RS abutments (reinforced soil true
abutment and herein after called “bridge abutment”) 48.1.2 There are Two Types of Bridge Abutments:
has gradually increased worldwide because of
simple, rapid and predictable construction process a) True abutment: In a “true abutment”, the
which results in strong, durable and economical bridge beams are directly supported on a
structure. This is extensively used in many parts of spread footing called ‘bank seat’ or ‘beam
the world including in India started with four laning seat’ which is directly rested on reinforced
of NH-6 from Dankuni to Kolaghat and Kolaghat to soil mass; and
Kharagpur in West Bengal and very recently in
b) False abutment: Here the bridge beams are
Mumbai airport approach road. There are several
rested on a RCC cap supported by a group
opportunities to employ this technique in upcoming
of piles embedded inside reinforced soil
projects for faster and economical constructions.
mass transferring the load to the ground.
The developments in theory, method of design and The load of the approach slab and any
the experience with such structures worldwide have horizontal loads on the RS mass that may
given confidence to the use of this technology. come from pile is generally ignored, if
adequate distance is maintained.
47 SCOPE
48.2 Components of RS Abutments
The guidelines cover the design, construction and
safety aspects of RS abutments supporting structural 48.2.1 The Beam Seat
and traffic loads. This type of structures can be used
with advantage for carrying heavy loads and the The loads from the bridge deck are transmitted by
areas with marginal foundation soil where way of a reinforced concrete distribution beam,
abutments may otherwise require expensive deep which rests on the reinforced soil (RS) mass and
foundations. The guidelines in this document which is proportioned to efficiently transmit the
include: vertical and horizontal dead and live load from the
bridge deck into the RS mass.
a) Materials and their properties that can be
used in fill and reinforcement;
48.2.2 The RS Structure
b) Design methods; and
The RS sub-structure is designed to support its own
c) Construction methods. mass, the earth pressures of the approach fill and the
loads transmitted from the bridge deck by way of the
48 TYPES OF RS ABUTMENTS, COMPONENTS distribution beams.
AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
48.2.3 The Foundation
48.1 Types of RS Abutments
The standard RS structure is generally founded on
prepared ground which may be compacted fill or
48.1.1 A RS abutment essentially consists of
may be the natural ground. Nominal embedment of
conventional reinforced soil wall designed to
the structure is required. However, in case of pure
support the earth pressures behind it, as well as the
abutment specific care shall be taken for design of
heavy, concentrated vertical and horizontal
foundation. The minimum embedment depth shall
surcharge loads imposed on it by bridge
be 1 m provided it satisfies the required settlement
superstructure and traffic loadings. Superstructure
criteria. (refer Table 30).
loads are transmitted by a reinforced concrete beam

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FIG. 51 TRUE BRIDGE ABUTMENT

FIG. 52 FALSE ABUTMENT

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FIG. 53 COMPONENTS OF RS ABUTMENT

48.3 Material Properties supported on the bank seat directly into the
abutment backfill. RS abutments — both true and
The main materials within RS abutments are fill, mixed — should be designed according to the
reinforcing elements, facing and connection. (refer standard reinforced soil design method described in
Section 4 reinforced soil walls and abutments). Section 4.

49 SOIL PROPERTIES 50.2 The configuration wherein bridge

superstructure is supported on a spread footing on
The reinforced fill soil should be gravelly sand with top of the reinforced soil zone may be more
no clay content. The angle of internal friction shall economical compared to abutments supported by
be greater than or equal to 34 degrees. The fines deep foundations through the reinforced soil zone.
content shall be limited to 10 percent with no clay or Spread footings may be considered when the
organic content. Fly ash and silty sand shall not be projected settlement of foundation and reinforced
used as reinforced fill material for RS abutments. soil is rapid/small or essentially complete prior to the
erection of the bridge beams. The post construction
settlement shall be limited to 50 mm after the
50 DESIGN PRINCIPLES installation of bridge deck.

50.1 This section should be followed for RS 50.3 Steps in the analysis of true bridge abutments:
abutments for conventional bridge decks, with or
a) Establish project requirements including
without expansion joints where forces from the
structural loading;
bridge deck are transmitted through bearings

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b) Establish all standard parameters required 50.4 Establish Project Requirements
for design of any reinforced soil structure;
50.4.1 Loading from Bridge Designer
c) Geometrical dimensioning of the structure;
Designing the RS abutment structure is very
d) Assessment of load factors and resistance different from normal RS wall design. The theory
factors and summarize the same; behind RS abutment has to be very well explained
to the bridge designer. Close interaction with the
e) Evaluate external stability of beam seat: bridge designer is a prerequisite to get the bridge
loading details. The typical load requirements are
1) Check sliding, bearing and limiting
described in Table 30.
eccentricity.
f) Evaluate external stability of RS wall: Nominal (that is, unfactored) bridge reaction loads
as required for design project.
1) Check sliding, bearing, limiting
eccentricity and settlement analysis. In addition to the above data, the details of bridge
dimension like the depth of the slab or girder, the
g) Evaluate internal stability of RS wall: bearing dimensions, the distance between the centre
line of bearing and the edge of girder, approach slab
1) Check for critical failure surface, details etc is required. The detailed drawing shall be
establish long term tensile resistance prepared with all dimensions before starting the
of soil reinforcement and pull-out design activity.
resistance of soil reinforcement.
50.4.2 Foundation Design
h) Check overall and compound stability at
serviceability limit state; RS abutment design is also critical from foundation
point of view as the design of foundation is also very
j) Design drainage and filtration; and
crucial and of utmost importance while considering
k) Design of foundation. the SBC calculations and settlement criteria. The
post construction settlement shall be limited to
50 mm after the installation of bridge deck.

Table 30 Nominal Bridge Reaction Load as Required for the Design

(Clauses 48.2.3 and 50.4.1)

1 QLL LL due to bridge superstructure on each abutment kN/m

2 QDL DL due to bridge superstructure on each abutment kN/m *
3 V DL due to beam seat kN/m
4 FLL Horizontal inertia of bridge LL kN/m *
5 FDL Horizontal inertia of bridge DL kN/m
6 ∆PAE Dynamic (pseudo static) force acting on bridge footing kN/m
7 HLLmax maximum horizontal live load reaction (HLLmax) for braking/traction forces kN/m
minimum vertical live load reaction (VLLmin) associated with maximum
8 VLLmin kN/m
braking/traction forces
9 HLcreep horizontal reaction for creep and shrinkage forces that occur kN/m
10 HLtemp horizontal reaction for temperature effects that occur kN/m

Seismic Zone: Maximum ground acceleration ('Z' factor as per IS 1893):

NOTE — All loads shall be unfactored, calculated per running meter length. Calculated as, total load/(cross-section width-edge distance).

* The dynamic loading has to be considered for "Seismic Zone" as per IS 1893 (Part I), 2002.

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50.5 Dimension of the Structure beam seat) or backwall to the cut slope or retained
zone should be extended 1 m beyond the cut slope to
50.5.1 Embedment Depth blend the approach way onto the roadway to create
a smooth transition as shown in Fig. 53.
The minimum embedment depth in the case of RS
abutments shall be H/10, where H is the geometric 50.6 Load Combinations and Load Factors
height of the structure. However, the minimum
embedment depth shall not be less than 1.0 m in the The complete list of various loads, load factors and
case of pure abutments. the load combinations which are to be considered in
design of bridge structure and associated retaining
50.5.2 Length of Reinforcement structure (RS structure) is given in the Table 31,
Table 32 and Table 33. The applicable loads which
In the case of bridge abutments, the minimum shall be account for the design of RSW abutment
reinforcement length shall be greater of are as follows:
(0.6 H + 2) m or 7 m, where H is geometric height a) Dead load;
of the structure. The length of reinforcement below b) Live load (traffic);
the beam seat shall extend at least 2 m beyond the c) Strip load (imposed load due to bridge
inner edge of the bank seat (refer Fig. 53). superstructure);
d) Earthquake load; and
The top two reinforcement layers of the integrated
approach behind the superstructure (behind the e) Hydrostatic load.

Table 31 Definition of Different Applicable Load

(Clause 50.6)

Permanent Loads
EH = Earth pressure on reinforced soil zone due to retained soil mass
ES = Crash barrier-friction slab load or w-beam load as a strip footing etc.
EV = Vertical pressure or weight of reinforced soil zone, Sloping surcharge weight, dead
load due to pavement layers etc.
Transient Loads
CT = Impact load on barriers
EQ = Earthquake load (seismic load)
LS/LL = Live load surcharge (traffic load)/vehicular live load

Table 32 Load Combinations and Load Factors

(Clause 50.6)
Sl No. Load Combination Limit EH/ES/EV LL/LS Use one of These at a Time
State
EQ CT

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

i) Strength I γp 1.75 – –
ii) Extreme event I γp γEQ 1.00 –
iii) Extreme event II and III γp 0.50 – 1.00
iv) Service I 1.00 1.00 – –

NOTES
1 γp = load factor for permanent loading. May subscript as γP-EV, γP-EH etc.
2 γEQ = load factor for live load applied simultaneously with seismic loads.

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Table 33 Load Factors for Permanents Load γp
(Clause 50.6)

Sl No. Type of Load Load Factor

Maximum Minimum

(1) (2) (3) (4)

i) DC: Dead load of structural components and
non-structural attachments 1.25 0.9
DC: Strength IV only 1.50 0.9

ii) DW: Dead load of wearing surface and utilities 1.5 0.65
iii) EH: Horizontal earth pressure
a) Active 1.5 0.9
b) At-Rest 1.35 0.9

iv) EV: Vertical earth pressure

a) Overall stability 1.00 N/A
b) Retaining walls and abutments 1.35 1.00

v) ES: Earth surcharge 1.5 0.75

50.7 Summary of Applicable Load and Resistance Factors

As per the problem type a summary of the load and resistance factors shall be given in the Table 34 and
Table 35

Table 34 Applicable Load Factors

(Clause 50.7)

Sl No. Load Combination EV DC LL/LS ES EH FR

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

i) Strength I, Max 1.35 1.25 1.75 1.5 1.5 1.0

ii) Strength I, Min 1.0 0.9 1.75 0.75 0.9 1.0

iii) Service I 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Table 35 Applicable Resistance Factors

(Clause 50.7)

Sl No. Stability Mode Resistance Factor

(φs)
(1) (2) (3)
i) Sliding of cast in place spread footing on RS wall 0.8
ii) Sliding of RS on foundation soil 1.0
iii) Bearing resistance of RS wall 0.65
iv) Tensile resistance (for steel strips) 0.75
v) Tensile resistance (for steel strips) 0.9
vi) Pull-out resistance 0.9

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In addition to the above load factors and load cases, 50.8.3 Minimum Footing Width
it is also required to consider the critical load
conditions (temporary and permanent) that may Minimum footing width shall be 2.0 m as per
arise during construction, repairing and standard practice in India.
rehabilitation of bridges (changing of bearings) or
any specific loading that may arise during the design 50.8.4 Clear Space
life of the structure.
Distance between the top of the facing panel to the
50.8 Evaluation of External Stability of Beam bottom of the superstructure shall be maximum of
Seat 75 mm or 2 percent of the wall height (H).

50.8.1 Dimensioning of the Beam Seat 50.8.5 Bearing Bed

The dimensional configuration of beam seat has to The beam seat should be place on a bed of 750 mm
be decided as per the bearing capacity and the or higher thickness of well compacted clean
settlement criteria. The beam seat is designed as a sand-gravel mixture (20 mm down aggregate). The
retaining wall. The proportioning of the bridge seat beam seat is to be placed at depth of 300 mm below
on top of the RS wall depends on several factors maximum anticipated frost depth, well compacted
such as the deck and the girders of the bridge, the clean sand-gravel mixture (20 mm down aggregate)
loading conditions, the overall geometry of the as shown in Fig. 54 below.
structure, and others.
50.8.6 The bearing pressure applied on the
50.8.2 Setback Distance (Cf) underlying soil shall be limited to 200 kPa for
serviceability condition taking into account the
Distance between the inner edge of the facing and effective width of the footing (B).
the front edge of the footing should be at least
200 mm. The distance between the center line of the Overall, the bridge seat has to meet the typical
footing and the outer edge of the facing shall be at criteria for a strip footing, against sliding and
least 1 m. If minimum footing width is 2 m as given overturning failure modes considering all forces as
under the next point, the distance to center line shown in Fig. 55.
should be minimum 1.2 m as 200 mm is the
minimum front distance.

FIG. 54 DIMENSIONING OF BEAM SEAT

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The load from the beam seat is calculated as:

FIG. 55 LOADING FROM BEAM SEAT

where beam seat. In the calculation of the sliding

resistance traffic loading (q) is assumed to act only
Pv = dead load (QDL) and live load
over the retained backfill and not on the reinforced
(QLL) of the bridge superstructure;
soil mass. The contribution of the traffic surcharge
PH = lateral load due to superstructure load (q) and superstructure LL is ignored to
and other concentrated lateral resisting horizontal force. The critical value based
force; on the max/min results in the extreme force effect
V1, V2 and V3 = dead weight of beam seat; and govern the sliding mode of failure.
V4 = self weight of the reinforced soil
mass; and 50.8.8 Bearing Resistance at the Base of Spread
V0 = self weight of soil behind the Footing
beam seat.
Bearing pressure at the base of the beam seat must
50.8.7 Sliding Check at the Base of Spread Footing not exceed the allowable bearing resistance. The
factored vertical pressure at the base of the beam seat
Sliding resistance shall be checked at the base of the

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is calculated according to Meyerhof-type wall and check the capacity demand ratio (CDR) for
distribution. In the bearing resistance calculation, sliding.
the effect of the live load is considered to create the
extreme force effect and to maximize the bearing 50.8.12 Bearing Resistance at the Base of the RS
stress. For serviceability limit state, the bearing Wall
stress is limited to 200 kPa to limit the vertical
movement to less than approximately 12.5 mm. To prevent bearing capacity failure, it is required
that the vertical pressure at the base calculated by
50.8.9 Limiting Eccentricity at the Base Spread Meyerhof distribution does not exceed allowable
Footing bearing resistance of the foundation soil.

Limiting eccentricity shall be checked at the base of 50.8.13 Limiting Eccentricity at the Base Spread
the beam seat. In the computation of the limiting Footing
eccentricity contribution of the traffic loading (q)
and superstructure LL to resisting force and In the computation of the limiting eccentricity,
moments shall be ignored. The maximum beneficial contribution of the live load to resisting
eccentricity should be limited to B/6. forces and moments shall be ignored. The critical
values from the strength limit state calculations
50.8.10 Evaluation of External Stability of RS Wall based on the max/min result in the extreme force
effect and govern the limiting eccentricity mode of
The external stability check for sliding, bearing and
failure.
limiting eccentricity for RS wall needs to be checked
considering the load and resistance factors as
50.9 Internal Stability of RS Wall
discussed in 34.11 and the method of design is
same as described for any standard RS wall design.
Only the additional vertical strip load and 50.9.1 Estimation of the Maximum Tension Line or
horizontal force coming from the different load Critical Failure Surface
cases of beam seat analysis shall be considered for
all external checks. 50.9.1.1 Reinforced soil walls with supporting the
bridge loads are designed as rectangular walls
50.8.11 Sliding Resistance at the Base of the RS Wall considering bridge loads as surcharge loads at the
top. The design procedures for taking account of the
Sliding resistance along the base of the wall is surcharge loads for internal stability analysis have
evaluated using the same procedure as for spread been outlined in reinforced soil wall section. The
footing on the soil. In the calculation of the sliding similar procedure is used for the internal stability of
resistance, effect of the live load to resisting bridge abutment structure. It should be noted that
horizontal force is ignored that is, the sliding check when a structure supports a superimposed strip load
only applies the live load above the retained backfill. then the influence of the strip loads may affect the
Calculate the nominal components of resisting force location of the line.
and the factored driving force per unit length of the

FIG. 56 EXTERNAL FAILURE MECHANISM OF RS WALL

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FIG. 57 LOCATION OF MAXIMUM TENSION LINE

50.9.1.2 When the surcharge slab width (footing/ assuming a 2 V : 1 H pyramidal

beam seat width) is greater than H/3 at the top of distribution;
the reinforced soil wall, critical failure surface
(maximum tensile line) should be modified to σH = increment of horizontal stress due to
extend to the back edge of the spread footing as the horizontal loads at the base of the
shown in the Fig.57. This is valid for both wall or layer due to overburden
extensible and inextensible reinforcement. In case, pressure;
if the back edge of the footing extends beyond P-EV = load factor corresponding to a vertical
H*tan (45-φ/2) from the wall face then the pressure from a dead load earth fill;
maximum tension line also needs to be modified for and
extensible reinforcement.
P-ES = load factor corresponding to the earth
50.9.1.3 The coefficient of lateral stress (Kr) and surcharge loading. A value of 1.50, if
pullout resistance factor (F*) for inextensible and unfactored pressures are used, and
extensible reinforcement incase of RS wall 1.00, if factored pressures are used
(or RSW) can be referred from reinforced soil wall with the final value being on larger
section. values of (∆σH-footing)P-ES and (∆σH )
P-ES.
50.9.2 Calculation of Factored Tensile Load in the
Reinforcement (TMAX) Once the factored horizontal stress is computed, the
maximum tension TMAX is computed as follows:
The bridge superstructure rests on a spread footing
on top of a reinforced soil wall. For development of …(6.2)
the equation of horizontal stress, refer to Fig. 58, TMAX = σH Sv
where
Fig. 59 and Fig. 60. The live load is assumed as an
equivalent uniform soil surcharge of height, heq, TMAX = maximum factored tensile force in the
height of the roadway fills above the reinforced soil reinforcement; and
zone is h and ∆σV and ∆σH increase TMAX. Then the Sv = vertical reinforcement spacing.
horizontal stress at any depth Z below the top of the
reinforced zone is as follows: Because of bridge loading and retaining wall, the
stress calculation procedures inside true abutment
σH = Kr [γr (Z + h + heq) γEV −MAX + (∆σv−footing )γP−ES ] +
structure are more complex than any normal
(∆σH) γP−ES ...(6.1) reinforced soil structure without unusual geometries.

It is to be noted that the performance of the pure

where bridge abutment depends on the connection system
σv-footing = increment of vertical stress due to and its design strength. The connection strength
concentrated vertical surcharge Pv must be checked for the calculated connection load.

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IS 18591 : 2024

where
D1 = Effective width of applied load at any depth, calculation shown above
= Width of applied load. For footings which are eccentrically loaded (for example, bridge
bf abutment footings), set bf equal to the equivalent footing width B’by reducing it by 2e’ ,
where e’ is the eccentricity of the footing load (that is, bf-2e’).
Lf = Length of footing
Qv = Load per unit length of strip footing
Qv’ = Load on isolated rectangular footing or point load
z1 = Depth where effective width intersects back of wall face = 2d1-bf

Assume the increased vertical stress due to the surcharge load has no influence on stresses used to evaluate
internal stability if the surcharge load is located behind the influence zone of reinforced soil mass. For
external stability, assume the surcharge has no influence if it is located outside the active zone behind the
wall.

FIG. 58 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS FROM CONCENTRATED VERTICAL LOAD FOR INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STABILITY
CALCULATIONS

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FIG. 59 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS FROM CONCENTRATED HORIZONTAL LOADS FOR INTERNAL STABILITY

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cf bf
Pv2

PH2 q
′ F2
I2 = (Cf + bf − 2e )tan(45 + ∅r /2)
F1

bf-2e ∆σH max = 2 ∑ F /I2

45+r/2
I2
∑ F = PH2 + F1 + F2

45+r/2
PH2 = lateral force due to superstructure or
other concentrated lateral loads

If footing is located completely outside active zone

behind wall, the footing load does not need to be
considered in the external stability calculations.

FIG. 60 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES FROM CONCENTRATED HORIZONTAL LOADS FOR EXTERNAL STABILITY

RSW abutments have been built with inextensible F* = pull-out resistance factor:
reinforcement during the past, but they can also be
used with extensible reinforcement. Therefore, the a) 1.2 + log Cu at top of
maximum tensile force lines should be modified for structure and tan reinf. at a
extensible reinforcement. All other checks should be depth of 6 m or below for
done as per RS wall design. metallic reinforcement;

50.9.3 Reinforcement Pull-out Check b) 0.7 tanr to tanr for

geogrids, geostraps and
At each layer of the reinforcement stability with geotextiles in the absence of
respect to pull-out failure should be checked. To test results. If test results are
ensure the stability with respect to the pull-out available, the F* value shall
failure, factored effective pull-out length should be be according to the test
greater than or equal to the factored tensile load in results; and
the reinforcement. Reinforcement pull-out check
shall be done in the same manner as given in the
reinforced wall section. c) 1.1 at top and 0.8 tan r at
6 m or below with soil as
𝑇 reinforced fill for polymeric
…(6.3)
MAX
𝐿𝑒 ≥ > 1𝑚
∅𝐹∗𝛼𝜎𝑉 𝐶𝑅𝐶 straps or geostrips. 1.0 at top
and 0.7 tan r at 6 m or
where below with flyash as
reinforced fill for polymeric
TMAX = maximum reinforcement tension;
straps or geostrips. It is
applicable for full height
Le = the length of embedment in the
reinforced soil walls and
resisting zone. Note that the
should be necessarily be
boundary between the resisting
supported.
and active zones may be modified
by concentrated loadings;

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wth test results show- casing the 50.11 Wedge Stability Analysis
value of F* at different normal
stresses. Pull-out resistance factor 50.11.1 Wedge stability check can be performed for
shall be verified using pull-out true bridge abutment for overall and compound
test. analysis. Wedges are assumed to behave as rigid
bodies and may be of any size and shape. Stability
Α = scale correction factor (generally
of any wedge may be maintained when friction
1.0 for metallic reinforcement
forces acting on the potential failure plane in
and 0.8 for geosynthetics
conjunction with the tensile resistance/bond of the
reinforcements);
group of reinforcements or anchors embedded in the
σV = nominal vertical stress at the fill beyond the plane is able to resist the applied
reinforcement level in the loads tending to cause movement.
resistance zone, including 50.11.2 The following factored loads shall be
distributed dead load surcharges, considered as shown in Fig. 61:
neglecting traffic loads.
(see Fig. 24) for computing σv
for sloping backfills; a) Self-weight of the fill in the wedge (W);
b) Uniformly distributed surcharge loads
C = 2 for strip, grid, and sheet type
(Ws);
reinforcement (number of
surfaces) c) Vertical strip load (SL);
d) Horizontal shear (FL);
Rc = coverage ratio
e) Frictional and cohesive forces acting along
ϕ = resistance factor for soil the potential failure plane (F); and
reinforcement pull-out. Refer:
Table 27 of Section 4. f) Normal reaction of the failure plane (N).

50.10 Overall (Global) and Compound Stability 50.11.3 The potential failure planes shall be
investigates for each of the typical points as
The overall stability of the structure using rotational indicated in Fig. 62. Forces acting on each wedge
or wedge analysis can be performed by various shall be resolved into two mutually perpendicular
manual or computational methods to examine the directions. Since the forces are assumed to be in
critical failure planes passing behind and under the equilibrium the two equations may be solved
reinforced zone. Additionally, slope stability simultaneously to yield the value of the tensile force
analysis should be performed to investigate the T to be resisted by reinforcing elements or anchors.
compound failure surfaces. In compound stability, For each of the typical points the maximum value of
failure planes that pass under or through the T should be established by analysing the forces
reinforced soil mass shall be analysed. The acting on a number of different wedges. The
evaluation of the overall and compound stability maximum value of T and the corresponding value
should be determined at the Service I load of β’ should be used to calculate the frictional or
combination. The minimum factor of safety to be tensile capacity of the group of elements anchoring
achieved is 1.3 in static condition and 1.1 in the wedge.
seismic condition.

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FIG. 61 FORCES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR WEDGE STABILITY

FIG. 62 POTENTIAL FAILURE PLANES FOR WEDGE STABILITY ANALYSIS

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50.11.4 For the case of a reinforced soil wall with c) The connection strength shall be checked at
simple geometry supporting uniform surcharge, the each layer of soil reinforcement;
inclination of the potential failure plane may be d) To prevent adverse stress concentration in
taken as (45° – ϕ’f/2). However, in the more the reinforcement connection, the top
complex general case it is not possible to give any reinforcement layer should be located at a
guidance on either the angle of the potential failure depth equal to or more than 300 mm below
plane which produces the maximum value of T or the footing;
on the number of points which should be checked.
e) Bearing capacity shall be checked both for
These should be determined for each structure. It
general shear failure criteria and settlement
may be assumed that no potential failure plane will
criteria;
pass through the strip contact area representing a
bridge bank seat. When the facing consists of a f) Design of the upper wall (behind the
structural element formed in one piece the shear superstructure or bank seat) shall be
resistance offered by the rupture of the facing may designed in the same manner as the load
be considered. bearing wall (lower wall); and
g) All other checks should be done as per
50.11.5 The resistance provided by an individual RS wall design.
layer of reinforcing elements should be taken to be
the lesser of either: 52 PROVISION OF CONSTRUCTION JOINT
a) The frictional resistance of that part of the
The requirement of a construction joint is to separate
layer embedded in the fill beyond the
the bridge abutment from the RS wall which enables
potential failure plane or, in the case of
both the systems to behave independent of each
anchored earth, the pull-out resistance of
other. As the bridge span loading is high in
the part of the anchors embedded in the fill
magnitude, hence construction joint will help in
beyond the potential failure plane (which
minimizing the settlement. Therefore, it is
should be neglected when the distance
recommended that construction joint shall be
between the potential failure plane and the
provided at the junction of bridge abutment and the
start of the anchorage is less than one
RS wall.
metre); and
b) The tensile resistance of the layer of 53 BRIDGE ABUTMENT TYPICAL LAYOUT
elements. PLAN
50.12 Serviceability Limits
When the reinforced soil wall is designed as a bridge
a) Post construction movements of reinforced abutment. The design of abutments may be
soil structures results from foundation considered in two parts (Zone I and Zone II) as
settlement, compression of fill, internal shown in the figure below. Zone I should be
creep strain of reinforcement, uniform or designed assuming loading from the bank seat and
differential settlements, creep strain of the loads coming from the bridge superstructure.
backfill with a high fines content, etc. The load from the bank seat should be assumed to
These post construction movements shall diffuse downwards at 2 v : 1 h so that the width of
be avoided or limited to an extent following Zone I increases linearly from bank seat level to be
good construction practices; and 0.5 H (H = geometric height of the structure)
greater in width at foundation level. The other part
b) The internal creep strain of the that is, Zone II should be designed as a typical
reinforcement should be limited to the reinforced soil retaining wall ignoring any
0.5 percent for bridge abutments. This post
additional loading from bank seat.
construction strain can be computed based
on isochronous curve adopting test
54 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE FOR
methods as per IS 17365.
BRIDGE ABUTMENT
51 IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN
a) The bridge abutment is built in several
MIND DURING RS ABUTMENT DESIGN
stages and these sequences for the
a) Keep a minimum offset from the front of construction of bridge abutment shall be
the facing to the centre line of the bridge carefully considered. The sequence
bearing of 1 m; includes erection of the reinforced soil
b) Keep a clear distance of 200 mm between mass, followed by the construction of the
the back face of the facing panels and the bank seat and then the installation of the
front edge of the footing; deck; and

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b) The design shall take into account the as in the final load case. The deck is likely
weight of the bank seat, the dead weight of to be installed before the road pavement
the deck and the live loads acting on the layers are completed and, again, the
deck. Apart from these loads, there might overburden over the soil reinforcements
be other load cases that also have to be will be less than in the final load case. The
taken into account such as the reinforced design should consider all the possible load
soil mass carrying the weight of the bank cases and state clearly on the working
seat and perhaps with the soil above the drawings the arrangement and level of fill
reinforced soil mass not yet up to the final to be in place above the reinforced soil
road level, which will not provide the same mass before construction of the bank seat
restoring overburden over the soil and also before installation of the deck.
reinforcements for their pull-out resistance

FIG. 63 TYPICAL LAYOUT PLAN

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SECTION 7
DESIGN OF SHORED REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE

55 INTRODUCTION reinforced soil wall or any retaining structures may

not be always feasible due to non-availability of
55.1 This type of retaining wall is employed when required base width or sometime excavation is not
space is limited, or a sleek retaining wall or slope is feasible particularly if traffic must be maintained
required. Such type of retaining structure offers a during construction. Hence, shored or hybrid
perfect balance between cut and fill. This system is reinforced soil structure system is good alternative
used to stabilize steep slopes, road widening in in such situation.
valleys, landslide restoration, rehabilitation, etc.
When a reinforced soil (RS) system and nailing or The concept of shored reinforced soil system is to
ground anchor system combined together are used reinforce and strengthen the unstable cut slopes by
on a project, there are long-term retaining benefits in-situ installation of hot dip galvanized soil
provided by the shoring wall, including improving nail/anchors and connecting the nails/anchors with
cut slope stability and safety during construction, reinforced soil structure system to transfer the load
reduction of lateral loads on the RS wall mass and from build-up reinforced soil mass to in-situ soil
significant contributions to global stability. This nails. Soil nails/anchors creates a reinforced soil
type of hybrid system is popularly known as mass that is internally stable and able to retain the
“shored RS wall” or shored reinforced soil (SRS) ground mass within the unstable slope against active
system as shown in Fig. 65 below. pressure, slip circle failure and global stability. The
connection between the reinforced soil slope and
55.2 Shored reinforced soil structure is a soil nail and/or ground anchors cab be
combination of in-situ soil nailed slope and frictional/positive/mechanical in nature for full load
reinforced soil structure. The reinforced soil transfer mechanism depending on available based
wall/slope is constructed by connecting the width. The conventional reinforced wall or slope
reinforcement with the soil nailed structure. This design methods and system can be adopted when a
solution is suitable when the required base width is minimum base reinforcement length equivalent to
not available for design of any conventional as little as 30 percent of the wall/slope height
retaining structure. (0.3H) for the RS wall/slope component and
provided that the RS reinforcement length is greater
55.3 In steep terrains construction of conventional than 2 m (whichever is greater).

FIG. 64 GENERIC CROSS SECTION AND DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF AN SRS WALL SYSTEM

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56 EVALUATION OF SHORED STRUCTURE minimum reinforcement length of 0.7 H or
SUITABILITY – PRE-DECISION trapezoidal distribution) can be constructed without
EVALUATION STUDIES shoring the excavation, the wall can be designed and
constructed using conventional design methodology
56.1 The pre-decision evaluation studies shall be and practices. Described in Chapter 4.
carried out only after completion of geotechnical site
evaluation and preliminary roadway or project 56.3.2 If space constraints dictate that construction
design with sufficient details. The pre-decision of the RS wall will impact traffic, several options
evaluation studies consist of three tasks addressing should be considered before implementing shoring
feasibility and suitability of an SRS wall system for requirements. These options include temporary road
a given project and they are: closures, detours, or temporary lowering of the road
grade to facilitate RS wall construction.
a) Feasibility assessment of RS wall
construction;
56.3.3 If RS wall construction is deemed viable, but
b) Evaluation of shoring requirements (that is, space constraints at the project location are such that
geometry, type of shoring system); and the RS wall excavation cannot be made at an
appropriate slope angle, a preliminary estimate of
c) Feasibility design of the SRS wall system.
the shoring requirements should be made.
56.2 RS Wall Feasibility Assessment
56.4 Feasibility Design of SRS Wall System
56.2.1 The first task is to evaluate the feasibility of 56.4.1 Where shoring is required for RS wall
RS wall construction for the proposed project. construction to be feasible, investigate the feasibility
Selection of the most appropriate wall type for a
of combining the two wall components into an SRS
given location on a project can have significant
wall system. The instances where selection of an
effects on the project cost, schedule and
SRS wall system may prove viable are:
constructability. The same methods applied to any
project where an RS wall would be given a) Fill wall constructed in steep terrain where
consideration as a potential construction method required bench excavation to get the
should be used. Factors to consider in order for an required base width of 0.7 H for traditional
RS wall to be a viable design option include: RS wall/slope construction is not feasible;

a) Available base width with respect to the b) The required base width of 0.7 H for
height of the slope or wall; traditional RS wall/slope not available for
b) Economical sources of suitable fill material widening from any existing retaining wall
available for RS wall construction; or cut slope;

c) Space constraints at the project location are c) Space unavailable to excavate for RS
such that construction of an RS wall reinforcement lengths due to need to
provides an economic advantage over a maintain traffic during wall construction;
reinforced or unreinforced slope; and
d) Stabilization of existing slope required for
d) Geotechnical foundation conditions are safety prior to construction of fill wall to
suitable to support the RS structure, or remediate a landslide or excessive erosion
special measures for foundation (that is, achieve global stability); and
improvement can be reasonably and
economically applied. e) When there is scanty of fill material nearby
the proposed construction site. In such
56.2.2 After examining the above factors, a cases, by adopting SRS wall construction,
conceptual design for the RS structure should be significant amount of backfill volume can
completed, sufficient in detail to support evaluation be reduced compared to traditional
of shoring requirements and feasibility design of the retaining structures.
SRS wall system. This portion of the study includes
developing the performance criteria for the 56.4.2 An SRS wall system is often feasible when
structure, such as surcharge loads, design heights, global stability controls the design, or when only
settlement tolerances, foundation bearing capacity, a small additional roadway width is required.
required toe embedment depth, and others as Construction of an SRS wall system addresses
outlined in this document. global stability concerns using the shoring wall
where, in addition to providing temporary
56.3 Determination of Shoring Requirements excavation support, shoring provides stability of the
earth mass behind the RS wall component.
56.3.1 Where a conventional RS wall/slope (that is,

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56.4.3 In the case where a narrow width of additional an unsupported soil or rock slope for a
roadway is required, existing traffic lanes may portion of the height?
remain open while a shoring wall is constructed to
facilitate construction of an RS wall with relatively b) Can the shoring wall be constructed at a
short reinforcement lengths (that is, SRS wall batter or be a stepped structure?
system). c) What type of shoring wall is most cost
effective for the conditions at the site?
56.4.4 Once it is determined that construction of a
fill-side retaining wall requires construction of 56.4.5 Because shoring is typically required for RS
a shoring wall, the design of the shoring structure wall construction in cases where insufficient
should consider the following questions: construction right-of-way prevents construction of a
temporary slope, top-down construction methods
a) Is shoring required for the full height of the
such as soil nailing are often used.
proposed wall, or is it possible to excavate

FIG. 65 FLOW CHART-DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR SRS WALL SYSTEMS

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57 SRS WALL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Table 36 Select Granular Fill Gradation
Specification
The following sections provide general details and
(Clause 57.1)
recommendations for design of SRS walls/slopes.
Sl No. Sieve Size Percent Passing
57.1 Backfill Selection
(1) (2) (3)
The selection backfill material for shored reinforced
i) 100 mm 100
soil structure shall be based on the following three
situations: ii) 75 mm 75 to 100

a) The minimum available base width is iii) 4.75 mm 20 to 70

> 4 m: iv) 75 m (0.075 mm) 0 to 10

1) The backfill material shall be selected b) The available based width is < 4 m and
granular and free draining for use in >2m
the reinforced fill zone of the RS
component. The careful selection of The backfill material shall be well graded
fill is particularly critical because of (coefficient of uniformity, Cu > 5), non-
the shorter reinforcement lengths and a plastic, granular and free draining.
potential for reduced vertical stress
due to soil arching near the shoring c) The available base width is < 2 m
wall. Select granular fill for an SRS
wall should meet the following This is not covered within the scope of this
minimum specifications; guideline. The minimum base width shall
be limited to 2 m.
2) The fill should be free from organic or 58 REINFORCEMENT LENGTH
other deleterious materials because the
presence of these items enhances Specification of a uniform reinforcement length is
corrosion of steel reinforcements and not recommended for SRS walls with battered
results in excessive RS wall shoring walls. Instead, it is critical that the RS
settlements; reinforcements extend to the shoring wall interface
and/or connected to shored wall by mechanical
3) The fill should be free draining and connection arrangement as described below. Where
have a minimum friction angle of adequate construction space is available (or can be
30 degrees, as determined by made temporarily available), it is recommended
laboratory direct shear testing. An that the upper two layers of reinforcement are
example specification for select extended to a minimum length of 0.6 H or a
granular fill for SRS walls is presented minimum of 1.5 m beyond the shoring wall
in Table 36. However, the frictional interface, whichever is greater, as illustrated in
strength of the specific material Fig. 66 (A) This feature limits the potential for
gradation provided requires tension cracks to develop at the shoring/RS
verification for the available material interface and resists lateral loading effects. If
source. Gradation analyses should be extension of the upper reinforcemts is not feasible,
conducted using the IS 2720 (Part 4) a positive connection between the upper two or
methods, and the backfill should have more reinforcements and the shoring wall is
a plasticity index (PI) as determined recommended, as illiustrated in Fig. 66 (A) and
by IS 2720 (Part 5) less than or equal Fig. 66 (B).
to five (5); and
Where the shoring wall is in partial height due to
4) The backfill materials shall meet the available of space in top, the reinforcement lengths
other electro chemical properties as in the upper part of the RS wall shall be minimum
described in Section 3. 0.7 H.

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59 INTERFACE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN construct. Mechanical connections require detailed
RS WALL REINFORCEMENTS AND design, testing and construction oversight to ensure
SHORING WALL OF SRS SYSTEM that the connections are designed and constructed
appropriately. The following figures are only
59.1 Options for interface connections between RS indicative illustrations.
reinforcements and the shoring wall include two
general types — Mechanical and frictional.
59.3 The above frictional connection arrangements
are recommended only for a minimum required
59.2 Frictional Connection Options
reinforcement length at base equivalent to as little
as 30 percent of the wall/slope height (0.3 H) for
(1) Wrapped-back RS reinforcements, (2) stepped
the RS structure component and provided that the
wall interface, and (3) RS reinforcements bent
RS reinforcement length is greater than 1.5 m
upward at shoring interface. Fig. 67(A)
(whichever is greater).
conceptually illustrates these frictional connection
options. Frictional connections are likely simpler to

FIG.66 (A) PROPOSED SRS WALL DIMENSIONING WHEN ADEQUATE SPACE IS AVAILABLE

FIG. 66 (B) ALTERNATIVE PROPOSED GEOMETRY OF RS WALL COMPONENT OF AN SRS WALL

SYSTEM WHERE LAND SPACE WILL NOT BE AVAILABLE AT THE TOP > 0.3 H

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FIG. 67 (A) FRICTIONAL CONNECTION OPTIONS FOR A SRS WALL SYSTEM

FIG. 67 (B) MECHANICAL CONNECTION OPTIONS FOR AN SRS WALL SYSTEM

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59.4 Mechanical Connection Options weight on nail surface is not less than 500 gm/m2.
This protection measure is applicable only for
(1) Connect RS reinforcement layers to the nails non-corrosive environment.
using direct link by mechanical means, and
(2) mechanically connect short RS reinforcements 60 GEOMETRY OF RS/SHORING
near reinforcement levels in the shoring wall, and INTERFACE
extend or overlap the reinforcement “tails” into the
RS wall component during RS construction. 60.1 The face of the shoring wall/slope defines the
Fig. 67 (B) conceptually illustrates these geometry of the RS/shoring interface. The shoring
mechanical connection options. system, and hence the RS/shoring interface, may be
constructed at a batter, vertically, or stepped. Where
59.5 In case sufficient base width is not available shoring is necessary, the interface surface between
(< 0.3 H), all connection arrangement must be the two wall systems will generally be steep or
mechanical based. The typical connection vertical. The wall designer should consider
arrangements are shown in Fig. 67 (B) for such designing the shoring wall with a nominal batter
cases. The mechanical connection system shall be (up to 10 degrees from vertical) to reduce the risk of
well designed and tested for the required strength as tension crack development. Another option, where
per detail calculations. The connection strength shall adequate working room is available, is construction
be more than the long term design strength of the soil of a stepped interface to strengthen the system
reinforcement. against shear failure along the interface, illustrated
in Fig. 68 Qualitatively, offsetting the steps of the
59.6 The mechanical connection system shall be stepped shoring wall a small amount (that is, by as
designed for full load transfer mechanism and little as 0.5 m) may increase the resistance of the
having rotational flexibility in both horizontal and SRS wall system to instability along the interface.
vertical plane to improve flexibility during the event A slope (2 H : 1 V or flatter) may be incorporated
of any differential settlement. All steel components between shoring wall steps to nominally reduce the
of the connection are hot dip galvanized conforming shoring wall area. Whether or not a batter or stepped
to requirements laid down in IS 4759, except that the geometry is employed, extension of the upper two
average zinc coat weight is not less than 500 gm/m2. layers of RS reinforcements to a minimum length
The soil nail used for shored wall/slope shall be fully of 0.6 H or direct mechanical connection with nails/
threaded solid/hollow geotechnical bars which are shored face is recommended to mitigate tension
hot dip galvanized conforming to IS 4759 crack development as shown in Fig. 66 and Fig. 68.
requirements, except that the average zinc coating

FIG. 68 STEPPED SHORING WALL INTERFACE

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61 DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS OF SRS 62.2 In contrast to design of a traditional RS wall,
WALL the resistance to sliding and overturning are not
evaluated as these are not critical for SRS wall
Because the SRS wall system is designed based on systems. In addition, a different method is
long-term performance of both the shoring wall and recommended for design of the RS reinforcements
the RS wall components, wall drainage provisions to resist pull-out for SRS wall systems.
for both components are crucial. Drainage for the
shoring component should be connected to the 62.3 When an SRS wall system is selected as the
drainage system of the RS component or extended preferred alternative, the design process is iterative
through the face of the RS wall. The detail drainage between defining the geometric constraints of the
arrangement shall be considered as per Section 9. structure and analysis of stability. A number of
geometric factors for design of the SRS wall system
62 DESIGN OF RS WALL COMPONENT OF should be considered, including reinforcement
AN SRS WALL SYSTEM lengths, toe embedment, and interface geometry.
These factors are interrelated and have a combined
62.1 Design of the RS wall component of an SRS effect on the stability of the structure. The optimum
wall system shall consider: combination will provide the most economical
construction while meeting the necessary stability
a) Internal stability of the reinforced soil mass criteria.
with regard to rupture and pull-out of
reinforcing elements; 62.4 Potential Failure Modes
b) Internal stability of shored wall system and
mechanical connection system; Stability analysis of an SRS wall system must
consider failure modes associated with conventional
c) External stability along the RS
RS walls and shoring walls, plus internal failure
wall/shoring wall interface;
modes specific to the compound nature of the SRS
d) Bearing capacity and settlement of the RS wall system. Fig. 69 illustrates the various failure
wall foundation materials; and modes of the composite SRS wall system.
e) Global stability of the composite SRS wall
system.

FIG. 69 SRS WALL SYSTEM FAILURE MODES

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62.5 Factors of Safety somewhat for extensible (geogrid or polymeric
straps) and inextensible (steel) reinforcements, as
The recommended minimum factors of safety (FS) discussed in Chapter 4.
for design of the SRS wall system were modified and
are provided below: Select vertical reinforcement spacing consistent
with the type of reinforced soil facing intended for
a) Global stability, FSg: 1.3;
the application. The vertical reinforcement spacing
b) Compound stability, FSc: 1.3; shall be as given in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. For
c) Bearing capacity, FSbc: 2.5; and ease of construction, consider constant vertical
d) Seismic stability, FSsei: 1.1. reinforcement spacing except at top and bottom.

Factors of safety with regard to sliding, overturning, Step 2: Estimate the location of the critical failure
and eccentricity are not provided, as these failure surface
modes are not considered valid for SRS walls. The
overall external stability is governed by global and The critical failure surface for wall can be using
compound stability analysis. Rankine’s active earth pressure theory within the
reinforced soil mass, considering the remaining
62.6 Internal Stability Design portion lies along the shoring and reinforced soil
fill interface. Use of the theoretical active failure
Internal stability design of the RS component of an surface is consistent with current practice for design
SRS wall system should address the following of reinforced soil walls with extensible
potential internal failure mechanisms for situation reinforcements, and is considered sufficiently
when the available base width is more than conservative for design of such systems. Fig. 70 (A)
30 percent of the height. The design can also be illustrates the conceptualized failure surface for
applied for other complex geometry situation, but extensible reinforcements. Design for inextensible
result shall be validated by finite element or reinforcements should be conducted using the
numerical modeling analysis. The design approach failure surface illustrated in Fig. 70 (B), which is
for shored reinforced soil wall is based on LRFD consistent with current design practice.
method and all resistance factors and factor of safety
are same as described in Chapter 4 except for Step 3: Calculate the internal stability with respect
pull-out and bearing capacity checks. to rupture of the reinforcements

a) Soil reinforcement rupture (elongation or For shored reinforced soil walls, lateral pressures are
breakage of the reinforcements); and essentially the result of reaction of the reinforced
b) Soil reinforcement pull-out. soil mass against the shoring wall, and are thus
internal to the reinforced soil mass. In consistent
The step-by-step process for internal design of with current design practice, internal design of the
the RS component is summarized as follows: reinforced soil wall component requires calculation
of lateral stresses, which are dependent on
a) Select the reinforcement type (inextensible reinforcement type (inextensible versus extensible).
or extensible reinforcements) and trial
geometry for the RS wall; For internal design of the RS component with
b) Estimate the location of the critical failure extensible reinforcements, active earth pressures are
surface; conservatively apply and the maximum tensile
forces acting on each reinforcement layer are
c) Calculate the maximum tensile force at calculated using the simplified method as described
each reinforcement level for evaluation of in previous chapters.
reinforcement rupture;
d) Calculate the required total tensile capacity At each reinforcement level, calculate the
of reinforcements in the resistant zone; and horizontal stresses, σh, along the potential failure
e) Calculate the pull-out capacity at each line from the weight of the reinforced fill (γz), plus
reinforcement level within the resistant uniform surcharge loads (q), and concentrated
zone with regard to pull-out. surcharge loads (Δσv and Δσh):

Step 1: Select RS wall/slope type and wall geometry σh = Kr σv + Δσh ...(7-1)

The reinforced soil wall/slope system, including where the vertical stress, σv, is calculated as:
type of reinforcement, facing and geometry, must be
selected to complete design. The calculations for σv = γ⋅z + q + Δσv ...(7-2)
internal stability of the RS component differ

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and Kr is a function of depth (z) below the top of the mechanically connected with shored wall. When soil
wall as shown in Chapter 4. reinforcement is mechanically connected with soil
nails or anchor, the pull-out shall be checked only
For wall face batters from vertical, the for the nails or anchors. The bond strength
equation 4-1 of Chapter 4 shall be referred. considered in design shall be validated by on site
pull-out test of soil nail/ground anchor as per
The additional tensile forces due to seismic load for IS 11309. The internal design differs from design of
the reinforced soil shored wall can be calculated as a conventional reinforced soil wall with regard to
per Section 4. The same load factor and resistance pull-out of the reinforcements. The conventional
factor shall be applied for the design as described in reinforced soil design requires that each layer of
Chapter 4. reinforcement resist pull-out by extending beyond
the estimated failure surface. In the case of a shored
Step 4: Calculate the required total tensile capacity reinforced soil wall system, only the lower
for pull-out check reinforcement layers (that is, those that extend into
the resistant zone) are designed to resist pull-out for
The following procedure of pull-out calculation is the entire “active” reinforced mass.
applicable when soil reinforcement is not

FIG. 70 (A AND B) LOCATION OF POTENTIAL FAILURE SURFACE FOR INTERNAL STABILITY DESIGN OF
REINFORCED SOIL WALL COMPONENT WITH EXTENSIBLE AND INEXTENSIBLE REINFORCEMENTS RESPECTIVELY

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NOTES

1 For extensible reinforcements, ψ = 45 + φ/2; for inextensible reinforcements, ψ shall be as shown in Fig. 21 in Section 4.
2 Assume tension crack development and neglect forces N2 and S2.
3 Assume upper wedge (shown as gray) is in equilibrium.

FIG. 71 FREE-BODY DIAGRAM FOR CALCULATION OF REQUIRED TENSILE CAPACITY IN THE RESISTANT ZONE

The required total pull-out resistance (Tmax) of the For the case where Lw = 0.3H, the expression for
reinforcements within the resistant zone is Tmax is:
calculated as the pull-out force derived using the
simplified free-body diagram presented in Fig. 71
3𝐻[ γ (𝐻− 20 tan β)+𝑞]+𝐹V
3𝐻
and the equation is as follows:
Tmax = 10 tan(ϕ҆+ β)
+FH
Lw ( γ (𝐻− 2 𝐿tan
𝑊 )+ 𝑞) + 𝐹
𝑉 …. (7-5)
Tmax = 𝛽
tan(ϕ҆ + β)
Step 5: Calculate the pull-out resistance of RS
+ FH for LW ≤ H tan β ….(7-3) reinforcements in the resistant zone.

where, H is the height of the reinforced soil wall, The calculation of the pull-out resistance generally
γ is the unit weight of the reinforced fill, ψ and β is follows traditional design methods. The primary
the angle defined in Fig. 71, LW is the maximum difference between calculation of pull-out resistance
length of the truncated failure wedge, that is., for conventional reinforced soil walls and shored
reinforced length at the intersection of the shoring reinforced soil walls is in the factor of safety. The
wall and active wedge, φ’ is the friction angle for the factor of safety against pull-out, FSp, should be
reinforced soil, q is the distributed surcharge load, increased from 1.5 to 2.0 for aspect ratios of 0.4 or
FV and FH is concentrated vertical and horizontal less due to the potential for arching to develop.
loads respectively and H is the height of the
reinforced soil wall. Based on the reinforcement spacing(s) selected,
calculate the length of embedment (Lei) of each
For the case where LW ≥ H tanβ, the full active reinforcement layer within the resistant zone:
wedge would develop and the expression for Tmax is:
At each reinforcement layer within the resistant
zone, calculate the pull-out resistance following
𝐻 tan β (γ𝐻+2𝑞)+2𝐹V
Tmax = + FH …(7-4) standard design method, FPO.
2 tan(ϕ҆+ β)

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The pull-out resistance of the reinforced soil wall 62.8 External Stability Design
component of a shored wall system is considered
adequate if Tmax) calculated in previous section is External stability design of the RS wall component
≤ the summation of pull-out resistance of all should address bearing capacity, settlement of the
reinforcement layers within the resistant zone foundation materials, compound and global stability
(Σ FPO). checks. Overturning and sliding are not applicable
as the stabilization against sliding and overturning is
However, the pull-out checks are not applicable provided by the shoring wall. Hydrostatic forces are
when all short length soil reinforcements are eliminated by incorporating effective internal
mechanically connected with the nails or anchors. drainage into the design.

Step 6: Calculate the connection between soil nail 62.9 Bearing Capacity
and reinforcement
The reinforced soil wall component should be
The connection strength between the soil nail and designed for stability against bearing capacity
soil reinforcement must be tested and the same shall failure. Unlike conventional wall, shored wall has
be adopted for design calculations. two possible modes of bearing capacity failure exist:
General shear and local shear failure.
The above simplified design approach is suitable for
shored wall having base width greater than or equal 62.9.1 General Shear
to 0.3 H.
To prevent general shear bearing capacity failure,
62.7 Internal Stability for Other Special Cases the vertical stress (σv) at the base of the wall should
of SRS Structure not exceed the allowable bearing capacity (qa) of
the foundation soils:
For narrow or confined walls (base width < 0.3 H), qult
the vertical overburden stress is likely less than the σv ≤ qa = ….(7-6)
unit weight of the overburden multiplied by the F Sbc
wall height (σv < γ H) due to arching effects, and
The vertical stress, σv, acting at the base of the RS
these effects require consideration for design of
wall component for the case presented in Fig. 72
stepped walls. For such special cases like narrow
with horizontal backfill and traffic surcharge is
width or stepped wall the structure can be designed
given by:
by same method and steep slope by allowable
stress design approach as described in Chapter 5 W1 + (q . LB)
and also as indicated in Section 7, but the internal ….(7-7)
σv = LB
stability checks for all special cases shall be
validated by finite element modeling or other
numerical methods.

FIG. 72 CALCULATION OF VERTICAL STRESS AT FOUNDATION LEVEL

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Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity (qult) using to certain extend. However, the total settlement
classical soil mechanics methods: shall be limited to within 150 mm for discrete panel
and other flexible type facing system. Use of rigid
qult = cf Ncq + 0.5 LB γf Nγq ….(7-8) facing system (non-compressible) like full height
panel shall not be permitted for such structures.
where cf is the cohesion of the foundation soils, γf
is the unit weight of the foundation soils, and Ncq 62.9.3.4 As discussed in previous sections, one or
and Nγq are dimensionless bearing capacity more of the following are recommended for shored
coefficients. No check for eccentricity is wall/slope design:
recommended, as eccentricity effects are minimal a) Overlap at least two upper reinforcement
due to the presence of the shoring wall. layers over the shoring wall section to a
minimum length of 0.6 H or 1.5 m beyond
62.9.2 Local Shear the shoring, whichever is greater. This is
when the available based width is
Local shear is characterized by local “squeezing” of minimum 30 percent of the height of the
the foundation soils when retaining walls are wall/slope;
constructed on soft or loose soils (that is, b) Employ mechanical connection between
development of the classic bearing capacity failure the wall reinforcing layers and shoring wall
surface does not occur). This is applicable for shored components;
type of retaining wall due to shorter base width of
the structure. Ground improvement of the c) Use partial shoring construction when the
foundation soils should be incorporated if adequate lower portion of the reinforced wall is
support conditions are not available. retained by shoring with longer
reinforcements at the upper extent of the
62.9.3 Settlement wall; and
d) The following additional details shall be
62.9.3.1 The shored reinforced soil structure is little considered to reduce effects from
more sensitive to settlement that conventional differential wall settlement behaviour:
reinforced soil wall/slope. Settlement within the RS 1) Construction of a stepped shoring wall
mass itself must be considered. Significant or interface; and
settlement of the reinforced soil mass is not likely to
2) Foundation improvement (if required)
occur where compacted select granular fill is used
prior to construction of the RS
for the reinforced fill zone. However, a tension crack
component.
behind the reinforced soil mass at the top of the wall
may result if the reinforced fill zone is constructed
62.10 Design of Shoring Wall Component of a
of material that does not meet recommended
Shored Wall System
specifications for reinforced fill, as discussed in
Section 7.
The shoring component of the shored wall system
must be compatible with the reinforced wall
62.9.3.2 Settlements external to the reinforced soil component. This is primarily a geometric concern,
mass should be considered. The RS wall base width, but global stability considerations may also govern
L, may be considerably shorter for the reinforced the design, and may even require adjustment of
soil component of a shored wall system than for a either the shoring component or the reinforced soil
conventional reinforced soil wall. The narrow RS component to provide for an effective wall/slope
wall component may be more vulnerable to system design.
differential settlement if the foundation is
compressible, thus producing an exaggerated Soil nailing is a common shoring method for sites
outward rotation of the RS mass and development of where SRS wall systems are applicable. Soil nail
a tension crack above the interface. Extended upper walls also have an advantage with respect to global
reinforcement layers are recommended to mitigate stability in that they reinforce the soil behind the
this effect. shoring wall in much the same way that RS wall
reinforcements do for the RS mass. As a result, soil
62.9.3.3 Providing nominal facing batters for both nail walls are advantageous as the shoring method
the shoring wall interface and reinforced soil face for use with SRS wall/slope systems is given in the
are expected to help mitigate differential settlement Table 37.

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Table 37 Recommended Shored Wall Construction Tolerances (Hard Facing System)
(Clause 62.10)

Sl No. Description Requirement

(1) (2) (3)
i) Wall batter ± 50 mm per 3.0 m of wall height and
1 percent for the overall wall height.
ii) Wall height ± 25 mm per 3.0 m of wall height and a
maximum of 100 mm.
iii) Horizontal and vertical ± 50 mm at any point in the wall when
alignment measured with a 3.0 m straightedge.
iv) Separation of facing mat Outside of facing mat shall be within 40 mm
from MSE facing fill at all locations.
v) Reinforcement elevation Within 50 mm above the design elevation and
within 50 mm above the corresponding
connection elevation at the wall face.
Reinforcement shall not be placed below
corresponding connection elevation.
vi) Reinforcement inclination Within 2 percent from horizontal.
vii) MSE reinforcement to ± 50 mm
shoring wall face

SECTION 8
DESIGN OF BASAL REINFORCEMENT

63 INTRODUCTION geosynthetic reinforcement layers increase the

stability and prevent such failures. If a geogrid
63.1 The design and construction of embankments (see IS 17373) or geocell [see IS 17483 (Part 1)]
on good bearing stratum do not pose any problems. layer is used as a basal reinforcement a nonwoven
However, soft soil conditions in the foundation geotextile separator needs to be provided for
layers, create several complexities for the designer filtration and prevent contamination of the first lift if
and field engineer. Construction of embankments on it is an open-graded or similar type soil. Separator
soft clay or organic peat can be critical because these layer is not required beneath the first lift if it is sand,
soils have very low strength and high which meets soil filtration criteria.
compressibility. When faced with the situation of
constructing an embankment on a soft subsoil, the 63.3 Fine grained soils are classified based on
following problems may be encountered: undrained shear strength as ranging from very soft
to hard:
a) Failure of soft subsoil in shear (failure in
bearing capacity);
Sl No. Consistency Undrained Shear
b) Stability of embankment (lateral sliding Strength (kPa)
and rotational stability); and
c) High compressibility and settlement of (1) (2) (3)
embankment (settlement). i) Very stiff or hard > 400
63.2 Embankments constructed on soft foundation ii) Stiff to very stiff Above 200 to 400
soils tend to spread laterally because of lateral earth iii) Stiff Above 100 to 200
pressures acting within the embankment. These
earth pressures cause horizontal stresses at the base iv) Medium Above 50 to 100
of embankment that must be resisted by the v) Soft 25 to 50
foundation soil. If the foundation soil does not have
adequate shear resistance, failure can happen. vi) Very soft < 25
Properly designed horizontal layers of high strength

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63.4 Reinforcement Using Geosynthetics well as separating and draining materials are bonded
together, can be used for basal reinforcement where
63.4.1 To reduce the subsoil stresses and drainage function is required. A nonwoven
improvement in drainage, replacement of poor geotextile bonded to a geogrid provides in-plane
subsoil with good quality granular soil as per drainage while the geogrid provides tensile
Section 3 (except pond ash) for shallow depths, use reinforcement. Such geotextile-geogrid composites
of geosynthetic reinforcement at the base of the are used for better drainage of low-permeable soils.
embankment are often carried out. Construction of a
basal platform/basal mattress to spread the loading 63.5 Areas of Application
on the ground prevents base failure and may reduce
settlements. For the construction of reinforced embankments
over soft and very soft foundation soils the
63.4.2 The geosynthetic, used for basal techniques in use may be divided into one of the
reinforcement has the main function of reinforcing following two categories:
the soil and is placed in between two layers of gravel
a) Category 1: The techniques where the
or sand which serves as the drainage layer as well as
reinforcement is used to control stability of
the frictional layer that enables mobilization of
the embankment, without reducing
tensile force in the reinforcement. The geosynthetic
settlement:
reinforcement along with the granular fill acts as a
stiff working platform for ease of moving the 1) Basal reinforcement beneath
construction equipment at the site. embankment;
2) Basal mattress reinforcement; and
63.4.3 A layer of gravel/granular fill shall be placed
3) Basal reinforcement with vertical
on top and bottom of reinforcement for proper
drains.
interaction and it shall be minimum 200 mm. It is
also necessary to provide a nonwoven geotextile as
a separation layer at the interface of soft subsoil and The standard covers the design aspects for basal
the gravel/granular base layer. reinforcement over soft embankment, embankments
over voids and basal mattress reinforced
embankments.
63.4.4 The use of reinforcing layer serves the
following functions:
b) Category 2: Pile or stone column or sand
a) Construction is facilitated as machinery column below embankment can be
can move easily above the reinforcement combined with basal reinforcement as part
for placing the fill; of a foundation stabilization system to
control stability and prevent or limit
b) The tensile reinforcement provides
settlement of the embankment:
improvement in the rotational stability of
the embankment; 1) Stone columns or compacted granular
columns with basal reinforcement.
c) Improvement in lateral sliding;
Category 2 application is not covered in this
d) Provide good drainage layer;
standard and BS 8006-1 or EBGEO can be referred
e) Minimize the differential settlements; and for this application.
f) An improvement in embankment
64 DESIGN OF BASAL REINFORCED
performance due to increased uniformity of
EMBANKMENTS OVER SOFT SUBSOIL
post construction settlement.
64.1 The design of embankment on soft ground
63.4.5 Geocells are three-dimensional, permeable, depends upon the shear resistance of the foundation
polymeric (synthetic or natural) honeycomb, or soil in which bearing capacity of the foundation soil
similar cellular structure, made of linked strips of may govern the design. The inclusion of
geosynthetics. The strips are ultrasonically joined geosynthetic reinforcement at the base of the
together to form interconnected cells that are infilled embankment will help to reduce the shear failure in
with soil. In some cases, 0.5 m to 1 m wide strips of embankment as well as in the foundation soil.
polyolefin geogrids have been linked together with
vertical polymeric rods used to form deep 3-D 64.2 Basal reinforcement stabilizes an embankment
mattress called as geo-mattresses. over soft soil by:
a) Prevention against lateral sliding;
63.4.6 For basal reinforcement, a product with high
tensile strength, low elongation and low creep is b) Extrusion of foundation;
required. Geo-composite, in which the reinforcing as c) Rotational failure; and

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d) Reduction in differential settlement. experienced that the reinforcement can also partially
reduce the differential settlement due to better
64.3 The basal reinforcement may be placed at distribution of stress over the soft soil.
foundation level to prevent shear failure both in the
embankment fill and in the foundation soil. It is 64.5 The duration of the tensile strength requirement
important to consider that the stability of an from the basal reinforcement depends upon the rate
embankment on soft soil is most critical during of gain in shear strength due to consolidation. The
construction, because the relatively low design life of the reinforcement may be considered
permeability of the soft foundation soil does not in general as equal to the time required to achieve
permit adequate degree of consolidation during the 90 percent consolidation. Generally, the maximum
construction period. design working load is experienced at the end of
construction of the embankment.
64.4 At the end of construction, the embankment
loading has been applied, but the gain in shearing 64.6 Basal reinforcement shall be designed for
resistance of the foundation due to consolidation various modes of failure as follows:
might be insufficient for stability. Basal
a) Bearing capacity;
reinforcement stabilizes an embankment over soft
ground by preventing lateral spreading of the fill and b) Rotational stability of the embankment;
overall rotational failure. Basal reinforcement also c) Lateral sliding stability of the embankment
stabilises the foundation soil against lateral fill;
extrusion. This stabilizing force is generated in the d) Foundation extrusion; and
reinforcement by shear stresses transmitted from the
foundation soil and fill, which place the e) Overall stability.
reinforcement in tension. It has also been

FIG. 73 EMBANKMENT REINFORCED WITH GEOSYNTHETICS

FIG. 74 USE OF GEOSYNTHETIC AS A BASAL REINFORCEMENT

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a) Bearing capacity

FIG. 75 VARIOUS MODES OF FAILURE

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64.7 Bearing Capacity Failure the rotational limit state per metre run; and
b) the sum of the maximum tensile force
The basal reinforcement is assumed to act as a stiff needed to resist lateral sliding per metre run
layer which helps in distributing the embankment and the maximum tensile force needed to
load onto the sub soil evenly. Soft soils gain strength resist foundation extrusion per metre run.
due to consolidation which is a time dependent
mechanism. 64.8.2 Tensile strength of reinforcement calculated
considering various reduction factors for
Following formula is used to calculate the ultimate reinforcement as per IS 17365. Factor of safety for
bearing capacity of the foundation. the various failure surfaces must be analysed. A
computer program or software is preferable for the
Qult = Cu.Nc ….(8.1) analysis of critical failure surfaces as manual
calculations are time consuming.
where
Cu = undrained cohesive strength of the soil in 64.8.3 A minimum factor of safety of 1.4 shall be
kN/m2; and adopted for rotational stability analysis. The factor
of safety of the reinforced embankment can be
Nc = bearing capacity factor.
calculated using following formula:
For embankment over soft subsoil, Nc can be ΣMr + Tg d
calculated as: FSR = ...(8.4)
ΣMd
Nc = 5.14 for B/D ≤ 2 ….(8.2)
where
Nc = 4.14 + 0.5 B/D for B/D ≥2 ….(8.3)
Mr = summation of resisting moment of all
slices in kN-m/m;
where
Md = summation of driving moment of all
B = the bottom width of embankment in meter; slices in kN-m/m;
and
Tg = required tensile force kN/m; and
D = the depth of soft soil in meter. d = vertical distance between the centre of
slip circle and horizontal reinforcement
A factor of safety of 1.5 for bearing capacity at the layer in meter.
end of construction shall be achieved where no
ground improvement implemented. If the factor of
safety of soft soil is not sufficient then ground 64.8.4 It is recommended to do global stability check
improvement techniques like preconsolidation, using noncircular slip surface as well, in case of thin,
stone columns, stage construction can be used along embankments founded on deposits of very soft soil.
with the basal reinforcement. Factor of safety of 1.3 When thin, soft clays are present below embankment
can be considered satisfactory at the end of failure mechanism will be due to extrusion than
construction for basal reinforcement combined with overall stability.
other ground improvement techniques. Factor of
safety of 1.5 at the end of consolidation period shall 64.9 Lateral Sliding
be achieved.
This check shall be performed considering the
64.8 Rotational Stability embankment fill should not slide over the
reinforcement. The basal reinforcement must resist
64.8.1 Rotational stability of the embankment shall the outward horizontal thrust of the embankment fill.
be carried out using method of slices. The tensile The minimum tensile strength required to resist
force required (Tg) for rotational stability of lateral sliding shall be worked out as below:
embankment determined from method of slices and
this shall be long term design tensile strength of Tls = 0.5 Kaq H2 + Kaq H --(8.5)
reinforcement as per 64.13.
2
sin (β − ϕ)
The maximum tensile force Tg to be resisted by the 𝐾a = [ ] ---(8.6)
(sinβ)2+ sinϕ.√sinβ
basal reinforcement should be the greater of:

a) the maximum tensile force needed to resist

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FIG. 76 ROTATIONAL STABILITY

FIG. 77 LATERAL SLIDING OF EMBANKMENT OVER BASAL REINFORCEMENT

A minimum value of factor of safety as 1.5 for lateral ϕ = the angle of internal friction for
sliding shall be achieved: embankment fill;

𝑊α tanϕ
β = slope angle (tanβ = 1: n);
𝐹𝑆s = ---(8.7)
𝑇ls Ka = the active earth pressure coefficient
for embankment fill;
where H = the height of embankment in meter;
and
W = 0.5 × de × H × Le;
q = the surcharge intensity over the
de = the density of embankment fill in kN/m3; embankment in kPa.
Le = the reinforcement bond length in meter
(refer Fig. 8);
Sometimes the length of reinforcement Le required
α = the interaction coefficient relating the for lateral sliding is more than right of way available
embankment fill and reinforcement and embankment width at bottom. In such case
material bond angle, which should be anchorage blocks shall be provided made of
specified in the certification document concrete, sandbag, gabion or wrap around ,etc
[for example, BBA, NTPEP (AASTHO)]. (refer Fig. 78).
In case of absence of certification, it
should be limited to 0.5;

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FIG. 78 ANCHORAGE ARRANGEMENT FOR BASAL REINFORCEMENT

These sections must also be investigated for sliding Pah or Tls = the lateral thrust relative to
of the embankment above the wrap-around and for embankment height H;
sliding of the embankment above the reinforcement
layer: Pah3 = the lateral thrust relative to
embankment height h3;
RO + Minimum of (R3, RB)
---(8.8) RO = the resistance between the
FS =
Tls or Pah embankment fill material and
the top of the geosynthetics;
.
R3 R3 = the resistance between the
FS = ---(8.9)
Pah3 embankment fill material and
the top of the geosynthetics
where (relative to the length h3/tanβ);
and
FS = the factor of safety (minimum 1.35); RB = the long-term design strength
(LTDS) of the reinforcement
layer as per 64.13.

FIG. 79 EMBANKMENT SLIDING ABOVE THE REINFORCEMENT LAYER

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FIG. 80 EMBANKMENT SLIDING ABOVE THE WRAP-AROUND/ANCHOR BLOCK

The lateral earth pressures from soil dead weight and lateral extrusion. The failure of the foundation
live loads on the embankment crest are adopted as should be anticipated if γ fill x Hfill > 3 x C, and a
actions: weak soil layer exists beneath the embankment to a
depth that is less that the width of the embankment.
Pah3 = γ 0.5 h3 h3 Ka + q h3 Ka …(8.10) When the depth of the soft layer is greater than the
base width of the embankment, general bearing
where capacity and overall stability may govern the design.
Ka = the active earth pressure coefficient for
64.10.3 Further, to prevent this extrusion the side
embankment fill (Eq 8.6), which depends
slope length of the embankment Ls should be great
on slope angle () and friction angle of the
enough to prevent mobilization of these outward
soil (); and h3 is the height of the shear stresses.
embankment above wrap around.
64.10.4 The failure mechanism assumes the lateral
Friction resistance on top of the geosynthetic R3 extrusion of foundation soil from beneath the
embankment. To prevent this failure mechanism
The friction resistance between the embankment fill from occurring, the outward foundation movement
material and the geosynthetic is: should be limited by developing adequate lateral
1 ℎ3 confinement over a sufficient surface area at the
...(8.11)
𝑅3 =
2
γ (𝑡𝑎𝑛β) ℎ3 𝑓1g underside of the basal reinforcement (refer Fig. 81).
To achieve these following conditions should be
satisfied:
where, f1g friction coefficient between the a) the overall shearing resistance on the
embankment fill material and the geosynthetics. underside of the reinforcement should be
This shall be determined by direct shear test or sufficient to resist the lateral loads
pullout tests. In absence of test results maximum developed in the foundation soil; and
value of 0.5 tan ϕ shall be considered.
b) the basal reinforcement should have
Friction resistance on top of the geosynthetics RO sufficient tensile strength to withstand the
tensile loads induced by the shear stress
The friction resistance between the embankment fill transmitted from the foundation soil.
material and the geosynthetics is:
64.10.5 To prevent foundation extrusion, the
1 𝐻 following relationship should apply:
𝑅𝑂 =
2
γ ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛β) 𝐻 𝑓1g ...(8.12)
Rha ≤ Rhp + Rs + RR
64.10 Foundation Extrusion Rha = horizontal force causing foundation extrusion;
Rhp = horizontal force due to passive resistance of
64.10.1 It should be noted that the geometry of the the foundation;
embankment induces outward shear stresses within
the soft foundation soil, and where the foundation RS = horizontal force due to the shear resistance of
soil is soft and of limited depth the outward shear the foundation soil at depth zC; and
stresses can induce extrusion of the foundation. RR = horizontal force due to the shear resistance of
the foundation soil at the underside of the
64.10.2 High lateral stresses in a confined soft reinforcement.
stratum beneath an embankment could lead to a

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FIG. 81 FOUNDATION EXTRUSION STABILITY ANALYSIS

64.10.6 A sensitivity analysis using different values where

of zc should be performed to determine the
n = side slope of the embankment; and
minimum side slope length Ls needed to prevent
foundation extrusion. The depth of zC should be  = increase in shear strength per unit depth.
limited to a maximum of twice the height of the
embankment. 64.10.8 The minimum required side slope length Ls
Minimum necessary side slope length Ls to be may be determined as follows:
determined as follows:
[γH + w − (2cu + zc) 2] zc
𝐿𝑠 = …(8.15)
(γ H + 𝑞 − 4𝐶u) 𝑧c (1 + abc) cu+ zc
𝐿𝑠 ≥ …(8.13)
(1 + 𝑎′bc) 𝐶u
64.10.9 The tensile load generated in the basal
where reinforcement Trf per metre run due to outward
foundation shear stress may be taken from:
Cu = undrained shear strength of the soft
foundation layer; a’bc cuo 𝐿e
𝐹𝑆 = …(8.16)
𝑇rf
zc = depth of the soft foundation layer when
the foundation is of limited depth with where
constant undrained shear strength with Le = length of the reinforcement required;
depth; and cuo = undrained shear strength of the foundation
a’bc = interaction coefficient relating the soil at the underside of the reinforcement;
soil/reinforcement adherence to Cu. and
FS = minimum factor of safety of 1.3.
64.10.7 Similarly, an expression exists for the case
of a foundation soil, with shear strength linearly 64.10.10 Care should be taken in the choice of the
increasing with depth, where the minimum factor value of a′𝑏𝑐 the adherence coefficient at the
of safety is given at a critical depth zc below the reinforcement/soft foundation soil interface; the
ground surface, which may be determined by: magnitude of a′𝑏𝑐 is related not only to the surface
characteristics of the reinforcement but also to the
(1+ 𝑎bc) 𝐶u𝑛 𝐻 strain in the reinforcement compared to the strain in
Zc= √ ---(8.14)
҆
2𝜌 the soft foundation.

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64.11 Seismic Loading where

For analysing the full height embankment, Tal = long-term tensile strength of the
pseudo-static limit equilibrium analysis can be reinforcement in kN/m;
performed using either a total or an effective stress Tult = ultimate tensile strength (short
analysis. Problems of estimating pore water term strength/characteristic
pressures induced by cyclic shearing are avoided by strength) from a standard in
using a total stress analysis. In the pseudo-static isolation wide width tensile test in
limit equilibrium analysis, a seismic coefficient is kN/m;
used to represent the effect of the inertia forces RFID = reduction factor for installation
imposed by the earthquake upon the potential failure damage;
mass. Simplifications made in using the RFCR = reduction factor for creep;
pseudo-static approach to evaluate seismic slope
stability include replacing the cyclic earthquake RFCH = reduction factor against
motion with a constant horizontal acceleration equal chemical/environmental effects;
to KH x g, where KH is the seismic coefficient which RFW = reduction factor to allow for
shall be considered 0.5 Z (zone factor Z as per weathering during exposure prior
Table 2 of IS 1893-1), and g is acceleration of to installation or of permanently
gravity: exposed material;
fs = factor for extrapolation of data;
 Mr + Tgs d and
FS = ---(8.17)
 Md RFD = cumulative reduction factor
where (RFCH × RFW) is referred
for reduction for durability.
FS = factor of safety (minimum 1.1);
64.13.2 All the above reduction factors shall be
Mr = summation of resisting moment of determined as per IS 17365. However ambient
all slices in kN-m/m; temperature in India is high, creep factor at 30 °C
Md = summation of driving moment of all and 40 °C shall also be provided besides the
slices in kN-m/m; reduction factors at 20 °C.

Tgs = tensile force of reinforcement 64.13.3 Long term design strength of reinforcement
needed in the reinforcement for shall be meet the rotational stability, overall
seismic case kN/m (ignoring stability, lateral sliding, and foundation extrusion.
reduction factor for creep as seismic The ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcement
loading is applied for short shall be decided as per procedure presented below.
duration); and
64.13.4 Force in the reinforcement (Tf) shall be
d = vertical distance between centre maximum of Tg, Tgs and Tls + Trf. and Tf shall be
of rotation and horizontal greater than or equal to Tal. Strain in reinforcement
reinforcement layer in m. for short term as per 64.13 shall be determined for
stress strain curve at Tal force. Long term strain as
64.12 Overall Stability per 64.13 shall be determined from isochronous
curves and shall be within acceptable limits.
For embankments founded on deep deposits of very
soft soil overall stability should be checked to 65 EMBANKMENTS OVER VOIDS
ensure deep-seated rotational failures (refer
65.1 Areas of Application
Fig. 75). Conventional slip surface analyses may be
used to examine this mode of failure. The following should be considered in dealing with
areas prone to subsidence.
64.13 Design Tensile Strength of Reinforcement
a) Subsidence normally results from the
64.13.1 The long-term tensile strength of the collapse of a void below the ground
reinforcement can be calculated by considering the surface. Subterranean voids can arise from
short-term strength of the reinforcement and the natural processes (for example, soil erosion
reduction factors, is given below: in karstic areas) or from man-made
processes (for example, ground water
Tal = Tult/ (RFCR × RFID × RFW × RFCH × fs) …(8.18) pumping or underground mining);

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b) The consequences of subsidence occurring different ways: Internal reinforcement within the
beneath structures can range from a loss of embankment structure and reinforcement at the base
serviceability to total collapse; and of the embankment. For internal reinforcement,
several layers of reinforcement may normally be
c) Embankments, fills and pavements are
included within the height of the embankment; the
essentially flexible structures. Thus, the
analysis of this technique is complex.
techniques used to minimize damage
resulting from subsidence normally involve
65.2.2 The formulation contained are based on two
confining the vertical differential
principal assumptions:
displacement of the structure to within
predetermined tolerances. From this point a) Constant volume of soil in “zone of
of view either rigid foundation rafts, or depression”; and
reinforced soil techniques have proved b) No arching within the embankment fill.
effective.
65.2.3 Both assumptions can lead to conservatism in
65.2 Design design. The assumption of no arching in the
embankment fill may be taken as valid for low
65.2.1 Reinforcement may be used to limit the embankment height to void size ratios (H/D < 1)
amount of surface deformation caused by and hence the “zone of deformation” depicted in
subsidence (see Fig. 82). A void developing Fig. 82 of an inverted, truncated wedge or cone
beneath a reinforced embankment sometime after influencing the reinforcement is valid. Strain limits
construction may be repaired by filling the void with in the reinforcement should be controlled, at the
grout in which case the reinforcement should act base of the zone of deformation, to limit depression
temporarily. If the void is left open the at the embankment surface. By considering the
reinforcement should be specified to act for the geometry of the zone of influence, ignoring arching
remaining design life of the structure. Voids under and assuming a constant volume and equating the
high-cost structures (for example, motorway volumetric movement of the reinforcement and the
embankments) should be filled, while for lower cost volumetric movement of the soil, a relationship may
structures (For example, low trafficked pavements) be presented for the maximum allowable
the cost of filling the voids may not normally be reinforcement strain.
justified. Reinforcement may be utilized in two

FIG. 82 REINFORCEMENT IN LIMITING SURFACE DEFORMATIONS DUE TO SUBSIDENCE

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65.2.4 Void Diameter

The determination of a suitable design value for the void diameter should normally be based on experience of
similar conditions, a subterranean survey, and/or a probabilistic approach. A conservative value should be
assumed because of the uncertainties of future subsidence, and the consequent risks involved.

FIG. 83 PARAMETERS USED TO DETERMINE REINFORCEMENT

where the void; the latter approach is likely to require some

form of detection and remediation protocol to be
ds/Ds = maximum allowable differential
established by the infrastructure owner/operator.
deformation occurring at the surface
of the embankment or pavement;
For principal roads, the maximum differential
ds = depression at surface; surface deformation (ds/Ds) should be limited to
d = depression at reinforcement; 1 percent. For non-principal roads, differential
D = design diameter of the void; settlement should be limited to 2 percent. For
consideration beneath railway lines, more stringent
H = height of embankment; and allowable deflections should be considered; these
θd = angle of draw of the embankment fill may be derived from the maximum allowable cross-
(which is approximately equal to its rail differential movements to prevent a twist fault
peak friction angle). or derailment. The allowable limit may be decided
based on agreement between designer and owner of
In order to optimize the bond length and slippage, an the project.
anchored system may be employed. The anchors at
the end of both the ends of reinforcement would 65.2.6 Tensile Strength, Strain and Bond Length
mobilize the required force in the relatively short
length of reinforcement. The design of anchored Tensile strength: For extensible reinforcements
system is not covered by this document. (for example, polymeric) the tensile load Trs in the
deflected reinforcement should be taken to be:
65.2.5 Allowable Surface Deformation

The degree of acceptable surface deformation may 𝑇rs = 0.5 𝜆 (𝛾 𝐻 + 𝑞)𝐷√1 +

1
…(8.19)
be estimated dependent on the design philosophy for 6

the supporting reinforcement. The reinforcement

may be designed to support the overlying where
embankment for the design life of the infrastructure
and the surface settlement to remain within Trs = tensile load in the reinforcement per metre
acceptable serviceability limits. Similarly, the “run” which shall be greater than or equal
reinforcement may be designed to support the to long term design strength as per 64.13;
embankment for a shorter period of time allowing
for some form of remedial measures to infill/reduce

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 = a coefficient dependent on whether the Bond length: To generate the tensile load Trs in the
reinforcement support is to function as a reinforcement adequate bond should exist between
one-way ( = 1) or two-way load the reinforcement and the adjacent soil. The
shedding system ( = 0.67); minimum reinforcement bond length Lb needed to
carry Trs should be
γ = unit weight of the embankment fill;
Trs
Lb ≥ …(8.22)
H = height of the embankment; and γh (a'1 tanϕ1 + a'2 tanϕ2)
 = strain in the reinforcement which is less where
than or equal to max.
h = average height of fill over the bond
length of the reinforcement;
Strain: The deflected shape of the reinforcement γ = unit weight of the embankment fill;
spanning the void may be approximated to a
parabola, where the maximum allowable strain in a’1 = interaction coefficient relating the
the reinforcement is: soil/reinforcement bond angle to tan ɸ1
on one side of the reinforcement; and
For plane strain conditions (that is, long voids); a’2 = interaction coefficient relating the
soil/reinforcement bond angle to tan ɸ2
on the opposite side of the
𝑑 2 4
8( 𝑠 ) (𝐷+
2𝐻
) reinforcement.
𝐷 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ɵ
Ɛmax = 𝑠 𝑑 …(8.20)
66 BASAL MATTRESS REINFORCED
3 𝐷4
EMBANKMENTS

For axisymmetric conditions (that is, circular voids); 66.1 Basal mattress, which is a three-dimensional
structure formed from a series of interlocking cells,
may be used as reinforcement below embankments.
𝑑 2 2𝐻 6
8( 𝑠 ) (𝐷+
𝐷 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ɵ
) The use of a mattress at the base of an embankment
Ɛmax = 𝑠 𝑑
...(8.21) is shown schematically in Fig. 84.
3 𝐷6

FIG. 84 REINFORCEMENT USED TO CONTROL ONLY STABILITY OF EMBANKMENT

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66.2 A basal mattress reinforcement may be slip failure mechanism cannot form due to the
incorporated to interact with the embankment and strength and stiffness of the cellular mattress; when
produce: the thickness of the subsoil is relatively thin
compared with the embankment base width. The
a) A good adhesive interface between the soft
prandtl type punching failure cannot take place and
foundation and the contained granular fill
plastic flow in the soft foundation layers becomes
of the mattress; and
the critical mechanism.
b) A relatively stiff platform to ensure both an
even distribution of load onto the NOTE — The soft underlying soil is essentially sandwiched
foundation and a more uniform stress field between two, rigid surfaces giving a situation like that of the
within the soft foundation soil. compression of a block between, rough, rigid parallel
platens.

66.3 These properties enable the basal mattress to 66.5 It should be noted that the basal mattress
influence the deformation of the soft foundation and technique can be particularly effective with
hence may be used to mobilize its maximum shear relatively thin, soft foundation layers where the ratio
strength and bearing capacity. While the basal of embankment width to depth of soft soil is greater
mattress may be analysed using the procedure than four.
detailed in 64.7 to 64.12, a method based on slip
line fields for the analysis of foundation stability 66.6 Once the bearing capacity conditions have been
should generally be used (see Fig. 85, Bush et al, satisfied, the tensile loads in the reinforcement
1989). The plastic deformation of the soft forming the basal mattress may be determined by
foundation soil should be examined using the slip using a method described in Jenner et al. (1988),
line fields and the ultimate bearing capacity which examines the stress condition at the underside
calculated. The overburden stresses and the of the mattress to calculate the lateral loads that need
available bearing capacity should then be compared to be resisted by the reinforcement allowing for the
to ensure that equilibrium conditions are satisfied. resistance provided by the foundation soil.
The basal mattress may be checked to ensure it can
support the tension generated by the outward thrust NOTE — The correct installation and construction
of the embankment fill. sequence of the cellular mattress is paramount to its
performance. The installation procedure for cellular
66.4 The basic assumption may be made that normal mattresses is described in cow land and Wong (1993).

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Key
1 Embankment
2 Basal mattress
3 Soft foundation
4 Slip line field
5 From geometry of slip line field
6 Value at edge of rigid head from slip line field
7 Average stress across rigid head
8 From geometry of slip line field

FIG. 85 STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR BASAL MATTRESS REINFORCEMENT

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67 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF noted that the strap is parallel to the lateral
EMBANKMENTS WITH HDPE GEOCELLS force exerted by the embankment over
AS BASAL REINFORCEMENTS some length and roughly at about 45° over
some other length. Hence the average
67.1 When a soil structure is constructed on weak resistance offered by the straps alone could
soil with geocells along the subgrade level as basal be taken as 0.85 ;
reinforcement, the slip surface will have to pass
through the geocell reinforced section. The All the cells of the geocells are infilled. The infill,
mechanism for resisting shear failure when geocells being totally confined, will transfer the forces to the
are used as basal reinforcement is different from geocell straps. With the transfer of forces, the weld
geogrids. The polymeric geogrids are two seam also is stressed. Hence the weld seam strength
dimensional and are relatively flexible. The geocells is also significant.
are on the contrary, stiffer three-dimensional panels
with the straps placed orthogonal to the plane of the T needs to be checked not only with respect to the
panel. The stiffness furthermore increases with design tensile strength of the perforated strap, but
infilling of non-plastic soil. Hence the geocell layers also the weld seam peel strength of the geocell. In
below the soil structure behaves as a stratum with this case, weld seam peel strength should be
higher shear strength. Fig. 85 illustrates the slip determined by “Method A” as per IS 17369
circle failure surface through the geocell layer. (Part 1). The “Method A” style of testing is shown
Stability analysis of embankment with geocell as in Fig. 86 (B).
basal reinforcement shall be carried out as per
b) When the straps of the geocell are oriented
procedure 64.7 to 64.12 and geocell properties shall
along the embankment longitudinal axis —
be considered as explained below.
Fig. 86 (C), as in the previous case, lateral
forces from the embankment are
67.2 For geocells, the philosophy of considering the
transferred to the infill through friction and
tensile force of reinforcement .will be governed by
the infill transfers these forces to the
the orientation of the geocells with respect to the
geocell profile. However, in this case,
embankment cross section:
tensile resistance from the straps will not
a) When the straps of the geocell are oriented be significant and the lateral forces
along the cross section of the embankment (other than the component resisted by
— Fig. 86 (A), lateral forces from the friction between infill and underlying soil)
embankment are transferred to the infill will be resisted essentially by the geocell
through friction, and the infill transfers weld seams. In this case, weld seam peel
these forces to the geocell expanded strength should be determined by
profile. Hence the design tensile strength “Method B” as per IS 17369 (Part 1) shown
of the straps is to be considered. It is to be schematically in Fig. 86 (D).

FIG. 86 (A) GEOCELL STRAPS ALONG EMBANKMENT LATERAL FIG. 86 (B) WELD SEAM PEEL STRENGTH -
DIRECTION METHOD A

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FIG. 86 (C) GEOCELL STRAPS ALONG EMBANKMENT FIG. 86 (D) WELD SEAM PEEL STRENGTH -
LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION METHOD B

67.3 It may be noted that the stresses on the welded hand calculations or limit equilibrium analyses, the
seams will be reduced owing to the confined geocell layer is included as explained below.
infilling in the cells. The reduction can be significant
but difficult to determine at this juncture. Not much 67.5 The soil infilled in the geocell pockets exhibit
work has been performed regarding geocells “apparent cohesion” due to confinement within the
stressed along the plane of the panel in either cells, besides the angle of internal friction of the
direction. compacted non-plastic material. “Apparent
cohesion” has been derived by Bathurst and
67.4 The geocell is a three-dimensional Rajagopal (1993) and confirmed by laboratory tests
geosynthetic material with interconnected that a geocell layer infilled with non-plastic soil can
curvilinear rhomboidal cells. The interconnected be considered as a stratum with an equivalent
cells form a cellular confinement system when cohesive strength (besides its friction angle φ),
expanded and infilled with well compacted non- which is derived by virtue of confinement of the soil
plastic granular infill material. The tensile strength by the geocell walls. The strength of the geocell-
of the perforated HDPE geocells is observed as infill system is best explained by the Mohr-
12 MPa by testing 150 mm of high geocells by Coulomb failure envelop in Fig. 87. The figure
loading across the full height. The geocell elements illustrates the effect of confining pressure within the
have a characteristic depth and an effective cell, ∆σ3 on the confined soil to generate a higher
diameter which is a function of the weld spacing. shear strength (larger circle), whose parallel tangent
intercept is at cτ on the shear stress axis; cτ is called
Hence, in finite element or finite difference
“apparent cohesion” as the soil is basically
numerical analyses it is possible to model the
cohesionless granular soil. The slope of the tangent
geocell layer as a three-dimensional structure with
of the larger circle is the angle of internal friction φ
interconnected cells. In these models, the geocell which is found to be unaffected by the geocell
walls are modelled as membrane elements confinement.
connected at the weld locations. However, in
simple

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FIG. 87 EFFECT OF CELL CONFINEMENT ON NON-PLASTIC SOIL — “APPARENT COHESION” AND FRICTION
ANGLE

From Fig. 87, the apparent cohesion could be other by tensile resistance developed in the plane of
related to the confining pressure and soil properties the geocell layer. The geocell layer is treated as an
as: equivalent soil layer having the height of geocell and
∆ 𝜎3 having the properties of apparent cohesion and
𝑐𝜏 = ∗ √𝐾𝑝 …(8.23)
2 friction angle of infill soil.
In which ∆𝜎3 is the additional confining pressure The in plane tensile force per unit length due to the
developed in the soil due to membrane action of the geocell layer can be estimated as:
geocell pockets. The additional confining pressure
could be estimated as: T = 0.85  12  n  h  t/RF kN/m …(8.25)

2.𝑀 (1−√1−𝜖𝑎 ) Where 12 is the tensile strength of the HDPE

∆𝜎3 = …(8.24)
𝑑 (1−𝜀𝑎 ) material in MPa units, the factor 0.85 is to account
for the inclination of geocell straps over some
M is the secant modulus of the geocell straps length, n is the number of straps within a unit
( 350 kN/m at 2 percent strain for perforated length of the section (typically 4 to 5 depending on
HDPE geocells), d is the equivalent pocket opening the weld distance) h is the height of the geocell
diameter ( 0.23 m). a is the allowable axial strain layer in m and t is the thickness of the geocell walls
of the infill material (may be taken as about in mm. The tensile force may be applied at mid-
1 percent to 2 percent). Substituting these values height of the geocell layer. The factor RF is a
with a = 2 percent, the additional confining reduction factor to consider the installation
pressure comes to 31 kPa and apparent cohesion c damage, creep and other environmental factors as
comes to about 27 kPa. At 1 percent axial strain the per 64.13. The value of this factor depends on the
apparent cohesion comes to 13.5 kPa. Hence, gradation of the infill material, method of
typical apparent cohesion values for an infill soil compaction, required service life, etc. In general,
having 30 friction angle may be taken as 15 kPa the requirement of geocell as a basal layer will go
for an HDPE geocell. on reducing with time as the subgrade soil gains in
strength. Within a few years after construction, the
67.6 Analysis subgrade may gain adequate strength that the basal
67.6.1 When the geocells infilled with non-plastic geocell mattress may not actually be required for
soil are used as basal mattresses, the geocell layer the stability of the system. Based on these
contributes to the load support in two ways, one by considerations, the value of the reduction factor RF
imparting apparent cohesion to the infill soil and the may be selected.

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67.6.2 Conventional slope stability analysis be given to the use of multiple layers of equal
software such as ReSSA (reinforced slope stability strength and stiffness to provide design tensile
analysis) may be used to determine the safety reinforcement in each layer equivalent to:
factors as per 64.8 and 64.11. The geocell layer is
𝑇𝐷 ≥ 𝛺𝑇1 + 𝛺𝑇2 … … … + 𝛺𝑇𝑛 …(8.26)
replaced with an equivalent soil layer of this height
and having apparent cohesive strength and
frictional strength. The tensile force contribution where
due to geocell membrane action is considered as a
TD = design strength of the reinforcement;
horizontal reinforcement force at mid-height of this
equivalent soil layer. Ω = a coefficient dependent on the sequence of
the reinforcement layer;
68 STABILITY IN THE DIRECTION ALONG for the first/lowest layer Ω = 1;
THE EMBANKMENT second reinforcement layer Ω ≤ 1; and
The differential fill height along the embankment any subsequent reinforcement layers, Ω ≤ 0.5.
should be limited to a minimum during construction
of the embankment, but there will inevitably be a 71 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT
need for the basal reinforcement to provide some
degree of stability in the longitudinal direction and 71.1 The presence of basal reinforcement alone does
at the ends of the embankment. The reinforcement not influence the settlement characteristics of the
force needed should be determined taking account embankment; thus, settlement analyses may be
of the likely differential fill heights during performed using conventional procedures.
construction.
71.2 Foundation settlement may be assumed to
69 ALLOWABLE STRAIN IN increase the tensile strain and hence load, in the
reinforcement. Intermediate and long-term
REINFORCEMENT
settlements may be expected to offset any reduction
Maximum strain in the reinforcement should not in reinforcement load due to an increase in
exceed 5 percent for short term application and embankment stability.
5 percent to 10 percent for long term application.
Embankment on sensitive soil like peat the 71.3 Settlement of embankments and more
maximum strain in the reinforcement for short term importantly, rate of settlement consideration are of
shall not exceed 3 percent. relevance because such settlements will affect the
performance of structure, especially in terms of
70 MULTIPLE REINFORCEMENT BASAL developing uneven surface on top. By providing
LAYERS reinforcement at the base of the embankment will
leads to partial improvement in the differential
70.1 The maximum limit state tensile force to be settlement because of the relatively uniform
resisted by the basal reinforcement could distribution of the stress on the foundation layer.
theoretically be provided by two or more multiple
reinforcement layers installed at the base of the 71.4 Subsoil layers experience settlement due to
proposed embankment. embankment loads the magnitude and time rate at
which these settlements progress depends on the
nature of the subsoil:
70.2 However, observations of field trials
(see Rowe and Li, 1993) have indicated that where a) Where subsoil layers are essentially low
settlements are relatively large (> H/25) and varying plastic or non-plastic soils, with adequate
strength reinforcement materials have been installed bearing capacity, settlements in the subsoil
in basally reinforced embankments, the stronger progress as the embankment is built up.
reinforcement attracts a disproportionately higher Thus, there would be none or very small
level of the mobilized resisting force. Similarly, post-construction settlements at the end of
when two identical strength layers are incorporated construction. Hence, such settlements are
as basal reinforcement, the lowest layer attracts not of concern; and
a higher proportion of the resisting force b) Where the subsoil consists of soft
(see Blume et al., 2006). compressible clay layers in saturated
condition, large settlements would occur.
70.3 The precise distribution of forces it not fully These settlements follow the “Terzaghi’s
understood; it is therefore recommended that, where theory of consolidation” and require long
possible, the maximum limit state tensile force time-period for completion. It is essential
should be provided in one reinforcement layer. that such subsoil conditions are identified
Where this is not possible then consideration should at or prior to design stage and suitable

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ground improvement technique is adopted. on soft clays, where post-construction settlements as
Such techniques accelerate the settlement mentioned above are difficult to avoid, rigid
rate based on the design adopted. However pavements or rigid structures may not be suitable.
even at the end of the waiting period after
ground improvement method adopted, 72 BASAL REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS
some settlements may continue to occur. WITH VERTICAL DRAINS
These may be termed “post-construction
settlements”. 72.1 Technical as well as economic benefits may be
gained in accelerating the rate of consolidation
71.5 The allowable limit for such post-construction (and hence the rate of shear strength increase) of soft
settlement may be considered as 300 mm for foundation soils. For example, a higher load level in
embankment supporting roads. The allowable limit the reinforcement may be utilized if the time over
may be decided based on agreement between which the reinforcement force is needed is reduced.
designer and owner of the project. In general, these
settlements progress at very slow rate. Hence it 72.2 Several methods of accelerating consolidation
would be economical to allow such settlements to may be used, including the use of surcharge, vacuum
run their course than aim a design which has preloading, and vertical drains. The technique using
“negligible” post-construction settlements. This vertical drains is shown in Fig. 87.
observation is particularly relevant where PVDs or
stone columns are adopted for ground improvement. 72.3 Ideally, the reinforcement should be placed
The designer may indicate the amount of after the vertical drains have been installed as
post-construction settlement expected and time damage to the reinforcement due to drain installation
period for the same while designing embankments is avoided.
over soft subsoil deposits. In case of embankments

SECTION 9
DRAINAGE DETAILING

73 INTRODUCTION the permeability of the fill or ground to be reinforced

as well as the underlying strata.
73.1 This section provides general recommendations
for incorporating drainage elements (surface and 73.3 It is possible to minimize hydrostatic stresses in
subsurface) for reinforced soil structures. This geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining structures by
section covers several site situations that require constructing internal and external drainage systems
drainage and how to combine them into a reinforced and considering drainage aspect listed below:
soil structure. Components of subsections include:
a) Potential for pore water pressure buildup
a) External drainage: inside the reinforced structure (stability);
b) Potential for buildup of harmful elements
1) Surface drainage; within the reinforced zone (durability);
2) Slope end for bridge approaches; and and
3) At the toe. c) Characteristics of consolidation
(settlement/serviceability).
b) Internal drainage:
Stability, durability, and serviceability are all
1) Backfill; aspects of drainage design that designers should be
2) Interface between backfill and aware of while designing reinforced soil structure.
reinforced soil; and They must also determine if any relevant standards
3) Body of reinforced soil component of applicable to their project.
the structure:
74 SITE CONDITIONS REQUIRING
i) Transverse through the DRAINAGE
reinforced soil structure;
Several conditions exist at site that needs the
ii) Along the fascia; and
inclusion of one or more drainage measures are
iii) At the base. required to reduce or eliminate hydrostatic forces in
a reinforced soil retaining structure:
73.2 To describe long term drainage measures, the
groundwater research should include information on a) Surface water flowing towards the

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reinforced soil retaining structure; runoff pattern in coordination with the reinforced
b) Catch basins/drop structures inside a soil structure designer.
reinforced soil retention structure;
74.1.2 It is challenging to develop features for a
c) Heavy precipitation; specific or enforced design storm. Many storm water
d) Rise in ground water table; management solutions are based on 100 year storms.
e) Drainage structures for outlets through Designer must follow recommendations provided in
retaining structure faces; and Section 4 for the storm water conditions and
waterfront structures and shall adhere to the
f) Top and/or toe of the drainage pipes. relevant material specification as illustrated in
Section 3.
74.1 Surface Water Flowing Towards the
Reinforced Soil Retaining Structure 74.1.3 A reinforced soil structure designer must
work with other project authorities to address excess
74.1.1 Site drainage should direct surface water flows. Overflow (for example, spillways) elements
away from the geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining should be addressed in the design of reinforced soil
structure (reinforced soil structure) by using an edge walls where surface water flows toward the wall.
drainage provisions similar to a curb and drain.
Extreme weather can damage reinforced soil 74.1.4 General guidance is indicated in the Fig. 88
retaining structures (that is, thunderstorms). Hence, and Fig. 89 for the full height reinforced soil
in such cases site civil engineer should develop the structure and partially high reinforced soil structure.

FIG. 88 TYPICAL DRAINAGE DETAILING FOR FULL HEIGHT GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED SOIL
RETAINING STRUCTURE EDGE (TYPICAL PANEL FASCIA — DRAWING NOT TO SCALE)

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FIG. 89 TYPICAL DRAINAGE DETAILING FOR PARTIALLY HIGH GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED SOIL
RETAINING STRUCTURE EDGE (TYPICAL FACING PANEL)

74.2 Catch Basins/Drop Inlet Structures Inside a Internal and exterior drainage are distinct. Using
Reinforced Soil Retention Structure internal drainage features such drainage aggregate,
geotextile filter, drain-pipe and blanket drain is
The reinforced soil mass should be situated outside recommended when working with fine grain
catch basins, drop inlet structures and storm drain soils. Please refer to Section 3 for general
lines wherever practical. Soil erosion has caused recommendation on reinforced fill material
many reinforced soil retaining structures to collapse. specifications and related standards.
These constructions aggravate soil erosion
(that is, soil to be washed into the structures through 74.3.2 When fine-grained soil is used to construct
poorly constructed joints or when settlement occurs reinforced soil walls/slopes, stress cracks frequently
causing openings between inlet structures and form between the reinforced and retained soil. This
discharge pipes to occur). Special care must be used occurs as the wall settles. It ties the reinforced soil
when constructing soil reinforcement around material together. Stress cracks emerge in the rein
structures such as catch basins and manholes forced soil mass when it settles (Fig. 92). Entrapped
[see Fig. 90 and Fig. 91 for typical detailing]. water raises hydrostatic pressure behind the
reinforced soil mass.
74.3 Fine Grained Soil Used for the Reinforced
Fill 74.3.3 A provision of chimney drain or composite
drain constructed behind the reinforced soil mass
74.3.1 Many parts of the country lack granular soils would allow water entering the stress crack to
for use as reinforced fill. Some areas of the country escape. Phenomenon of water infiltration is most
have fine-grained soils (> 50 percent). When using prevalent in hilly terrain. Fig. 93 and Fig. 94 shows
fine-grained soils (infill), reinforced soil structure detailing of typical trench drain for medium and
should not migrate unsatisfactorily over time. high-water flow intensity in areas of cutting.

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FIG. 90 SECTION WITH STORM WATER LINE PENETRATING REINFORCED SOIL RETAINING STRUCTURE
FACE (TYPICAL PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA)

FIG. 91 ELEVATION VIEW OF STORMWATER LINE PENETRATION (TYPICAL PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK
FASCIA)

FIG. 92 TENSION CRACK THAT MAY DEVELOP WHEN FINE GRAINED SOILS ARE USED AS REINFORCED
AND RETAINED SOIL (TYPICAL PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA)

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FIG. 93 PROVISION OF TRENCH DRAIN IN HILLY AREAS WITH MEDIUM RAINFALL INTENSITY

FIG. 94 PROVISION OF TRENCH DRAIN IN HILLY AREAS WITH HIGH RAINFALL INTENSITY

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74.4 Snow Melt Saturation and Strong wall fascia (pipe diameter more than 150 mm).
Precipitation Storm water management structures have the
capacity to transport huge amounts of water at high
In the north and north-eastern states of Himalayan speeds through wall face penetrations. Erosion at the
belt, snow melt may cause the slow saturation of the toe of the wall, as well as movement of drainage
reinforced and retained soil behind a reinforced soil stone and/or reinforced fill via the connection
structure. If the soils used to construct the wall between the outlet pipe and reinforced soil structure
have a high percentage of fine-grained particles units, are just a few of the consequences.
(that is, greater than 35 percent), the soil behaves as Next section contains information on how to avoid
a fine-grained soil. The slow melting of the snow can these issues.
saturate these soils. If internal drainage is not
included the soils may become saturated. The result 74.7 Slope at the Top and/or Toe of the
is a loss in shear strength, an increase in driving Reinforced Soil Structure
force and a potential failure of the reinforced soil
structure. 74.7.1 A slope at the top or bottom of reinforced soil
structure is vulnerable to erosion by surface water.
74.5 Rise in Ground Water Table The possibility for erosion should be considered
while designing the wall and suitable
As mentioned before, the usage of an internal erosion control techniques should be included
drainage system is required in high groundwater (see subsequent section).
circumstances. A blanket drain should be installed if
the groundwater table is projected to rise to the 74.7.2 The points listed above are not an exhaustive
bottom of the wall. A drainage blanket and chimney list of circumstances that necessitate drainage
drain shall be considered if the groundwater table is features or considerations. This list is mainly
projected to rise over the levelling pad during the life intended to emphasize the importance of drainage
of the construction. It may not be practicable to elements in a reinforced soil structure. Drainage
avoid hydrostatic forces when designing for high elements should be carefully considered so that
groundwater conditions. In the design of the hydrostatic forces do not effect on the reinforced soil
reinforced soil structure, following sub-section offer structure. However, if this is not possible, the
guidelines on how the hydrostatic forces are handled reinforced soil structure must be designed to account
while designing the reinforced soil structure. for these hydrostatic forces. The analytical methods
necessary to evaluate the performance of the
74.6 Drainage Structures for Outlets Through reinforced soil structure when hydrostatic forces are
Retaining Structure Face present will be presented in subsequent section.

Larger diameter outlet pipes should not pierce the

FIG. 95 TENSION CRACK THAT MAY DEVELOP WHEN FINE GRAINED SOILS ARE USED AS REINFORCED
AND RETAINED SOIL (TYPICAL PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA)

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75 OVERVIEW OF REINFORCED SOIL reinforced soil structure block units will accomplish
RETAINING STRUCTURE DRAINAGE the following:
FEATURES
a) Prevent hydrostatic pressure from building
up at the wall's face, in the retained
It is necessary for RS wall to have sufficient (reinforced) soils, and in the foundation
drainage in order for it to function properly. There soils near the wall's toe; and
are two types of drainage considerations for b) Provides a supplementary benefit by
RS wall: internal and external. One of the internal facilitating compaction of fill directly
drainage difficulties is preventing surface or behind block units, preventing residual
subgrade water from infiltrating the reinforced soil soils from washing through the face of the
mass. Internal drainage is determined by the wall.
reinforced fill's properties. External drainage issues
involve external water pouring over and/or around Fig. 96 demonstrates the significance of filter
the wall surface, putting a strain on the internal media as a transition zone for reinforcement
drainage system and/or producing external erosion. between concrete fascia and flexible compacted soil
The positioning of the RS Wall in respect to local in order to lessen the likelihood of rupture at the
hydrogeological conditions determines external transition zone while also functioning as drainage
drainage, which is concerned with channeling water for ingress water.
away from the soil structure.
75.1.2 Unless the engineer determines that such
75.1 Drainage Aggregates measures are not required for a specific project, it is
advised that suitable drainage features be supplied
75.1.1 Engineered drainage aggregate (Fig. 96) is for all walls. The engineer must consider both
an essential component of a well-designed subsurface and surface infiltration water when
reinforced soil structure. Open graded gravel is determining the necessity for drainage measures.
commonly used as drainage aggregate (that is, GP).
In many cases, a geotextile layer separates the 75.1.3 A well-designed drainage feature takes into
drainage aggregate from the reinforced fill soils and account the filtering properties of various
contains a drainage pipe to direct accumulated geomaterials both inside and outside the reinforced
water away from the structure. The drainage soil wall, as well as drains that are appropriately
aggregate placed behind reinforced soil structure proportioned to properly remove any seepage
solid block units must be at least 300 mm thick. A water. Fig. 97 shows the potential sources and flow
well-designed drainage aggregate system installed paths of water.
right behind the

FIG. 96 DRAINAGE FEATURES FOR CONSIDERATION WHEN WATER IS PRESENT IN REINFORCED SOIL
STRUCTURE (TYPICAL PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA)

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FIG. 97 POTENTIAL SOURCES AND FLOW PATHS OF WATER

75.2 Internal Drainage Systems For precast concrete segmental wall facing, the filter
is commonly in the form of nonwoven geotextile.
75.2.1 There are two specific forms of internal The placement of geotextile is shown in Fig. 98.
drainage: The geotextile filter should extend a minimum of
100 mm on either side of the joint and additionally
a) Drainage near wall face due to infiltration of up into the coping to prevent soil from moving
surface water near the wall fascia; and around and bypassing the geotextile filter.
b) Drainage behind and under reinforced soil
zone from ground water. NOTE — Strips of filter cloth shall be placed on back
face of panel, over panel joints. filter cloth shall be
adhered to back face of panels using an non-water
75.2.2 A groundwater surface beneath reinforced soluble adhesive
soil structure may rise into the reinforced soil mass,
depending on the hydrogeology of the site. Surface Modular block wall facing units are typically
water may infiltrate into the reinforced soil mass constructed with a zone of free drainage aggregates
from above or from the front face of the wall, for the adjacent at the back face of the units. This aggregate
case of flowing water in front of the structure. zone is also required for stiffness of the wall face and
constructability apart from serving as a back face
75.2.3 Internal Drainage Near Wall Fascia drain (refer Fig. 96 for details).

A filter is provided at all vertical and horizontal Fig. 99 illustrates a typical drainage detail for wire-
joints in the wall face to restrict the movement of faced reinforced structures. The geotextile filter is
fines through the joints from the reinforced soil mass positioned between the facing stones and the
through the joints. reinforced soil mass.

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FIG. 98 EXAMPLE LAYOUT OF GEOTEXTILE FILTER AT JOINTS BETWEEN SEGMENTAL PRECAST CONCRETE
PANEL FACING UNITS

FIG. 99 EXAMPLE LAYOUT OF GEOTEXTILE FILTER NEAR THE FACE FOR WELDED WIRE FASCIA

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FIG. 100 ENLARGED CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE WELDED WIRE MESH (DETAIL A)

Fig. 101 illustrates a typical drainage detail for geocell fascia reinforced soil structures.

FIG. 101 EXAMPLE LAYOUT OF FILTER NEAR THE FACE FOR GEOCELL FASCIA REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE

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FIG. 102 SCHEMATIC OF FILTER GEOTEXTILE BEHIND GABION FACING

75.2.4 Internal Drainage Under and Behind the structure's long-term design.
Reinforced Soil Wall
Fig. 103 to Fig. 106 illustrate a base and back
For walls located in areas where groundwater can drainage system for a segmental precast panel and
produce a build-up of seepage forces within the block fascia structures. In Fig. 107 to Fig. 110,
height of the reinforced soil mass, it is advised to blanket drains and geo-composite drains are shown
install a base drain beneath the reinforced soil in place of open graded gravel drains with a
structure and a rear or chimney drain behind geotextile or properly graded soil filter.
the reinforced zone to assure the reinforced soil

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FIG. 103 SCHEMATIC OF DRAINAGE BLANKET BEHIND THE RETAINED FILL
(TYPICAL CONCRETE PANEL FACED WALL)

FIG. 104 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE BLANKET BEHIND THE RETAINED BACKFILL USING GEOCOMPOSITE AND
DRAINAGE AGGREGATES
(TYPICAL CONCRETE PANEL FASCIA)

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FIG. 105 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE BLANKET BEHIND THE RETAINED BACKFILL USING DRAINAGE AGGREGATES
(TYPICAL BLOCK FASCIA)

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FIG. 106 SCHEMATIC OF DRAINAGE MEASURES FOR PARTIAL REINFORCED SOIL WALL
(TYPICAL BLOCK FASCIA — DIMENSIONS ON THE DRAWING ARE FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSE ONLY)

FIG. 107 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAIL USING A BLANKET DRAIN WITH CHIMNEY DRAIN

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FIG. 108 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAIL USING GEOCOMPOSITE DRAIN
(TYPICAL CONCRETE FASCIA)

FIG. 109 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAIL USING FIG. 110 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAIL USING
GEOCOMPOSITE DRAIN — SPACING GEOCOMPOSITE DRAIN
(TYPICAL CONCRETE FASCIA) (TYPICAL CONCRETE FASCIA)

Fig. 111 shows the typical arrangement of geocomposite behind reinforced soil structure using block fascia
where filter media is not available. Fig. 112 illustrates gravel media only at the junction of two consecutive
block units. Fig. 113 depicts gravel media and geo-composite behind reinforced soil structure using block fascia.

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FIG. 111 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAILING USING GEOCOMPOSITE BEHIND PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA

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FIG. 112 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAILING USING FIG. 113 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE DETAILING USING
GEOCOMPOSITE BEHIND PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK GEOCOMPOSITE AND FILTER MEDIA BEHIND
FASCIA (PROVISION OF FILTER MEDIA AT JUNCTION PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCK FASCIA
OF ADJACENT BLOCK)

NOTE — The geocomposite must be properly covered and bonded so that soil cannot enter the geocomposite.

75.3 External Drainage Collection and conveyance swales should prevent

overtopping of the wall for the design storm event.
Extreme events such as brief periods of high rainfall
Surface drainage is critical for ensuring the
have been known to inflict significant damage to soil
performance of reinforced soil walls, and adequate
retaining structures through erosion and
techniques to minimize surface water infiltration
undermining, floods, and/or increased hydrostatic
into the wall backfill should be incorporated into the
pressures both during and after construction. This is
design.
especially true for locations with surface drainage
directed toward the wall construction and coarse
During the construction of a reinforced soil wall, the grained backfill.
contractor should grade the wall fill surface away
from the wall face at the end of each day to prevent If surface water is likely to flow toward the structure,
water from ponding behind the wall and saturating it should be collected in a gutter or other collecting
the soil. Along with softening the subgrade, surface feature that is part of the site drainage system and is
water flowing onto a partially completed wall fill planned for an assumed or prescribed design storm
can transport fines into the backfill work area, event. For reinforced earth walls, the storm event
contaminating a free-draining granular backfill on a should be at least 100 years in duration. However,
local level. Saturation might result in displacement extreme occurrences might result in short duration
of the partially completed wall if finer grained flows, for example, 1 h to 3 h, that greatly exceed
backfill is used for reinforced wall fill. When the storm water management system's design
possible, final grading at the top of a wall capacity. When such events occur, they can result in
construction should direct drainage away from the the wall collapsing, erosion and undermining, as
wall to prevent or limit surface water infiltration into well as an increase in hydrostatic forces within and
the reinforced wall fill. behind the reinforced soil mass. As a result, wall

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structure should incorporate additional drainage wall length. The designer should anticipate and
media for handling flows bigger than the design address in design and detailing the possibility of
storm event. It is necessary the site engineer should water runoff from extreme events which will
consider potential overflows and coordinate work overtop the drainage peripheral drain and run down
with the RS wall designer for drainage detailing. the wall face, unless the peripheral drains are
specifically sized for such events. For sloping
75.4 Peripheral Drains at Top of Wall backfills, wall designer should also address
collection and diversion of water at the top of the
75.4.1 Peripheral drain at the top of geosynthetics slope. Site water runoff from above the back slope
reinforced soil structure shall be provided to divert should not be directed toward the reinforced soil
the surface runoff in a controlled manner to an wall back slope.
outlet. It helps in reducing the potential for surface
water from overtopping the wall. Fig. 114 to 75.4.2 In case of vegetative peripheral drains,
Fig. 116 show typical drainage details for precast shrinkage cracks in the low permeability soil during
concrete panel facing and modular block wall units. periods of extended dry weather may increase the
The project engineer and the RS wall designer permeability of the layer to the extent that it is no
should address and detail the outlet for the peripheral longer an effective barrier layer. Therefore, a
drain if it is used. For example, the peripheral drain geomembrane ghould be used beneath any
can be detailed to discharge water at the end of the vegetative peripheral drain.
wall structure or to low overflow points along the

FIG. 114 DRAINAGE DETAILING NEAR TOP EDGE OF THE WALL

FIG. 115 DRAINAGE DETAILING AT TOP EDGE FIG. 116 DRAINAGE DETAILING AT TOP EDGE OF
OF THE RS WALL (PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS) THE RS WALL (PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS)

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75.5 Geomembrane Barriers the pavement base materials. The flow into the base
aggregates can be significant, with up to 50 percent
A geomembrane barrier can be used to prevent of the water falling on the pavement, then to the base
surface water infiltration and associated seepage course and much more if there are cracks present in
forces that can occur when using poorly draining the pavement. This inflow of water saturates the
reinforced fill. The geomembrane barrier should be subgrade because the relatively high permeability
placed below the road base and just above the first base aggregate ponds the water above the reinforced
layer of soil reinforcement. The geomembrane soil wall. The project civil engineer to ensure that
should be tied into a drainage system to collect and such a condition is mitigated, and positive drainage
discharge the runoff. measures are provided to capture the pavement
drainage in the form of proper grading away from
An example detail for use of geomembrane barrier the wall and edge drains. Proper attention should be
to prevent infiltration of runoff into the reinforced given to use the geomembrane detail shown in
soil mass is illustrated in Fig. 117. As shown in Fig. 106, to intercept and discharge the water
Fig. 117, the geomembrane should be sloped to seeping through cracks in the pavement.
drain away from the facing to an intercepting
infiltration barrier. 75.6.2 Surface runoff on the pavements that
overtops the wall can cause weakening of the wall.
75.6 Pavement Permeability and Runoff Sloping of roadway towards a ditch is a common
way to guard against wall overtopping. This is also
75.6.1 Surface water flows through asphalt sometimes referred to as roadway ‘in sloping’.
pavement cracks and concrete joints and cracks into

FIG. 117 EXAMPLE GEOMEMBRANE BARRIER DETAILS (TYPICAL CONCRETE PANEL FASCIA)

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75.7 Grade at Ends of the Reinforced Soil measures are required. Listed below are few of
Structure them:

75.7.1 The final grade at the toe and ends of the a) Embedment of RS structure
reinforced soil structure, both as designed and as
constructed, is an important consideration for water Water can scour the structure subgrade if
flow conditions. Surface water flow along the toe there is no embedment or if the fill is not
may occur around the ends or along the face of the sufficiently compacted. Failure may cause
structure and has the potential to erode the soil. This at the embedment portion of the reinforced
erosion eventually may weaken the facing units of soil structure due to negligence of the
reinforced soil structure. Proper site grading and compaction. As a preventative measure
with a soil berm or slope at the toe of the wall can Fig. 118 depicts the highlighted area of the
direct the flow away from the toe of wall structures. embedment with adequate compaction.

75.7.2 Erosion control details are required where b) Tail end protection
water will flow adjacent to the wall face. Geotextile
lined riprap stone or other means should be used to Toe embedment shall be at least 1 m below
prevent scour. The designer also may elect to embed the service road/completed ground level.
the wall deeper where there is potential for erosion Also, for effective toe protection, hard
of the wall toe. Consideration should be given to topping/plinth protection is required. Tail
turning the wall 90 degrees inward from the face. end protection is essential during
construction of reinforced soil structure,
75.7.3 The ends of the wall that terminate in or especially during the monsoon season,
intercept embankment slopes should also be proper water routing is critical. Tail end
protected from erosion. Walls that terminate in protection that is well compacted can help
slopes should be adequately keyed into the slope and to prevent failures.
a peripheral drain used to divert water away from the
ends of the wall to mitigate erosion. Wing walls for c) Pipe encasement
approach fills should also be design such that water
does not flow down the slope along the back of the To route the water, a minimum 100 mm
wall face. Again, a peripheral drain can be used to thick PCC encasement surrounding the
divert water and the surface of the slope should be embedded pipes must be installed, with
graded to promote water flows away from the wall. encasement covering the complete wall
width.
75.8 Toe End Protection of the Reinforced Soil
Structure
For the protection of the water at tail end several

FIG. 118 EMBEDMENT ZONE ENSURING ADEQUATE COMPACTION TO MINIMISE THE WATER INFILTRATION OF THE
REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE
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75.9 Drainage within Pavement Surface Drainage should be included directly beneath the
wall face when using modular block units or
Pavement surfaces are prone to leak. Surface water another semi-permeable facing material. Fig. 120
seeps into the pavement foundation materials shows an SRS wall (a soil nail shoring wall) with
through asphalt pavement fractures, concrete joints, internal drainage that exits through the RS
and cracks. The flow into the base aggregates can be component. Fig. 120 shows semi-perforated
substantial, with up to 50 percent of the water that drainage pipe and a drainage blanket installed
falls on the pavement making its way to the base behind and beneath the reinforced fill zone in areas
course. If the subgrade soils are extremely with high groundwater levels.
permeable, water may percolate through them.
If not and the site and pavement slope toward the 75.10.2 Surface water infiltration should be kept to
low spot where a reinforced soil structure supports a minimum in an SRS wall system. This is especially
the fill dirt, this water flows toward the reinforced critical for deicing chemicals used on roadways, as
soil structure, as indicated in Fig. 119. Due care they might degrade steel reinforcements or
must be taken in such cases by providing a connectors. For RS components with metallic
peripheral drain or any other appropriate measures. reinforcements that support chemically deiced
highways, an impervious geomembrane should be
75.10 Drainage Considerations of Shored installed beneath the pavement and above the first
Reinforced Soil Wall row of reinforcements to intercept aggressive
chemical-laden flow.
75.10.1 As shored reinforced soil wall system is
designed for long term performance; it must 75.11 Drainage Detailing for Tiered Structure
incorporate wall drainage systems for both the
shoring wall and the RS wall components. In any For tiered reinforced soil wall system, drainage
case, the shoring component's drainage should be outlets are required to provide at each berm to
connected to the RS component's drainage system. minimize the development of seepage pressure
Considering that SRS walls' reinforced fill zone is within the reinforced zone Fig. 121 to Fig. 123
described as a freely draining granular material, shows the typical details of the drainage
drainage behind the reinforced fill zone is optional. arrangement for the tiered wall structure.

FIG. 119 WATER FLOW INTO REINFORCED SOIL STRUCTURE THROUGH BASE COURSE DUE TO
CRACKS IN PAVEMENT

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FIG. 120 EXAMPLE DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN SRS WALL SYSTEM
(TYPICAL CONCRETE PANEL FASCIA)

FIG. 121 DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS FOR A TIERED WALL

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FIG. 122 TYPICAL DETAILING OF A TIERED WALL (DETAILING AT BERM)

FIG. 123 DRAINAGE DETAILING FOR A TIERED WALL (TYPICAL PANEL FASCIA)

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76 MONSOON PREPARATION AND maintained over the life of the structure. For
PLANNING example, cracks in pavement above reinforced soil
structure should be sealed. Differential settlements
Specific measures must be taken to avoid water and pavement cracks around catch basins should be
ponding over the RS system. It is also necessary to such that there is minimum potential inflow into the
prevent rain cuts through adequate protective reinforced soil or retained soil mass. Screens should
measures grading backfill to appropriate slopes to be installed on drainage pipe outlets to prevent the
direct runoff. At the toe, compacted fill with firm clogging of pipes. Outlet screens and cleanouts to
topping will be provided. The plinth protection at the provide access to clogged drainage should be
toe will be slanted outwards toward the service road. detailed on the retaining wall construction drawings.
Always plan ahead of time for monsoons to avoid
building complications during the rains. Fig. 124 77.2 Outlets in soil embankments should drain onto
shows typical outline for the drainage preparation a concrete apron and should be marked with a
during monsoon. permanent metal fence post. This minimize the
chance of the outlet being run over and crushed by
77 MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE mowers or covered in subsequent construction
activities. This should be detained on the wall
77.1 Features that minimize water flow and preserve construction drawings.
reinforced soil structure drainage should be

FIG. 124 PROVISION OF SLOPE GRADIENTS TO ROUTE WATER AND PREVENT PONDING DURING THE MONSOON
SEASON

SECTION 10
DETAILING AND CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

78 SCOPE phasing of the works. Table 38 provides details for

such possible aspects of the design output.
This section deals with the detailing of design and
construction aspects of “reinforced soil wall 79.1 Reinforced Soil Wall Top and Bottom
systems” for various reinforced soil applications Elements
covered by this code.
The top surface of the wall should be graded such
79 DESIGN DETAILING that water drains away from the wall. A grassed
swale or concrete ditch can be used behind the facing
The design output shall contain the required to collect and remove water.
geometry of the structure to be built, relevant
specification of materials or products assumed in the The primary bottom of wall element is a leveling
design together with any further details such as pad. Fig. 126 shows common details of a leveling

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pad. Some considerations for the leveling pad are as rests on the leveling pad and sufficient
follows: overhang of the leveling pad is there on
each side of the facing unit;
a) The leveling pad should be constructed
with plain cement concrete. The common c) The top of the leveling pad within any
thickness of the leveling pad is 150 mm and given step should be such that it does not
width is such that it extends 75 mm beyond vary by more than 3 mm over any 3 m run
the thickness of the facing unit. The for preventing misalignment of joints and
strength and thickness of the leveling pad ease of construction; and
should allow cracking if needed to relieve
d) Gaps between the leveling pad steps should
stress concentrations that can occur
be completely filled after erection of the
during differential settlements. 20 mm
first row of panels. For openings greater
construction joints may be placed at every
than 3 mm, unreinforced cast in place
20 m stretch length. The grade of concrete
concrete is preferred. For smaller openings,
for leveling pad shall be M15;
a geotextile filter with sufficient overlap of
b) The width of the leveling pad may be the panels and foundation soil could be
increased for precast concrete facing units used to fill openings.
at sharp curves such that the entire panel

Table 38 Preferable Aspects of Design Output

(Clause 79)

Sl No. Detail Specifications

(1) (2) (3)
i) General Geometry including
a) Plan view
b) Typical cross sections
c) Elevation with layout
d) Details of corner and reinforcement orientation
Drainage
Construction phases
Monitoring
Level of control
Construction tolerances
Climatic condition

ii) Retained fill Physical properties:

a) Unit weight
b) Particle size distribution (Dmax, uniformity
coefficient)
c) Friction angle and cohesion at design stress levels
d) Water content
e) Water seepage susceptibility, where appropriate

iii) Reinforced Physical properties:

(selected) fill
a) Maximum and minimum density
b) Particle size distribution, effective friction angle
and cohesion at design stress levels; plasticity
index; electrochemical, chemical and biological
properties

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IS 18591 : 2024 Table 38 (Concluded)

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Sl No. Detail Specifications
(1) (2) (3)
c) Minimum soil resistivity
d) Minimum/maximum pH
e) Maximum chloride and sulphate contents
f) Maximum organic and sulphide contents

iv) Reinforcement All types of reinforcement:

a) Type and configuration, laying direction, seams
and connections
b) Short term design strength
c) Long term design strength
d) Fill/reinforcement interaction
e) Mechanical damage related to fill particle size and
angularity
f) Structural layout
g) Installation of test samples
Steel reinforcement
a) Grade
b) Type of coating
Geosynthetic reinforcement
a) Creep behavior in accordance with applicable
standard
v) Facing and
Type and shapes, aesthetic requirements
connections
Performance
Level of facing
Performance level of reinforcement/facing connection
Specification of facing unit like: Grade of concrete, steel,
type of steel, galvanization, etc
vi) Top soil for
Physical properties:
greened faces
a) Particle size distribution
b) Contents of organic material
Chemical properties:

a) Minimum/maximum pH
Hydraulic properties:

a) Capacity of water retention

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(a) Barrier on top of panels (b) Barrier on top of Modular Block Units

FIG. 125 EXAMPLE TRAFFIC BARRIER FOR REINFORCED SOIL WALLS:

(A) BARRIER ON TOP OF PANEL FACING, (B) BARRIER ON TOP OF MODULAR BLOCK UNITS

FIG. 126 LEVELING PADS — STEP DETAIL

Steps are to be provided as per the approved joints, where:

drawings prepared by technology provider.
a) Abrupt differential settlements of more
than 1 percent is expected;
It is advisable to protect the wall against vehicular
impact when there is a roadway immediately b) There is an abrupt change in wall height of
adjacent to the bottom of the wall. A high curb at the 1.5 m or more;
edge of the traveled roadway adjacent to the wall is c) The wall is underlain by a relatively rigid
such an alternative. feature such as an abutment footing or rock
outcrop;
79.2 Joints – Slip Joints and Butt Joints d) A light weight rigid structure such as a box
culvert intersects the face of RSW;
79.2.1 Significant differential settlement may occur
e) The wall terminates into a cast-in-place
at the wall face wherever the subsurface conditions
structure; and
and/or wall profile change abruptly. This settlement
causes problems of joint openings and damage to f) Tight horizontal curves occur.
facing units. Such problems can be avoided by
providing slip joints which are continuous vertical 79.2.2 Fig. 128 shows common slip joint details for
joints which allows the wall on each side to behave segmental precast concrete facing units. As shown
independently. A slip joint is different than a regular in the figure, the slip joint design uses either an
vertical joint between panels in that there is a vertical exposed slip joint panel having its own soil
separation between adjacent facing units that reinforcement element or a hidden ‘backup’ panel in
extends the full height of the wall. the backfill behind the facing panel. In either case
the normal connection between two panels is broken
Following conditions require consideration of slip and independent movement on each side of the slip

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joint is possible. Fig. 129 shows a slip joint detail for situation cannot be avoided, then the wall corner
modular block facing walls. should be based on following considerations:
a) The acute angle corner should be designed
79.3 Reinforcement Connections
as a bin wall for the extent of the wall
where the full length of the reinforcement
Connections of the facing elements with the
cannot be installed without considering the
reinforcement should be clearly defined and tested
opposite wall face;
using relevant standards. Connection test report
from the manufacturer shall be obtained. The b) In the bin wall section, the reinforcing
method statement for construction of panels and elements are either structurally connected
blocks including connection details shall be to wall faces forming the acute angle corner
approved by approving authority. The connection or overlapped if there is adequate space to
strength and layout once used in design calculations, develop the required pull-out strength;
shall not be changed during execution, unless
c) Full-height vertical slip joints should be
approved by designer.
provided at the interface of acute corner
and after the last column of panels where
79.4 Corner Element and Acute Corner full length reinforcement can be placed;
79.4.1 Wall Corners d) The soil reinforcement attached to the slip
joints should be oriented perpendicular to
When two wall segments intersect to form an the slip joint panels and shall be the full
‘external’ (for example, 90 degree) or an ‘internal’ design length;
(for example, 270 degree) corner, both wall e) Light weight concrete or self-compacted
segments will tend to move laterally such that fill (aggregate) should be considered as an
corners tend to open up. Corner elements should be alternate to placing and compacting fill;
provided as shown in Fig. 130 (a) and Fig. 130 (b)
to accommodate differential movements, prevent fill f) Deformation compatibility between the bin
from moving through the crack, and provide wall section and the rest of the RSW
aesthetic treatment. The figure is indicative. The structure should be carefully evaluated; and
shape of the figure can vary with the technology
g) The key plan of acute corner (acute corner
provider.
length, L) is shown in Fig. 131 for self-
compacting fill material and soil
79.4.2 Acute Angle Corners
reinforcement arrangement. The backfilling
length (L’) will be governed by the acute
Exterior wall corners with an angle of less than
corner length and the area where with
70 degrees, that is, acute angle, should be avoided
equipment.
because of construction problems. However, if such

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FIG. 127 EXAMPLE SLIP JOINTS FOR SEGMENTAL PRECAST PANEL FACINGS

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FIG. 128 EXAMPLE SLIP JOINT FOR MODULAR BLOCK WALL FACINGS

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(a) (b)

FIG. 129 EXAMPLE CORNER DETAILS FOR PANELS (a) EXTERNAL CORNER
AND (b) INTERNAL CORNER

(a) (b)

FIG. 130 EXAMPLE CORNER DETAILS FOR BLOCKS (a) EXTERNAL CORNER
AND (b) INTERNAL CORNER

a) Key plan for backfill arrangement

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b) Key plan for soil reinforcement (geogrid) arrangement

FIG. 131 ACUTE CORNER DETAILS (KEY PLAN)

FIG. 132 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ACUTE CORNER WALL (SECTION X-X)

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FIG. 133 TYPICAL POLYMERIC STRAP LAYOUT AND SEQUENCE FOR ACUTE CORNER

79.5 Reinforced Soil Walls with Sloping modified proctor compaction test. Fill within 0.5 m
Surcharge Treatment of the bottom of pavement (subgrade) shall be
compacted to a minimum of 98 percent of the
79.5.1 Constant sloping surcharge not steeper than maximum dry density (MDD).
1V : 2H slope to be maintained through-out the
RS wall stretch. For steeper slopes such as 1H : 1V, 79.6 Obstructions within Reinforced Soil Mass
reinforced soil slope shall be considered for the
sloping surcharge height along with suitable 79.6.1 Contact between Dissimilar Metals
surface erosion control protection measures, surface
drainage and cross drainage measures. Several types of metallic elements such as steel
pipes and drain pipes are present in the reinforced
79.5.2 Impervious liner such as geomembrane to be soil mass. Corrosion can occur when dissimilar
provided 100 mm below drain near top of RS wall. metals come in contact with each other due to
galvanic action. Therefore, all steel soil
79.5.3 Suitable slope protection measures such reinforcements should be separated from other
as — coir mat with vegetation, synthetic mat with metallic elements by at least 75 mm.
vegetation, geocell mattress filled with aggregate,
geocell with vegetative soil cover that is followed by 79.6.2 Vertical Obstructions in Reinforced Soil
a layer of nonwoven geotextile. Mass

79.5.4 Fill material used in sloped surcharge shall 79.6.2.1 Vertical obstructions are structures which
have specifications same as that of reinforced soil. are embedded in or extend vertically through the
The fill shall be compacted to 97 percent of the reinforced soil mass. Examples: Catch basin, grate
maximum laboratory density obtained from inlet, sign foundation, bridge foundation, light poles,

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guardrail post or culvert. Under no circumstances, increase the stress at connection and same
reinforcements should be left unconnected to the shall be accounted for additional
wall face or arbitrarily cut/bent in the field to avoid connection capacity.
the obstructions.
79.6.3.3 It is not recommended to tie the
79.6.2.2 A review of any modification to avoid an reinforcements to pipes. Special details must be
obstruction must be made and approved by the developed by technology provider to accommodate
technology provider. the obstruction without attaching to it.

79.6.2.3 The best design is to adjust the location of 79.6.3.4 Utility pipes in the reinforced mass are
the obstruction and/or soil reinforcement so that likely to settle differentially as the fill settles during
there is no interference. and after construction. Significant leakage of water
into reinforced soil walls can create problems
79.6.3 Horizontal Obstructions in Reinforced Soil including failures. Therefore, such utilities should be
Mass avoided.

79.6.3.1 Horizontal obstructions are structures 79.6.4 Wall Face Penetrations

which are embedded in or extend horizontally
through the reinforced soil mass for a substantial 79.6.4.1 Pipe penetrations through the reinforced
length along the wall. The horizontal obstructions soil and/or wall facing units maybe skew or
are commonly due to utilities such as storm drain perpendicular angles from the wall face.
pipes. Such obstructions should be avoided as they
create construction problems and also the repairing 79.6.4.2 If a pipe must penetrate through the face of
and maintenance of these utility pipes can be very the wall, the wall facing elements should be
expensive as it may require dismantling the wall designed to fit around the pipe such that the facing
system. elements are stable and the wall backfill cannot spill
through the wall face where it joins the obstruction.
79.6.3.2 Some considerations are as follows if the
horizontal obstructions cannot be avoided: 79.6.4.3 Obstructions should preferably be covered
with concrete and capable enough to take the vertical
a) For inextensible reinforcements, the
load of fill above.
horizontal obstructions may be avoided if it
is possible to deflect the reinforcement in a
79.6.4.4 For reinforced soil wall facing elements
smooth manner up to 15 degrees of vertical
located on such concrete surface, it will be difficult
skew. Deflections greater than 15 degrees
to get adequate embedment. To ensure adequate
tend to break the galvanization and may
lateral resistance, arrangement of RCC beam may
reduce the tensile and pull-out resistance of
be provided. Such one arrangement is shown in
the inextensible soil reinforcements; and
Fig. 134 below.
b) For extensible reinforcements, the change
in orientation of the reinforcement may

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FIG. 134 BEAM AND ANCHOR ARRANGEMENT FOR REINFORCED SOIL WALLS RESTING ON
CONCRETE SURFACES

79.7 Reinforced Soil Walls in Curvature excessive overlap can result in reduced pull-out
resistance since contact between geosynthetic is
79.7.1 Curves in walls are approximated by chords smoother than contact between soil and
that are equal to the nominal width of the facing geosynthetic. Therefore, a minimum soil layer of
units. For precast concrete facing units, curves with 75 mm between geosynthetics in the overlap zone
radius as small as 15 m can be achieved for 1.5 m is recommended as shown in Fig. 135.
wide facing units with 19 mm joint opening. For
curved walls, regardless of the type of facing it is 79.8 Reinforced Soil Walls Near Abutment
crucial to provide details for wall layout. The Location
relationship of wall alignment to roadway alignment
should be clearly provided. Clear dimensions need 79.8.1 The foundation soil beneath the closing
to be provided on project drawings for offsets from reinforced soil wall being filled up during
reference alignments and whether these offsets are the construction of abutment foundation
relative to top of wall or bottom of wall, especially (open foundation or pile caps) shall be good quality
in the event of stepped foundations. granular soil/sand. The treatment shall be as shown
in Fig. 136 and Fig. 137 for abutment open
79.7.2 Fig. 135 shows a typical detail for layout of foundation and pile caps respectively. Well graded
soil reinforcement for curved walls. Soil granular fill shall be placed and compacted in layers
reinforcements typically require 100 percent area of not more than 200 mm thickness such that no
coverage, with block facing whereas with panel loose soil pockets exist.
facings reinforcements are generally discrete and
can be placed perpendicular to the wall face curves. 79.8.2 The closing reinforced soil wall near the
In the case of geosynthetic reinforcements, abutments shall have a minimum embedment depth

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of 1m from the finished ground level. If minimum 79.8.3 For closing reinforced soil walls, construction
embedment depth is unavailable being absence of joints (slip joints) shall be provided at desired
service roads, backfilling need to be done in front of locations based on the RS wall resting over the pile
RS wall for a depth of minimum 1 m. The backfilling caps to minimize differential settlements. This shall
shall be done for a horizontal width of minimum vary on case-to-case basis based on the pile cap
2 m and the backfill shall be suitably protected from details of the abutments.
erosion.

FIG. 135 EXAMPLE LAYOUT OF SOIL REINFORCEMENTS FOR MODULAR BLOCK WALLS WITH CURVES

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FIG. 136 FOUNDATION TREATMENT FOR RS WALL AT OPEN FOUNDATION

FIG. 137 FOUNDATION TREATMENT FOR RS WALL NEAR PILE CAP

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79.9 Drainage Details h) Wherever required, the efficacy of the
ground improvement shall be assessed by
The drainage details for reinforced soil walls shall one or more of the following:
be as per Section 9 drainage.
1) Load tests;
79.10 Design and Execution of Ground 2) In-situ tests like standard penetration
Improvement test, static cone penetration test, field
vane shear test on the improved
The important considerations in the planning, design ground; and
and execution of ground improvement are
summarized below: 3) Monitoring of settlement and pore
water pressures.
a) Geotechnical (and where applicable j) In the case of methods which require a
geophysical investigations) should be certain waiting period (between completion
carried out in accordance with Section 2 to of ground improvement and start of
acquire a reliable understanding of the construction of the reinforced soil
ground conditions including the type, structures or between successive stages in
sequence and thickness of subsurface the construction of the reinforced soil
strata, geotechnical design parameters and structure) for dissipation of excess pore
depth of ground water table and its seasonal pressures, curing, strength gain etc, the
variations. The variability of ground waiting periods specified in the
conditions should also be carefully design/drawings shall be strictly adhered
assessed; to. If the results of monitoring or tests
show that the actual improvement achieved
b) Stability and settlement analysis should be
during the waiting period is less than that
carried out considering all relevant details
considered in the design, the waiting period
of the reinforced soil structures and the
should be suitably increased; and
foundation strata. In case, it is not possible
to achieve the required factor of safeties k) At sites where ground improvement is
and/or the settlement exceeds the required, the construction of the reinforced
permissible limits, ground improvement soil structures shall start only after the
will be required; ground improvement works have been
completed including all necessary tests and
c) Options for ground improvement may be any rectification or modifications
shortlisted based on the guidelines given in stipulated. An exception to this could be
IS 13094; techniques like use of vertical drains to
accelerate the consolidation of subsurface
d) In case additional data is required for the strata, where the reinforced soil itself is
detailed design of ground improvement and used as a surcharge. In such cases the
for assessment of constructability, construction of the reinforced soil structure
additional investigations should be may start after the installation of vertical
conducted at this stage to obtain the drains, drainage blanket, instrumentation,
necessary data; basal reinforcement (if any) and should
proceed in accordance with the approved
e) In the case of techniques for which BIS
schedule which may be modified if
codes are available, design should be
required based on the results of monitoring
carried out in accordance with the relevant of each stage.
BIS code. For techniques for which BIS
codes are not available, design may be 80 CONSTRUCTION
carried out in accordance with international
codes or guidelines or best practices; 80.1 General
f) All required details of ground improvement 80.1.1 The construction procedure of all soil
shall be clearly shown on the construction retaining structures and reinforced slopes shall
drawings; conform with the requirements which are common
to all types of reinforced fill structures, as itemized
g) The execution of ground improvement
in this section.
should be carried out in accordance with
the approved construction drawings and
80.1.2 In addition, the construction procedure
construction methodology and strictly
should conform with the recommendations which
adhering to all quality control
are specific to the relevant type of reinforced fill
requirements;

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structure, as set out in the instructions provided by of any fill material. Soft spots should be removed
the supplier of the reinforcement and of the facing and replaced with well graded and compacted fill.
system, if applicable.
80.3.2 Requirements of ground improvement must
80.1.3 The construction of all reinforced fill have been checked before preparing the foundation.
structures shall be executed layer-wise and in stages, If any ground improvement scheme has been
where the placing and fixing of the facing elements, proposed, it shall be satisfactorily executed first.
if any, and the reinforcement alternates with the
deposition, spreading, levelling and compaction of 80.3.3 In the case of soil retaining structures with
the fill material. hard facing units a trench excavation, stepped like
the foundation platform, should be provided at the
80.1.4 If the reinforced fill structure has different foundation level for a levelling pad beneath the
foundation levels construction should usually start at facing. This levelling pad is not a structural
the lowest foundation level. foundation but temporary work to aid alignment and
facilitate the erection of the facing units. It should be
80.2 Material Handling and Storage formed in-situ of thin, mass, unreinforced concrete
and rigid/unyielding foundation below the leveling
80.2.1 All prefabricated facing units or palettes of pad.
modular blocks, all batches or rolls of
reinforcements shall be identified with unambiguous 80.3.4 Mass concrete may be replaced by gravel
marks or labels, conforming to the denominations under thick facings such as modular blocks, sloping
used on the plans. Geosynthetic materials shall panels or planter boxes. Such levelling pads are not
conform to applicable standard. usually required for soft or flexible facing units.

80.2.2 The details of each roll or batch of 80.4 Construction of Levelling Pad
reinforcement delivered to the site shall be checked
against the materials specified and the serial Mark the centerline of the leveling pad on the bottom
numbers shall be recorded and retained. of the trench. The centerline shall be fixed with
required offset to ensure final batter for the facing
80.2.3 A suitable storage area of sufficient panels specified by the technology provider.
dimensions shall be prepared to allow the unloading,
loading, storage and moving of all reinforcing and Fix side forms for the leveling pad. Pour concrete,
facing materials, and accessories delivered to the compact using needle vibrators screed to the correct
site, without damage occurring. level and finish using wooden floats to a flat and
smooth finish with a tolerance of ± 3 mm.
80.2.4 Handling and storage of reinforcing and
facing materials shall be carried out with care and in Cure for a minimum period of 48 h prior to the
accordance with the project specifications. The commencement of panel placement.
relevant recommendations of the supplier or
technology provider should be also complied with. 80.5 Erection of Block/Facing Elements and
Checking Alignment
80.2.5 Items having different sizes or physical
characteristics should be stacked separately. 80.5.1 For all facing systems, special construction
arrangements, adequate temporary bracing systems,
Reinforcing and facing products take many different such as props, wedges, clamps, steel angles etc, or
forms. Where the above requirements do not apply formwork shall be used for proper placement of
to a particular product, further advice may be sought panels and for the safety of RS wall executing team
from an approving body, the supplier or the at site. At every stage of the construction, it shall be
technology provider. ensured that any new course of facing is stable while
additional layers of backfill are placed and
80.3 Preparation of Foundation compacted behind or above it before it can be
effectively held back by the reinforcements.
80.3.1 Unsuitable materials shall be removed from
the area to be occupied by the reinforced fill 80.5.2 All temporary bracing systems or formwork
structure. All elements that might damage the with the exception of lost formwork shall be
reinforcements shall be removed from the removed as soon as they are no longer necessary.
foundation area. All organic matter, vegetation, slide The typical bracings, clamps and wooden wedges
debris and other unstable materials shall be stripped for panel facings are shown in Fig. 138, Fig. 139
off and the sub-grade compacted before the placing and Fig. 140 respectively.

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80.5.3 Special construction arrangements shall be facing units or formwork shall be checked and
used, at every stage of the construction, to ensure adjusted if needed, during the construction.
that the final geometry is as required by the design
and within the specified tolerances. Such 80.5.5 Particular attention shall be paid to the
arrangements may comprise the adjustment of the horizontal spacing - with respect to overlapping,
facing units to a required horizontal and vertical alignment and level, as well as the vertical
alignment, batter or slope to compensate for the alignment, batter or slope of the initial course, as
anticipated gradual deformation of the reinforced fill accuracy in this phase helps to ensure a rapid and
structure itself but not for settlements or movements well aligned construction of the complete structure.
of the foundation.
80.5.6 Jointing material and bearing pads, if any are
80.5.4 The horizontal spacing with respect to required by the design, shall be installed, as any new
overlapping, alignment and level, and the vertical course of facing units is put in place and secured.
alignment, batter or slope of any new course of

FIG. 138 TYPICAL BRACINGS ARRANGEMENT FOR PANEL ERECTION

FIG. 139 TYPICAL CLAMPS

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FIG. 140 TYPICAL WOODEN WEDGE

80.5.7 A recommended panel placement sequence is illustrated in the Fig. 141 below.

FIG. 141 PANEL PLACEMENT FOR INITIAL COURSE

80.6 Placing Drainage Material 80.6.5 Where water flow is expected from the
retained soil chimney drain or geo-composite drains
80.6.1 Drainage bay should be provided behind shall be placed.
facing panels having minimum width of 600 mm.
The drainage material shall consist of clean crushed 80.6.6 In cases of water flows a drainage blanket of
stone or gravel (without any sharp edges). sufficient thickness, or a geo-composite shall be
constructed and discharged beyond the toe. If
80.6.2 Drainage material shall confirm to the required this blanket may be continued up along the
specifications mentioned in the material face of the temporary excavation.
specification chapter. One test is recommended per
250 cum of drainage material. 80.6.7 Any drainage material shall be designed to
avoid loss of reinforced fill or adjacent soil into the
80.6.3 Alternatively, drainage composite shall be drain to avoid chocking.
provided behind reinforced soil wall panel all along
the wall length. 80.6.8 Special drainage considerations shall apply to
partially or temporarily submerged reinforced fill
80.6.4 If the foundation of the structure is not free structures.
draining, a longitudinal drainage trench, or a porous
or open jointed drainage pipe of suitable size, or a 80.6.9 Drainage considerations for reinforced slopes
geo-composite drain shall be placed at the base of shall follow the procedures detailed above. In
the structure to collect water and bring it to the site addition, it may be necessary to ensure that
drainage system. The omission of joint filler from precipitation on the face of the slope does not lead to
the vertical joints in the embedded depth of panel washout.
facings can normally allow water to pass through the
facing without the need for weep holes.

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80.7 Spreading Soil Backfill (Reinforced and It should be a sub-multiple of or equal to the vertical
Retained Backfill) and Compaction spacing of reinforcement.

80.7.1 Placement and compaction of fill shall be 80.7.11 Specific care shall be taken for the
executed with great care as the performance of a compaction of the fill near the facing, to avoid any
reinforced fill structure is mainly influenced by the damages of the facing elements, the connected
nature of the backfill and the consistent manner in reinforcements and to minimize deformations.
which it is placed and compacted. Special attention shall be paid to confined spaces,
such as the corners of a structure as mentioned in
80.7.2 The specification of reinforced (select) fill 79.4.1.
and retained fill bath shall be as per specifications
provided in material chapter. One test is 80.7.12 At the end of each day's work the surface of
recommended per 1 500 cu.m. of material for both the compacted fill should be left at a slight
reinforced fill and retained fill. inclination (2 percent to 4 percent) away from the
facing or the sloped face and sealed with a smooth
80.7.3 Prior to the commencement of construction, a compactor to ensure that any surface water is guided
method for compaction of the fill shall be away to a suitable outlet. This is critical during
established which, if specified, may include field monsoon season as surface runoff towards facing
trials. will result in movement of facing, soil erosion and
contamination of drainage media.
80.7.4 Equipment compatible with the proposed
method shall be provided to achieve the compaction 80.7.13 The rear of the structure should be backfilled
requirements set up by the design. by phasing the work in order to ensure the
contemporaneous deposition of the retained fill
80.7.5 The grading and the moisture content of the material.
fill material shall be checked periodically during
construction to assure compliance with the design 80.7.14 The sequence of fill placement over soft or
specifications, especially whenever the appearance very soft ground may be specified within the design.
or behavior of the material changes noticeably. If not, care should be taken to ensure that the
sequence of filling, including any trafficking by
80.7.6 The deposition, spreading, levelling and construction plant, at no time exceeds the bearing
compaction of the fill should be carried out generally capacity of the underlying ground.
in a direction parallel to the facing or the sloped face.
80.8 Laying of Reinforcement, Connection
80.7.7 Care shall be taken to ensure that the between Facing and Reinforcement
reinforcing elements and the facing, if any, are not
damaged during deposition, spreading, levelling and 80.8.1 The reinforcement shall be laid on an even
compaction of the fill. No machines or vehicles shall surface and connected to the facing, if applicable,
run directly on the reinforcements. using the connection method particular to the facing
system as specified by the design.
80.7.8 The fill within 1 m of the face may be
compacted using adequate light compaction 80.8.2 It shall be ensured that the flexible
equipment. Where small compaction equipment is reinforcement is taut and that any slack has been
used, the thickness of the layers shall be adjusted as removed, in order to minimize any deformation
needed to obtain the compaction requirements. All during the mobilization of tensile forces in the
vehicles, and all construction equipment weighing reinforcement. This may be achieved by pulling the
more than 1 500 kg shall be kept at least 1 m away reinforcement tight and holding in this position
from the facing or the face of slopes without facing. while it is covered with fill.

80.7.9 Fill should be placed and compacted in lifts. 80.8.3 Reinforcement should be placed as
Thickness of lift (not more than 200 mm) should be perpendicular as possible to the facing or to the
consistent with the compaction equipment used and sloped face unless specified otherwise in the design.
the degree of compaction to be achieved. A transverse overlap may be used at the junction of
If necessary, sprinkle water to bring the water adjacent pieces of sheet type reinforcement if
content close to the optimum moisture content. specified in the design.

80.7.10 The thickness of the lifts of backfill shall be 80.8.4 In the presence of obstacles such as pipes,
within the limits specified by the design and such columns, piles, manholes etc, it may be necessary
that it allows compaction to the required density. to skew or shift a reinforcement from its designated

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location in either the horizontal or vertical direction. 80.9 Successive Face Element Erection and
For sheet-type reinforcements it may be necessary to Batter
cut a hole into the reinforcement. Unless such
alterations are explicitly permitted by the design 80.9.1 Clean the top surface of the facing unit placed
they shall be ratified by the designer. in the first row with a stiff broom or brush to remove
all soil, debris etc before proceeding with
80.8.5 Reinforcement with vertical bends should be subsequent layer.
placed on a preformed mound of backfill. Sharp
bends which affect the reinforcement strength shall 80.9.2 Check the reduction in batter due to outward
be avoided unless allowed for in the design. movement of panels during placement and
compaction of fill to achieve the final batter if
80.8.6 Reinforcements should extend in one applicable, as per the system. If the batter has not
continuous piece in the main load carrying direction. reduced, maintained required batter by rework and
Where joints in that direction are unavoidable, the proceed for next course of placement. Initial batter
design shall specify an appropriate on-site jointing for panel shall be decided as per the type of the fill
method. The joints may be formed using methods material, final batter for the wall shall be as per the
such as bolting, welding, bodkin joints, etc or design and drawings.
designed overlaps, respective to the type of
reinforcement and as per the detailing provided by 80.9.3 Bearing pads shall be placed on the top of
the designer. Such joints should be provided away previously placed panel facing units and then next
from the most critical slip surface in the stable mass layer of facing elements shall be placed over them.
of the soil. Set them to the required batter using wooden
wedges. Check levels and alignment of the panels.
80.8.7 For Block facing walls with an outside
90° corner, it is important that grid layers do not 80.9.4 Fix the nonwoven geotextile filter strips
overlap at the corner. Place the first grid layer per behind vertical and horizontal joints.
plan at its design elevation and length. On the corner
and on the next course of blocks, place a layer of grid 80.9.5 Block facing units do not require bearing pad
perpendicular to the previous layer of grid and these units in between layers. However, all other
steps should be repeated for successive specified installation parameters pertaining to alignments, line
grid layers. and levels remain same.

80.8.8 For Inside 90° corner, extend the grid past one 80.10 Wrap Around Construction
edge of the wall by a minimum of 600 mm. Along
the other edge, place the grid to the corner. At the Manufacturer and designer method statement shall
next designed grid layer, alternate the edge on which be followed for the construction sequences for wrap
the grid is extended past the corner and repeat the around wall.
steps for successive specified grid layers.
80.11 Top of the Wall Element Erection
80.8.9 Polymeric reinforcement may be prone to
degradation when exposed to sunlight and therefore At the top of the upper most facing units, provide a
should be covered with fill within a specified time cast in-situ coping beam to achieve the required
of laying. Where no such time is specified, exposed longitudinal profile as per the drawings.
reinforcement should be covered within 24 h of
placement. 80.12 Construction and Serviceability Tolerances

80.8.10 In general, the placement of sheet material The construction tolerances shall be as mentioned
may be disrupted by wind uplift. Where this is likely, in Table 39.
the material should be locally ballasted.

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Table 39 Tolerances for Construction
(Clause 80.12)

Sl No. Characteristics Tolerance

(1) (2) (3)

i) For precast RCC panels:
a) All dimensions within ± 5 mm
b) Evenness of front face ± 5 mm over 1 500 mm
c) Differences between length of two diagonals, Max 5 mm
d) Thickness + 5 mm

ii) For modular blocks:

a) Dimension for length and width ± 2.5 mm
b) Dimension for height ± 1.5 mm

iii) For faces of retaining walls and abutments:

a) Location of plane of structure ± 50 mm – metallic reinforcement
± 75 mm – synthetic reinforcement
b) Bulging (vertical) and bowing (horizontal) ± 20 mm in 4.5 m template (metallic)
± 30 mm in 4.5 m template (synthetic)
c) Steps at joints ± 10 mm

When vegetation is to be used the face shall provide specification. Proper instrumentation shall be
a suitable medium for the establishment and adopted for critical structures.
continued growth of the vegetation. For a vegetated
face several interrelated aspects need to be 80.13.3 Testing
considered, including, the climate, site location,
aspect, altitude, amount and frequency of The testing for reinforced fill structures shall be in
precipitation, exposure, form of facing, erosion accordance with applicable standard or the
resistance capability. specifications of the design. The records of any
testing shall provide the test method and procedure,
NOTE — Acceptance criteria for any out of tolerance wall test results and the conclusions and relevance to the
facing should be established on the basis of serviceability reinforced fill structure.
criteria at the start of the work. C and O, remediation or
retrofitting for such deviations is not in the purview of this
document 80.13.4 The level of supervision, monitoring and
testing shall be in accordance with the specification
80.13 Supervision, Testing, Monitoring and of the design, (see 37).
Record Keeping
80.13.5 The type, extent and accuracy of monitoring
80.13.1 Supervision and testing requirements on and off site should be
clearly shown in the specification and organized
A suitably qualified and experienced person shall be before work commences on site.
responsible for checking that the construction
complies with the design, appropriate/approved 80.13.6 Unless specified in the design, supervision
construction methodology and all other contract should relate to:
documents.
a) Site preparation — Topography,
geotechnical data, set-up, geometry of
80.13.2 Monitoring
excavations, foundation pad (if applicable);
Monitoring of all works connected with the b) Fills — Conformity with design:
execution of various stages of reinforced fill characteristics, placing and compaction,
construction shall be in accordance with the method monitoring and testing when necessary;
statement made to fulfil the design and the project

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c) Reinforcement — Conformity with design, with the help of surveying instruments such
reception, handling, storage, placing, as total station;
damage during installation, prestressing of b) It is advisable that the RS wall panels shall
reinforcement (if applicable), monitoring be monitored and recorded timely for any
and testing when necessary; further panel movements post RS wall
d) Facing materials — Conformity with construction in order to avoid failure at
design, installation of facing elements, later stage; and
alignments and displacements, finishings, c) For RS wall at locations where weak
monitoring and testing when necessary; and foundation soil is present and post
construction settlement is accepted after
e) Drainage — Base/foundation, back slope, performing suitable ground improvement
layer drainage during installation, other schemes. The post construction settlements
drainage systems needed. shall be measured with proper instruments.

80.14 Records During Construction 81 RELEVANT POINTS TO BE

INCORPORATED IN CONSTRUCTION
If required, records shall be made of relevant aspects DRAWINGS
of the construction including: weather conditions,
progress of the works, supervision, tests and Following points shall be incorporated in the
observations etc. construction drawings:

80.15 Records at the Completion of the Works a) RS wall key plan, typical cross sections,
elevation drawings, etc shall be properly
If required records shall be made of the as-built shown with all the required details which
works including: are required at site for construction;
b) Details such as RS wall curvature, curve
a) Information showing the ‘as-built’ length, structure skew details, acute corner
reinforced fill works in full detail details, traffic movement direction, cross
especially any changes from the initial drainage works, etc shall be shown in the
drawings and specifications; general arrangement drawings;
b) Details of materials used; c) Length and grade of soil reinforcement,
spacing, panel type, foundation bearing
c) The position of all culverts, fences,
pressure (required SBC), distance of RS
underground cables, pipes and the like;
wall from abutment foundation, sloping
d) Details of the foundation soils and surcharge height, etc shall be shown in the
conditions and other relevant geotechnical elevation drawings;
conditions; d) The ground improvement scheme shall also
e) Any restrictions concerning surcharge be shown in the typical cross section and
loads which the construction may support; extent of GI carried out shall be shown in
(as built) elevation drawings;
f) Any special features or precautions that
may be necessary if the structure has to be e) The slip joint details in closing wall and
demolished; longitudinal wall wherever it is required
shall be shown in the drawings;
g) Details and location of any durability
f) Service road level or existing ground levels
samples installed together with
shall be mentioned in the elevation
recommendations for the method and times
drawings;
for their extraction and subsequent testing;
and g) The drain invert levels shall be shown for
the cross drainage works; and
h) Any particular recommendations for
h) The plan view showing a gap (20 mm to
inspection and maintenance.
40 mm) between the friction slab and the
approach slab interface shall also be shown
Records should be kept after the end of the works for
in the construction drawings as shown in
the time period stated in the project specification.
Fig. 142. The gap shall be filled with
compressible filler material and covered
80.16 Instrumentation
with bituminous coating in order to avoid
a) During the execution of reinforced soil any ingress of water penetration.
walls, the longitudinal and vertical
alignment of RS wall facing shall be Any other additional points shall also be included
maintained. It is advisable to with appropriate notes covering various
measure/record the desired RS wall batter construction aspects of RS wall.

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FIG. 142 TYPICAL PLAN VIEW FOR APPROACH SLAB AND FRICTION SLAB INTERFACE

82 SALIENT POINTS f) Mark the layout of outer face of bottom

panel on levelling pad before erection;
Do’s and Don’ts
g) Check the alignment of the wall (horizontal
a) Adequate geotechnical investigations for and vertical) after completion of each layer
foundation shall be carried out; of compacted fill material;
b) Typically, erroneous or inadequate data for h) Ensure there are no pits/depressions in
classification, shear strength, consolidation drainage bay/fill material before laying of
parameters etc may cause excessive reinforcement;
differential/total settlement resulting in
j) Ensure no slack/wrinkles develop in the
bulging/leaning of panels and uneven
tensioned reinforcement before and during
riding surface in plan or bearing capacity
grading of fill material;
failure leading to excessive distortion or
collapse; k) Ensure no vehicle is allowed to move
directly over the reinforcement, a minimum
c) Soil investigations regarding borrow area
cover of 150 mm of fill material should be
material to be used as reinforced and
placed over reinforcement before any
retained soil. If the fill material contains
vehicle/equipment is allowed;
high percentage of fines, it may
compromise with the frictional transfer and m) Do not allow any movement of heavy
cause difficulty in compaction, build-up of vehicle/heavy roller/equipment within
hydrostatic pressure and there by internal 1 500 mm from the wall facing;
fill movements resulting in bulging and/or
n) Do not allow any change (in fill material,
leaning of facing elements. The
reinforcement type and orientation,
specifications of reinforced and retained
connection arrangement etc) during
fill provided in Section 3 shall be followed;
construction without the prior approval of
d) Facing moulds dimensions shall be within the design engineer, once the system is
the allowable tolerance limit before starting accepted by the approving authority;
the casting of facing elements;
p) Do carry out execution of service road prior
e) Ensure that the bed is levelled, no loose to reinforced soil wall execution. In no case
pockets/slush are present prior to placing of reinforced soil wall foundation left open to
concrete for levelling pad; ensure adequate embedment all the time;

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q) At acute angle corners of structures in skew approach slab, gap slab etc. A gap shall be
and in any excavated area (near abutment, maintained between the facing element and
cross drainage works etc), to avoid crash barrier which shall be properly filled
differential settlement, fill with self- with compressible fill; and
compacting material (aggregates/gravels)
s) Proper camber/super elevation shall be
with sluicing of sand;
maintained for effective drainage.
r) Do not allow direct transfer of the load over
the facing element, through crash barrier,

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ANNEX A
(Clause 2)
LIST OF REFERRED STANDARDS

IS No./Other Standard Title IS No./Other Standard Title

IS 456 : 2000 Plain and reinforced Static cone penetration test
concrete — Code of (third revision)
practice (fourth revision)
IS 5529 (Part 1) : 2013 In-situ permeability test:
IS 432 (Part 2) : 1982 Mild steel and medium Part 1 Test in overburden
tensile steel bars and — Code of practice
hard-drawn steel wire for (second revision)
concrete reinforcement:
Part 2 Hard-drawn steel IS 7887 : 1992 Mild steel wire rod for
wire (third revision) general engineering
purposes — Specification
IS 1364 (Part 3) : 2018/ Hexagon head bolts, screws (first revision)
ISO 4032 : 2012 and nuts of product
Grades A and B: Part 3 IS 11309 : 2023 Method for conducting
Hexagon nuts, style 1 (size pull-out test on anchor
range M 1.6 to M 64) bars and rock bolts
(fifth revision) (first revision)

IS 1367 (Part 13) : Hot dip galvanized coatings IS 11720 (Part 5) : Methods of test for
2020/ISO 10684 : on threaded fasteners 1993 synthetic rubber: Part 5
2004 (third revision ) Determination of ash

IS 3400 Methods of test for IS 13094 : 2021 Selection of ground

vulcanized rubbers: improvement techniques
for foundation in weak
(Part 1) : 2021/ Tensile stress-strain soils — Guidelines (first
ISO 37 : 2017 properties (fourth revision) revision)
(Part 4) : 2012/ Accelerated ageing and IS 13162 Geotextiles — Methods of
ISO 188 : 2011 heat resistance (third test:
revision)
(Part 2) : 1991 Determination of resistance
(Part 6) : 2018/ Determination of the effect to exposure of ultraviolet
ISO 1817 : 2015 of liquids (fourth revision) light and water (xenon-arc
type apparatus)
(Part 10) Compression set,
(Part 3) : 2021/ Determination of thickness
(Sec 1) : 2022/ At ambient or elevated ISO 9863-1 : 2016 at specified pressures:
ISO 815-1 : 2019 temperatures (third Part 3 Single layers
revision) (first revision)
(Sec 2) : 2022/ At low temperatures (Part 4) : 1992 Determination of puncture
ISO 815-2 : 2019 (third revision) resistance by falling cone
(Part 20) : 2018/ Resistance to ozone method
ISO 1431-1 : 2012 cracking — Static strain IS 13365 (Part 1) : Quantitative classification
test (second revision) 1998 system of rock mass —
IS 4759 : 1996 Hot-dip zinc coatings on Guidelines: Part 1 Rock
structural steel and other mass rating (RMR) for
allied products — predicting of engineering
Specification (third properties
revision) IS 14293 : 1995 Geotextiles — Method of
IS 4968 (Part 3) : 1976 Method for subsurface test for trapezoid tearing
sounding for soils: Part 3 strength

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IS No./Other Standard Title IS No./Other Standard Title
IS 14294 : 1995 Geotextiles — Method for subgrade stabilization in
determination of apparent pavement structures —
opening size by dry sieving Specification (first
technique revision)
IS 14324 : 1995 Geotextiles — Methods of IS 16380 : 2020 Geosynthetics — Method
test for determination of of test for measuring
water permeability — pullout resistance of
Permittivity geosynthetics in soil
(first revision)
IS 14716 : 2021 Geosynthetics — Test
method for the
determination of mass per IS 16389 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Method
unit area of geotextiles and of test for biological
geotextile-related products clogging of geotextile or
(first revision) soil/geotextile filters

IS 15328 : 2003 Unplasticized non-pressure IS 16732 : 2019 Galvanized structural steel

polyvinyl chloride — Specification
(PVC-U) pipes for use in IS 17363 : 2020 Geotextiles and geotextile-
underground drainage and related products —
sewerage systems — Screening test method for
Specification determining the resistance
IS 15736 : 2007 Geological exploration by to liquids
geophysical method IS 17365 : 2020/ Guidelines for the
(electrical resistivity) — ISO TR 20432 : 2007 determination of the long-
Code of practice term strength of
IS 16014 : 2018 Mechanically woven, geosynthetics for soil
double-twisted, hexagonal reinforcement
wire mesh gabions, revet IS 17368 : 2020 Geosynthetics —
mattresses, rock fall Determination of damage to
netting and other products geosynthetic caused during
for civil engineering installation
purposes (galvanized steel
wire or galvanized steel IS 17372 : 2020 Geosynthetics —
wire with polymer coating) Polymeric strip/geostrip
— Specification (first used as soil reinforcement
revision) in retaining structures —
Specification
IS 16237 : 2014 Geo-synthetics — Method
for determination of IS 17373 : 2020 Geosynthetics — Geogrids
apparent opening size by used in reinforced soil
wet sieving retaining structures —
Specification
IS 16342 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Method
of test for grab breaking IS 17483 Geosynthetics — Geocells
load and elongation of — Specification:
geotextiles
(Part 1) : 2020 Load bearing application
IS 16352 : 2020 Geosynthetics — High
density polyethylene (Part 2) : 2020 Slope erosion protection
(HDPE) geomembranes for application
lining — Specification ISO 4097 : 2020 Rubber, ethylene-
(first revision) propylene-diene (EPDM)
IS 16362 : 2020 Geosynthetics — — Evaluation procedure
Geotextiles used in

To access Indian Standards click on the link below:

https://www.services.bis.gov.in/php/BIS_2.0/bisconnect/knowyourstandards/Indian_standards/isdetails/

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ANNEX B
(Clause 3)
TERMINOLOGY

For the purpose of this standard, the following B-8 METALLIC STRIPS
definition shall apply;
These are one type of reinforcement in the form of
strips used in reinforced soil.
B-1 REINFORCED SOIL
B-9 GEOSYNTHETICS
This is a general term which refers to the use of
placed or in situ soil or other material in which The generic classification of all synthetic materials
tensile reinforcements act through interface friction, used in geotechnical engineering applications.
bearing or other means to improve stability.
B-10 GEOGRIDS
B-2 REINFORCED SOIL WALL
These are deformed or nondeformed netlike
This is a form of reinforced soil that incorporate polymeric material used with foundation, soil, rock,
planar reinforcing elements in constructed earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related
earth-sloped structures with face inclinations of material as an integral part of the human-made
more than 70 degrees. project structure or system.
B-3 REINFORCED SOIL SLOPE B-11 GEOTEXTILES
This is a form of reinforced soil that incorporate These are permeable textile (natural or synthetic)
planar reinforcing elements in constructed used with foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other
earth-sloped structures with face inclinations of less geotechnical engineering-related material as an
than 70 degrees. integral part of a human-made project, structure, or
system.
B-4 REINFORCED SOIL FOUNDATION
B-12 GEOSTRIP
This is general term which refers to the use of placed
or in situ soil or other material in which tensile This is a polymeric strip used in civil engineering
reinforcements act through interface friction, application usually made up of high tenacity, high
bearing or other means to improve stability modulus polyester tendons encased within
polyethylene sheathing.
B-5 REINFORCED SOIL TRUE ABUTMENT
B-13 CAPACITY DEMAND RATIO (CDR)
This is reinforced soil in which in addition to
retaining earth, the reinforced fill supports a bridge The ratio of the factored resistance to the factored
or viaduct which transmits relatively large vertical load is defined as the capacity demand ratio (CDR).
and horizontal forces to the reinforced fill through a
footing which is directly placed on the reinforced B-14 INEXTENSIBLE REINFORCEMENTS
fill.
Reinforcement that sustains the design loads at
B-6 SHORED REINFORCED SOIL WALL/ strains less than or equal to 1 percent.
SLOPE
B-15 EXTENSIBLE REINFORCEMENTS
This is a reinforced soil mass constructed in front of
the shored wall or slope. Reinforcement that sustains the design loads at
strains greater than 1 percent.
B-7 BASAL REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS
B-16 ANCHORED EARTH STRUCTURES
These are earthen embankments constructed on poor
ground in which the stability of the embankment is This is a structural element installed through the
enhanced by placing one or more layers of rock or soil to transfer the tensile forces developed
reinforcements or a mattress across the full width of in the structure to the ground.
the embankment at its base.

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B-17 MULTI-TIERED WALLS B-26 LEVELLING PAD

A tiered retaining wall system is a series of two or This is a pad at foundation level on which facing
more stacked walls, each higher wall set back from units are placed.
the underlying wall.
B-27 GABIONS
B-18 BACK-TO-BACK WALLS
Prepared from pre-assembled rectangular cages
These are reinforced soil walls can be used to solve made of double twisted steel woven wire mesh filled
problems in locations of restricted right-of-way with rocks/boulders.
(ROW) and at marginal sites with difficult
subsurface conditions and other environmental
B-28 LRFD
constraints.
This is a design approach based on the principle that
B-19 GEO-COMPOSITE the strength of various materials is scaled down by
some factors while the applied loads are scaled up
It is one of the geosynthetics made from a by some factors, and thereby the structural elements
combination of two or more geosynthetic types. are designed using reduced strength and increased
loads.
B-20 POLYMERIC REINFORCEMENT
B-29 COVERAGE RATIO
This is a generic term that encompasses geosynthetic
materials used in geotechnical engineering. This is a defined as the ratio of effective width of
reinforcement to the centre-to-centre horizontal
B-21 TRAPEZOIDAL RS WALLS spacing between the reinforcements.

Trapezoidal RS walls are basically comprised of B-30 GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCEMENT

some type of reinforcing element in the soil fill to
help resist lateral earth pressures with trapezoidal Generic term that encompasses geosynthetic
section. Walls with a trapezoidal cross section materials used in geotechnical engineering such as
should only be considered where foundations are geotextiles, geogrids and geostrips
formed by excavation into rock or when good
foundations exist. B-31 STEEP SLOPES

B-22 SOIL REINFORCEMENT Reinforced soil slopes with face inclinations steeper
than 45° to the horizontal.
This is a tensile reinforcing element (inclusions) in
the soil placed to improve the strength of the soil
B-32 SHALLOW SLOPES
significantly such that the vertical face of the soil
reinforcement system is essentially self-supporting.
Reinforced soil slopes with face inclinations less
than or equal to 45° to the horizontal.
B-23 Reinforced fill- This is the fill material in
which the reinforcements are placed.
B-33 GEONETS
B-24 RETAINED BACKFILL
This is a geosynthetic consisting of parallel sets of
ribs overlying and integrally connected with similar
Fill material located behind the reinforced soil mass.
sets at various angles.

B-25 FACING SYSTEM

B-34 GEOCELLS
This is a system may be ‘rigid’, ‘semi-rigid’ or
Geocells are three-dimensional, permeable,
‘flexible’ and are selected to retain the fill material
polymeric (synthetic or natural) honeycomb, or
to prevent local slumping and erosion of steeply
similar cellular structure, made of linked strips of
sloping faces, and to suit environmental
geosynthetics.
requirements.

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B-35 ROLLED EROSION CONTROL are embedded inside reinforced soil mass.
PRODUCTS
B-37 BASAL REINFORCEMENT
These are three-dimensional geosynthetics erosion
control mats. This is a reinforcing element placed at the base of
embankments to provide additional resistance to
B-36 MIXED OR FALSE ABUTMENT foundation failure, control of settlements, transfer of
load onto rigid inclusions, or spanning over voided
This is a abutment in which bridge beams are rested zones.
on a RCC cap supported by a group of piles which

ANNEX C
(Clause 4)
SYMBOLS

a = scale correction factor 𝐶𝑙𝑠 = chloride content within soil sample

from 2 : 1 water : soil extract
α = scale correction factor (generally
1.0 for metallic reinforcement 𝐶𝑅 = core recovery
and 0.8 for geosynthetics
reinforcements) CT = impact load on barriers

A = maximum ground acceleration cu = undrained shear strength

coefficient cut = nominal total stress cohesion of the
Ac = design cross section area of the steel foundation soil

Am = design acceleration coefficient 𝐶𝑙𝑤 = chloride content within water sample

Ah = horizontal seismic coefficient H = factored horizontal stress due to

pressure generated from external
Av = vertical seismic coefficient surcharges if any
σv = factored vertical pressure CDR = capacity demand ratio
σH = horizontal stress d = embedment depth
B = effective width of soil reinforcement f = angle of friction between retained
backfill and reinforced soil
b = gross width of the strip, sheet or grid
dh = minimum depth for horizontal slope
bf = width of applied load. for footings
which are eccentrically loaded (for ds = minimum depth for sloping toe
example, bridge abutment footings),
set bf equal to the equivalent footing Ds = thickness of soft foundation strata
width b’ by reducing it by 2e, where below reinforced soil slope
e’ is the eccentricity of the footing D1 effective width of applied load at any
=
load (that is., bf-2e’). depth, calculation shown above
Bs = horizontal projected width of the
𝐷𝐵 = disturbed bulk soil sample
slope face
𝐷𝑃 = disturbed soil sample from spt soil
 = inclination of slope face with
sampler
horizontal
𝐷𝑆 = disturbed soil sample from cutting
C = 2 for strip, grid, and sheet type
edge of undisturbed soil sampler
reinforcement (number of surfaces)
𝐷𝐶𝐷 = consolidated drained direct shear test
𝐶𝑐 = compression index
𝐷𝐶𝑈 = consolidated undrained direct shear
Cf = setback distance-bridge superstructure
test

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𝐷𝑈𝑈 = unconsolidated undrained direct gfd = unit weight of foundation soil
shear test
ΩmD = soil resistivity, where suffix d shall
𝐷𝐶𝐷𝑃 = consolidated undrained direct shear indicate the compass bearing of the
test direction of measurement
e = eccentricity H = design height of reinforced soil wall
𝑒0 = initial or field void ratio H = height of reinforced soil slope
eB = eccentricity for bearing calculation heq = equivalent uniform soil surcharge
height
EH = earth pressure on reinforced soil
zone due to retained soil mass HLcreep = horizontal reaction for creep and
shrinkage forces that occur
EQ = earthquake load (seismic load)
HLtemp = horizontal reaction for temperature
ES = crash barrier-friction slab load or effects that occur
w-beam load as a strip footing, etc
HLLmax = maximum horizontal live load
EV = vertical pressure or weight of reaction (hllmax) for
reinforced soil zone, sloping braking/traction forces
surcharge weight, dead load due to
pavement layers, etc. LH = increment of horizontal stress due to
the horizontal loads at the base of the
F = factor of safety wall or layer due to overburden
(F) = frictional and cohesive forces acting pressure
along the potential failure plane 𝑘𝑙 = laboratory permeability
F1 = lateral force due to earth pressure 𝑘𝑓 = field permeability
F2 = lateral force due to traffic surcharge kb = vertical seismic coefficient
F* = pullout resistance factor kh = horizontal seismic coefficient
fr = effective friction angle of reinforced Kr = coefficient of horizontal earth
soil pressure in the reinforced soil zone
fb = effective friction angle of retained Kab horizontal earth pressure coefficient
=
backfill
KAE = combined static and dynamic earth
fy = yield stress of steel pressure coefficient
(FL) = horizontal shear L reinforcement length
=
FS = target safety factor La length of reinforcement in the active
=
fcu = characteristic compressive strength zone
of concrete L’ = effective foundation width
fyd = design yield strength of steel Le = the length of embedment in the
fcud = design compressive strength of resisting zone. note that the
concrete boundary between the resisting and
active zones may be modified by
FLL = horizontal inertia of bridge ll concentrated loadings
FDL = horizontal inertia of bridge dl Le = length of reinforcement embeded in
the resisting zone
𝐺𝑆 = specific gravity
Lf = length of footing
gb = unit weight of retained backfill
𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit
gf = partial safety factor for loads
LS/LL = live load surcharge (traffic
gr = unit weight of reinforced soil load)/vehicular live load
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m = minimum of tangent soil friction QDL = dl due to bridge superstructure on
angle each abutment
𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume QDL = dead load of the bridge
compressibility superstructure
MD = disturbing moment QLL = live load of the bridge superstructure
MRS = restoring moment due to shear qT = load due to traffic surcharge
strength of the soil along the slip
surface quniform = uniform meyerhof distribution

MRR = restoring moment contributed by the Rc = coverage ratio

reinforcements which intersects the RF = total reduction factor
failure surface
RFID = installation damage reduction factor
𝛿 = inclination of horizontal earth
pressure RFCR = creep reduction factor
(N) = normal reaction of the failure plane 𝑅𝑄𝐷 = rock quality designation
N = standard penetration test blow count RFD = durability reduction factor
NP = number of discrete reinforcements (SL) = vertical strip load (sl)
per unit width
Sh = centre to centre horizontal spacing
Pi = internal dynamic force between the reinforcements
𝑃𝑆 = swelling pressure Sv = vertical spacing of soil
reinforcement
𝑃𝑐 = pre-consolidation pressure
Seq = equivalent uniform height of soil
PH1 = lateral force due to superstructure or
other concentrated lateral loads Sv = vertical reinforcement spacing
PH2 = lateral force due to superstructure or 𝑆𝑇 = sensitivity of soil from vane shear
other concentrated lateral loads test
Pv = dead load (qdl) and live load (qll) of 𝑆𝐿 = shrinkage limit
the bridge superstructure
𝑆𝑂𝑥𝑤 = SOX content within water sample
𝑃𝐼 = plasticity index (liquid limit minus
plastic limit) 𝑆𝑂𝑥𝑠 = SOX content within soil sample from
2 : 1 water : soil extract
𝑝𝐻 = ph value of water sample
T = tensile strength of reinforcement
PAE = total static and dynamic thrust
Tr = factored tensile resistance
PH = lateral load due to superstructure and
other concentrated lateral force Tal = available long-term tensile strength
of the reinforcement
PIR = horizontal inertial force of reinforced
soil mass 𝑇𝑈𝑈 = unconsolidated undrained triaxial
test
𝑃𝑀𝑇 = pressure meter test
𝑇𝐶𝑈 = consolidated undrained triaxial test
∆PAE = dynamic (pseudo static) force acting
on bridge footing 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = consolidated drained triaxial test

qn = nominal bearing resistance TMAX = maximum factored tensile force in

the reinforcement
qr = factored bearing resistance
Tult = ultimate tensile strength of
Qv = load per unit length of strip footing reinforcement
Q v’ = load on isolated rectangular footing
or point load

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𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑃 = consolidated undrained triaxial test (W) = self-weight of the fill in the wedge
with porewater pressure
measurements (Ws) = Uniformly distributed surcharge
loads (ws)
 = inclination of planar failure surface
(sliding wedge) to the horizontal WP = width of panel

𝑈𝐵 = undisturbed block soil sample Wa = soil weight of the active zone

𝑈𝐶 = unconfined compression strength ws = uniformly distributed surcharge load

test 𝜔𝑛 = natural moisture content
𝑈𝐷𝑆 = undisturbed soil sample from 𝛾 = field density
sampler
yi = perpendicular distance from the
V = dl due to beam seat centre of rotation to the
𝛻 = ground water level reinforcement

V4 = self weight of the reinforced soil  = unit weight of fill/soil

mass
𝛾𝑑 = field dry density
V0 = self weight of soil behind the beam
γp = load factor for permanent loading
seat
𝜎v nominal vertical stress at the
P-EV = load factor corresponding to a
=
vertical pressure from a dead load
reinforcement level in the resistance
earth fill
zone, including distributed dead load
surcharges, neglecting traffic loads P-ES = load factor corresponding to the
earth surcharge loading
VLLmin = minimum vertical live load reaction
(VLLmin) associated with γEQ = load factor for live load applied
maximum braking/ traction forces simultaneously with seismic loads
𝑉𝑆𝑇𝑈 = vane shear test (undisturbed) Z = seismic zone factor
𝑉𝑆𝑇𝐷 = vane shear test (disturbed) z1 = depth where effective width
intersects back of wall face = 2d1-bf
V1, V2 = dead weight of beam seat
and V3 ∅ = resistance factor
𝜎v- = increment of vertical stress due to φ = resistance factor for soil
footing concentrated vertical surcharge pv reinforcement pullout
assuming a 2v:1h pyramidal
distribution ≥ = greater than or equal to

W = weight of slice

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IS 18591 : 2024
ANNEX D

(Clauses 24.1.3 and 24.2)

REPORT FORMAT

BORE/PIT LOG AND SOIL TEST DATA SUMMARY

PROJECT: TYPE OF BORING/DRILLING/STYLE OF PIT EXCAVATION:

BOREHOLE/PIT No.: BORE DIAMETER (mm)/PIT SIZE(m):

BOREHOLE/PIT COORDINATES (m): CASING DIAMETER (mm):

GROUND LEVEL (m): MAXIMUM DEPTH OF CASING (m):

GROUNDWATER LEVEL (m): PERIOD OF EXECUTION IN DATES:

Natural Moisture Content

Chemical Tests on Water

BIS Soil Classification
Standard Penetration

Swelling Pressure
Permeability Tests
Mechanical

Specific Gravity
Consistency

Unit Weight
Analysis

Free Swell
Unique symbolization and Soil Description

Vane Strength

SUPPLY BUREAU UNDER THE LICENSE FROM BIS FOR INDIANRemarks

Limits

and Soil
Number
Consolidation Test
(percentage Shear Test Parameters
passing)

Pc kPa / e0 (Void
Undisturbed kPa

Remoulded kPa

Type of Test
ωn kN/m3
ωn%
Sample Type

𝑆𝐿%
𝐿𝐿%

𝑃𝐼%

mvkPa-1
Gravel (%)

Ps, kPa
Gs
Depth (m)

kPa

kfm/s
φ°

𝐹𝑆, %
klm/s
Fines (%)

Cc
RQD (%)

Sand (%)
CR (%)

Ratio)
200
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NOTES
1 Soil resistivity shall be noted separately.

2 One column of corrected N value shall also be added

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IS 18591 : 2024

SUPPLIED BY BOOK SUPPLY BUREAU UNDER THE LICENSE FROM BIS FOR INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY - GANDHINAGAR ON 10/06/2024 14:52:54 (14.139.98.164) VALID UPTO12/01/2025
ANNEX E
(Foreword)
COMMITTEE COMPOSITION
Geosynthetics Sectional Committee, TXD 30

Organization Representative(s)

The South India Textile Research Association Council, DR A. N. DESAI (Chairperson)

Coimbatore
Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research Association, SHRIMATI DEEPALI PLAWAT
Ahmedabad SHRI JIGAR DAVE (Alternate)

Best Geotechnique Pvt Ltd, Mumbai SHRI SATISH NAIK

Central Coir Research Institute, Alappuzha DR S. RADHAKRISHNAN

SHRIMATI SUMY SEBASTIAN (Alternate)
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi DR P. S. PRASAD
DR PANKAJ GUPTA (Alternate)
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi DR R. CHITRA
DR MANISH GUPTA (Alternate)
Charankattu Coir Mfg Co (P) Ltd, Shertallay SHRI C. R. DEVRAJ
SHRI C. D. ATHUL RAJ (Alternate)
Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Kolkata DR SWAPAN GHOSH
PROF (DR) A. K. SAMANTHA (Alternate)
DKTE Centre of Excellence in Nonwovens, Ichalkaranji SHRI ANIKET S. BHUTE

Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna SHRI M. K. SRINIVAS

SHRI AMITABH PRABHAKAR (Alternate)
Garware Technical Fibers Ltd, Pune SHRI TIRUMAL KULKARNI
SHRI RAJENDRA GHADGE (Alternate)
Geosynthetics Testing Services Pvt Ltd, Ahmedabad SHRI RAVIKANT SHARMA

ICAR - National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering & DR SANJOY DEBNATH

Technology, Kolkata DR KARTICK SAMANTA (Alternate)

Indian Geotechnical Society, New Delhi DR BAPPADITYA MANNA

DR DEBAYAN BHATTACHARYA (Alternate)

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi PROF A. K. GHOSH

Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar PROF AMIT PRASHANT

Indian Institute of Technology, Madras PROF K. RAJAGOPAL

Indian Jute Industries' Research Association, Kolkata DR MAHUYA GHOSH

SHRI PALASH PAUL (Alternate)
Indian Jute Mills Association, Kolkatta SHRI S. K. CHANDRA
SHRI J. K. BEHERA (Alternate)
Indian Technical Textile Association, Mumbai DR ANUP RAKSHIT
SHRIMATI RUCHITA GUPTA (Alternate)
International Geosynthetics Society, India Chapter, SHRI M. VENKATARAMN
New Delhi DR G. P. PATEL (Alternate)

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Organization Representative(s)

Kusumgar Corporates, Mumbai SHRI Y. K. KUSUMGAR

DR M. K. TALUKDAR (Alternate)
Landmark Material Testing and Research Laboratory Pvt DR ANIL DIXIT
Ltd, Jaipur SHRI HARSH KUMAR CHITTORA (Alternate)

Macaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt Ltd, Navi Mumbai DR RATNAKAR MAHAJAN

SHRIMATI MINIMOL KORULLA (Alternate)

Megaplast India Pvt Ltd, Daman SHRI C. V. RAJESH

SHRI TATWADARSI S. TRIPATHY (Alternate)

Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, New Delhi SHRI SANJIV KUMAR

Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai, Thane DR VISHAL RAMESH THOMBARE

SHRI MANDAR BHALCHANDRA PINGLE (Alternate)

National Highways Authority of India, Ghaziabad SHRI RAKESH PRAKASH SINGH

SHRI MUDIT GARG (Alternate)
National Jute Board, Kolkata SHRI M. DUTTA

Office of the Jute Commissioner, Kolkata SHRI R. K. ROY

SHRI SOUMYADIPTA DATTA (Alternate)
Office of the Textile Commissioner, Mumbai SHRI SIVAKUMAR S.
SHRI SANJAY CHARAK (Alternate)
Premier Polyfilms Ltd, Ghaziabad SHRI AMITAABH GOENKA
SHRI PRAVEEN KUMAR (Alternate)
Rajadhani Institute of Engineering & Technology, DR K. BALAN
Trivandrum

RDSO, Lucknow SHRI SANJAY KUMAR AWASTHI

SHRI SANTOSH KUMAR OJHA (Alternate)

Reliance Industries Ltd, New Delhi SHRI V. RAVIKANTH

SHRI RAJENDREN SUBRAMANIAN (Alternate)

Sahastra Engineers Pvt Ltd, Noida SHRI VANKATA MAYUR

Strata Geosystems (I) Pvt Ltd, Mumbai SHRI NARENDRA DALMIA

SHRI SHAHROKH BAGLI (Alternate)
Techfab India, Mumbai SHRI ANANT KANOI
SHRI SAURABH VYAS (Alternate)
Texel Industries Limited, Gandhinagar SHRI SHAILESH R. MEHTA
SHRI ANIL SHARMA (Alternate)
The Bombay Textile Research Association, Mumbai DR SREEKUMAR
SHRI G. R. MAHAJAN (Alternate)
The Synthetics & Art Silk Mills Research Association, DR MANISHA MATHUR
Mumbai SHRIMATI ASHWINI SUDAM (Alternate)
In Personal Capacity [37/1 Satyen Park, Thakurpukur, SHRI P. K. CHOUDHURY
Kolkata - 700104]
In Personal Capacity [104, Kanchanban, A. W. Vartak SHRI V. N. GORE
Marg, Vile Parle (East), Mumbai - 400057]

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Organization Representative(s)

In Personal Capacity [1803, Claremont A, Lodha Luxuria, SHRI JAYANT NASHIKKAR

Majiwada, Thane - 400601]

In Personal Capacity [A201, Patel Park, Sector 21, Greater SHRI V. K. PATIL
Khanda Link Road, Kamothe - 410209]

In Personal Capacity [Bhakta Nivas, 12-1-170/46 DR G. V. RAO

P, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipuri Colony, Nagole,
Hyderabad - 500068]

BIS Directorate General SHRI J. K. GUPTA, SCIENTIST ‘E’/DIRECTOR AND HEAD

(T EXTILE) [REPRESENTING DIRECTOR GENERAL
(Ex-officio)]

Member Secretary
SHRI H IMANSHU S HUKLA
SCIENTIST ‘B’/ASSISTANT D IRECTOR
(T EXTILE), BIS

Panel for Formulation of Standard on Geosynthetics — Reinforced Soil Structures

Organization Representative(s)

In Personal Capacity [Bhakta Nivas, 12-1-170/46 PROF G. V. RAO (Convener)

P, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipuri Colony, Nagole,
Hyderabad - 500068]
Best Geotechnique Pvt Ltd, Mumbai SHRI SATISH NAIK
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi SHRI GURU VITTAL
CTM Technical Textiles, Ahmbedabad SHRI AMIT AGARWAL
Garware Wall Ropes Ltd, Pune SHRI RAJENDRA GHADGE
Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar PROF AMIT PRASHANT
DR JIMMY THOMAS (Alternate I)
PROF M. VENKATARAMAN (Alternate II)
SHRI KOLLI MOHAN KRISHNA (Alternate III)
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras PROF K. RAJAGOPAL
G-CUBE Consulting Engineers LLP, Pune SHRIMATI DOLA ROY CHOWDHURY
Landmark Material Testing and Research Laboratory Pvt DR ANIL DIXIT
Ltd, Jaipur
Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt Ltd, Navi DR RATNAKAR MAHAJAN
Mumbai
Reinforced Earth India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi SHRI ATANU ADHIKARI
Strata Geosystems (I) Pvt Ltd, Mumbai SHRI SHAHROKH BAGLI
SHRI SURAJ VEDPATHAK (Alternate)
Techfab India, Mumbai SHRI SAURABH VYAS
In Personal Capacity (A201, Patel Park, Sector 21, SHRI V. K. PATIL
Greater Khanda Link Road, Kamothe - 410209)

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(Continued from second cover)

SUPPLIED BY BOOK SUPPLY BUREAU UNDER THE LICENSE FROM BIS FOR INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY - GANDHINAGAR ON 10/06/2024 14:52:54 (14.139.98.164) VALID UPTO12/01/2025
In the formulation of this standard, assistance has been derived from the following international standards/
guidelines:

a) BS 8006-1 : 2010 + A1 : 2016 Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills, British
Standards Institution;
b) BS EN 14475 : 2006 Execution of special geotechnical works — Reinforced fill;
c) FHWA-CFL/TD-06-001 Shored mechanically stabilized earth (SMSE) wall system design guidelines,
Central Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of
Transportation;
d) FHWA-NHI-10-024 Design and construction of mechanically stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil
slopes – Volume I, National Highway Institute, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of
Transportation; and
e) FHWA-NHI-10-025 Design and construction of mechanically stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil
slopes – Volume II, National Highway Institute, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of
Transportation.

The composition of the Committee responsible for the formulation of this standard is given in Annex E.
In reporting the results of a test or analysis made in accordance with this standard, if the final value, observed or
calculated, is to be rounded off, it shall be done in accordance with IS 2 : 2022 ‘Rules for rounding off numerical
values (second revision)’.

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Bureau of Indian Standards

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Amendments are issued to standards as the need arises on the basis of comments. Standards are also reviewed
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should ascertain that they are in possession of the latest amendments or edition by referring to the website-
www.bis.gov.in or www.standardsbis.in.
This Indian Standard has been developed from Doc No.: TXD 30 (20465).

Amendments Issued Since Publication

Amend No. Date of Issue Text Affected

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